Classroom Management

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
A California Resource Guide
CALIFORNIA
DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
A California Resource Guide
for
Teachers and Administrators
of
Elementary and Secondary Schools
Produced and distributed by the

Los Angeles County Office of Education
Division of Student Support Services
Safe Schools Center
Developed with funding and support from
The California Department of Education
Safe Schools and Violence Prevention Office
9300 Imperial Highway, Downey,

California 90242-2890
www.lacoe.edu
Donald W. Ingweson, superintendent
EN
OF
ED
DEP
AR
T IO
CA
Los Angeles County Board of Education

Leslie K. Gilbert-Lurie, president
Michaelene D. Wagner, vice president
Rudell S. Freer
Jeff Horton
Angie Papadakis
Barbara Sandoval
Sophia Waugh
IA
A
ST
TE
OF
CA L
IF O
Delaine Eastin, superintendent of public instruction
Publishing Information
Classroom Management: A California Resource Guide was
developed and produced by the Los Angeles County Office of
Education, Division of Student Support Services, Safe Schools
Center, with the California Department of Education, Safe
Schools and Violence Prevention Office.
2000, Los Angeles County Office of Education.
This resource guide is available for nonprofit educational purposes only. Reproduction for resale is expressly prohibited.
Copies may be made for educational purposes. This document is
available solely from the Los Angeles County Office of Education, Safe Schools Center, 9300 Imperial Highway, Downey, CA
90242-2890.
Funding for document development, production, and distribution provided by the federal Safe and Drug-Free Schools and
Communities program administered by the California Department of Education.
PIN# 2000-02-08-6120-GH-338
ii
CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................................................................................... vii

Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................. ix
Chapter 1: OVERVIEW: PREVENTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR ....................................... 1
Reduce the Use of Punitive Methods of Control ................................................................................. 2
Address Academic Failure Experiences .............................................................................................. 2
Teach Critical Social Skills .................................................................................................................. 3
Provide Clear Rules for Student Conduct and Discipline .................................................................... 3
Use Appropiate Behavior Management Procedures ............................................................................ 3
Respect and Understand Ethnic/Cultural Differences ......................................................................... 4
Support Students Involvement ............................................................................................................ 4
Ensure Support in Developing and Enforcing Discipline Standards ................................................... 4
Summary and Discussion..................................................................................................................... 5
References ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Resources ........................................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ............................. 7

The Physical Environment ................................................................................................................... 7
Seating Arrangements ............................................................................................................. 7
Space ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Bulletin Boards ....................................................................................................................... 8
Classroom Routines and Procedures.................................................................................................... 8
Beginning the Day or Period .................................................................................................. 8
Classwork/Homework ............................................................................................................ 8
Classroom Helpers/Officers .................................................................................................... 9
Transitions .............................................................................................................................. 9
Monitoring .............................................................................................................................. 9
Other ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Classroom Rules ................................................................................................................................ 10
A Framework for Implementing Behavior Management Interventions ............................................. 11
What Is a Reinforcer? ........................................................................................................... 11
iii
Reinforce Rule Following ..................................................................................................... 12

Points for Following Classroom Rules: An Illustration ............................................... 12
Apply Consequences Consistently ....................................................................................... 13
Use Reinforcement Approaches for Reducing Minor Infractions ........................................ 13
Reserve Punitive Consequences for Serious, Intolerable Infractions ................................... 13
Addressing Concerns ......................................................................................................................... 13
Treating Students Differently ............................................................................................... 13
Contrived Reinforcers ........................................................................................................... 14
Bribery .................................................................................................................................. 15
Summary and Discussion................................................................................................................... 15
References ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Additional Resources ......................................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 3: REINFORCERS: RECOGNITION, REWARDS,

AND MOTIVATORS ................................................................................................................. 19
Providing Attention/Recognition ....................................................................................................... 19
Providing Access to Activities and Items .......................................................................................... 22
Obtaining Free and Inexpensive Items .............................................................................................. 23
Identifying Reinforcers for the Hard-to-Motivate Student ................................................................ 23
Involving Parents/Caregivers in the Motivational Program .............................................................. 24
Maximizing Effectiveness of Motivational Programs ....................................................................... 24
Reinforce Immediately, When Appropriate .......................................................................... 24
Reinforce Every Response Initially ...................................................................................... 25
Specify the Conditions Under Which Reinforcement Will Be Delivered ............................ 25
Use a Variety of Reinforcers ................................................................................................. 25
Eliminate, Reduce, or Override Reinforcers for the Problem Behavior ............................... 25
Additional Motivational Resources ................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 4: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES FOR CREATING A

POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT ......................................................... 27
Positive Classroom Management Activities ...................................................................................... 28
Modeling ............................................................................................................................... 28
Catch em Behaving Game ................................................................................................... 28
Activity Table ....................................................................................................................... 29
Terrific Tables ....................................................................................................................... 29
Marble in the Jar ................................................................................................................... 30
Points for Good Behavior ..................................................................................................... 30
Fuzzy-Gram Notes ................................................................................................................ 31
Compliment Meter ................................................................................................................ 32
Secret Pal Game .................................................................................................................... 34
I-Spy Game ........................................................................................................................... 35
References ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 5: TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS ................................................................................ 37

Two Major Social Skill Areas ............................................................................................................ 37
Academic Survival Skills ..................................................................................................... 37
Peer Relationship Skills ........................................................................................................ 38
Steps in Teaching Social Skills .......................................................................................................... 38
Identify Missing Skills (Deficits) ......................................................................................... 38
iv
Select the Skill to Be Taught (Replacement Skill) ............................................................... 40

Measure and Evaluate the Behavior ..................................................................................... 40
Design and Conduct the Program ......................................................................................... 40
References ......................................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 6: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ......................................................................... 45

Selecting Instructional Strategies ....................................................................................................... 45
Students Sensory Learning Style ......................................................................................... 46
Visual (Learn by Seeing).............................................................................................. 46
Auditory (Learn by Listening) ..................................................................................... 46
Tactile/Kinesthetic (Learn by Doing) .......................................................................... 46
Students Motivation ............................................................................................................. 46
Students Anxiety .................................................................................................................. 46
Social Skill Deficits .............................................................................................................. 47
Academic Skill Deficits ........................................................................................................ 47
Inconsistent Accuracy .................................................................................................. 47
Slow Responding ......................................................................................................... 48
Consistent Errors .......................................................................................................... 49
Self-management of Learning Skills .................................................................................... 49
Select Their Own Goals ............................................................................................... 49
Monitor and Evaluate Their Own Behavior ................................................................. 50
Select and Implement Procedures for Behavioral Change........................................... 50
Additional Instructional Strategies .................................................................................................... 50
References ......................................................................................................................................... 51
Chapter 7: COMMUNICATING WITH PARENTS/CAREGIVERS ................................. 53

Clear and Frequent Communication .................................................................................................. 53
Parent/Caregiver Involvement with Homework ................................................................................ 54
Positive Effects ..................................................................................................................... 55
Negative Effects .................................................................................................................... 55
Homework Suggestions for Parents ...................................................................................... 55
A Strategy for Homework Problems ..................................................................................... 56
Behavioral Contracts.......................................................................................................................... 56
Parent-Teacher Conferences .............................................................................................................. 61
Home Visits ........................................................................................................................................ 62
References ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Resources ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Chapter 8: BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED INTERVENTIONS

IN THE CLASSROOM .............................................................................................. 65
Punitive Approaches .......................................................................................................................... 65
Problem Behavior as a Form of Communication .............................................................................. 66
Assessment to Determine Causes of Misbehavior ............................................................................. 66
Behaviors .............................................................................................................................. 66
Antecedents........................................................................................................................... 67
Consequences ....................................................................................................................... 67
Selecting Interventions Based on the Behaviors Function(s) ........................................................... 67

Escape/Avoidance ................................................................................................................. 68
Attention-Seeking Behavior ................................................................................................. 68
Material Rewards .................................................................................................................. 68
Self-reinforcement Behavior ................................................................................................ 69
When to Assess Behaviors ................................................................................................................. 69
References ......................................................................................................................................... 71
Additional Resources on Conducting Functional Assessments ......................................................... 71
Chapter 9: AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS .................................................................................... 73

Strategies for Preventing and Reducing Aggression.......................................................................... 73
Include Parents in Interventions ........................................................................................... 73
Remove Punitive Environments ........................................................................................... 73
Teach Appropriate Social Skills ............................................................................................ 73
Identify Behaviors That Signal a Possible Escalation to Aggression ................................... 74
Negative Consequences ..................................................................................................................... 74
Time-out ................................................................................................................................ 74
Penalties and Fines ............................................................................................................... 76
Maximizing the Effectiveness of Punitive Procedures ......................................................... 77
Types of Aggressive Behaviors .......................................................................................................... 77
Bullying (Teasing, Harassment, and Intimidation) ............................................................... 77
Noncompliance: Refusal and Resistance .............................................................................. 79
Profanity/Swearing ............................................................................................................... 80
References ......................................................................................................................................... 81
Resources ......................................................................................................................................... 82
Chapter 10: OTHER PROBLEM BEHAVIORS ....................................................................... 85

Attendance Problems ......................................................................................................................... 85
Being Tardy........................................................................................................................... 86
Cutting Class, Leaving Grounds Without Permission, Truancy ........................................... 87
Honesty and Lying ............................................................................................................................. 87
Inattention and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) ..................................................... 89
Various Problem Behaviors ............................................................................................................... 90
Substance Abuse ................................................................................................................................ 94
Referral Sources ................................................................................................................................. 96
References ......................................................................................................................................... 97
Resources ......................................................................................................................................... 98
Videotapes ......................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendixes ........................................................................................................................................... 99
Appendix A: Certificates and Awards ................................................................................................ 99
Appendix B: Daily Report Cards and Contracts .............................................................................. 105
Appendix C: Exercises in Conducting Classroom Behavior Assessments:
Data Collection and Analysis ...................................................................................................... 110
Appendix D: School and Community Resource Guide ................................................................... 115
Index ..................................................................................................................................................... 117
vi
PREFACE
risk of exclusion from their homes or general education settings. If this situation is to change, we need
structures, processes, administrators, teachers, and
support staff who have the knowledge, skills, and
experience to work with students with challenging
behaviors (Sugai and Horner, 1994). Schools should
be safe and secure places for all students, teachers,
and staff members (Kaufman and others, 1998).
The federal government recognizes that our
schools have an urgent need for effective school
discipline programs. For example, the aim of the
National Education Goal 7: Safe and Drug-Free
Schools (National Education Goals Panel, 1995) is:
By the year 2000, all schools in America will be
free of drugs and violence and the unauthorized
presence of firearms and alcohol, and offer a disciplined environment that is conducive to learning.
This panel recognized that a relationship exists between ineffective discipline and other antisocial
behavior.
School violence prevention programs funded by
Title IV of the Improving Americas Schools Act
require that programs used by schools be supported
by empirical evidence of effectiveness both prior to
implementation and to justify continued funding.
There are sound and practical reasons to base the
selection of programs on empirical evidence. Tolan
and Guerra (1994) point out that many earnestly
launched programs were found to be ineffective,
HIS GUIDE IS DESIGNED TO ASSIST TEACHERS AND
administrators of elementary and secondary

schools in addressing classroom management issues. Classroom management is a challenge
that many educators constantly face. They must be
ready to answer the critical question of whether
they are fully prepared to address classroom
discipline.
According to the annual Gallup polls, the public
identifies the lack of discipline as a major problem
with our public schools. What is happening that
contributes to such public concerns?
The California Commission on Teacher
Credentialings Advisory Panel on School Violence
(1995) reports that teachers, students, and others
observe high levels of antisocial behaviors, such as
pushing, verbal intimidation, and bullying. Most
teachers report feeling inadequately prepared to
address student behavior problems and would welcome training that addresses this issue. In fact, the
single most common technical assistance request
from teachers is for help in managing problem behaviors of students.
Without a safe learning environment, teachers
cannot teach and students cannot learn (Kaufman
and others, 1998). Our current educational practices
do not meet the needs of students who display aggressive, acting-out, self-injurious, and/or antisocial
behavior. As a result, the students are at extreme
vii
Each chapter ends with cited resources that

teachers can use for additional help. Miscellaneous
materials to assist teachers in the classroom are
included in the Appendix section of the guide, such
as illustrative certificates, awards, daily report
cards, behavioral contracts, and exercises on conducting behavioral assessments. In addition, Appendix D contains a form to use for listing those school
and community resources (contacts and phone numbers) that can be used to refer students and their
families for additional help.
and some of our best ideas have led to a worsening of the very behaviors that they were designed to
help. Even when our hearts are most impassioned
and our minds most sharply focused, we can still be
seriously wrong (p. 545).
The classroom strategies presented in this guide
were selected from among those that have empirical
evidence of effectiveness. In other words, the purpose of this resource guide is to describe student
management programs that work effectively to prevent the future occurrence of antisocial behavior
and to resolve behavioral problems in the classroom. We also included suggestions from experienced practitioners in the field. Finally, we made
every effort to make this guide practical and useful
for teachers. However, it is not designed to be a
cookbook on strategies. Those strategies, though
easy to implement, do not always work effectively.
Here we take a novel approach to classroom discipline: we teach how to select strategies to address
classroom problem behaviors based on an analysis
of why the behavior is occurring. We also emphasize teaching youngsters how to behave rather than
how not to behave, in order to develop a positive
classroom environment conducive to learning.
The content of this guide is as follows: Chapter
1 is designed to help teachers become aware of the
factors that research has identified as contributing to
problem behaviors in the classroom. These factors
are referred to frequently in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 2 discusses how to set up and organize the
classroom to facilitate learning and minimize disruptions. Chapter 3 describes methods of identifying reinforcers or motivators for students and how
to use them effectively. Chapter 4 describes numerous classroom management programs that with little
effort can reduce disruptions and other problem
behaviors quickly.
Chapter 5 addresses identifying and teaching
social skills, with an emphasis on increasing academic survival and peer relationship skills. Chapter
6 reviews instructional strategies tailored to the
individual learner. Chapter 7 focuses on effective
means of communicating with parents. Chapter 8
illustrates how to identify possible causes of problem behaviors among students and why effective
interventions must be based on the identified
causes. Chapter 9 addresses aggressive behaviors.
And finally, Chapter 10 presents strategies addressing a potpourri of other problem behaviors.
References
American Psychological Association Commission
on Violence and Youth. 1993. Violence and
youth: Psychologys response. Washington, D.C.:
American Psychological Association.
California Department of Education. 1999. California safe schools assessment 1997-1998, results.
Sacramento, Calif.: California Department of
Education.
California Commission on Teacher Credentialings
Advisory Panel on School Violence. 1995. Creating caring relationships to foster academic excellence: Recommendations for reducing violence in
California schools. Sacramento, Calif.: Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
Kaufman, P., Xianglei Chen, S. P. Choy,
K. A. Chandler, C. D. Chapman, M. R. Rand,
and C. Ringel. 1998. Executive summary: Indicators of school crime and safety. U.S. Department
of Education, Office of Educational Research and
Improvement, NCES 98-251.
National Education Goals Panel. 1995. Report of
the Goals Seven Task Force on defining a disciplined environment conducive to learning. Report
No. 95-01. Washington, D. C.: National Education Goals Panel.
Sugai, G., and R. Horner. 1994. Including students
with severe behavior problems in general education
settings: Assumptions, challenges, and solutions.
The Oregon Conference Monograph, 6, 109120.
Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994. What works in reducing adolescent violence: An empirical review
of the field. Center for the Study and Prevention
of Violence, University of Colorado (F-888).
viii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LOS ANGELES COUNTY OFFICE OF EDUCATION, DIVISION OF

Student Support Services, Safe Schools Center, with the support, guidance, and cooperation of the
California Department of Education, Safe Schools and Violence Prevention Office. Grateful
acknowledgment is extended to everyone who contributed to the successful completion of this resource guide.
HIS RESOURCE GUIDE WAS DEVELOPED BY THE
Principal Author
G. Roy Mayer, Ph.D., Professor, California State University, Los Angeles
Publication
Development
Los Angeles County Office of Education (LACOE)

Division of Student Support Services, Safe Schools Center
Phillip D. Kauble, Director, Division of Student Support Services
Project Manager
Project Assistant
William J. Ybarra, Administrative Project Director, Safe Schools Center

Michael Pines, Ph.D., Consultant, Safe Schools Center
Research
Dena Pegadiotes and Holly Fogliatti, Graduate Students

California State University, Los Angeles
Principal Artist
Jos Meja, Graphic Artist, LACOE Communications Dept.
Design and
Production
Salvador Avila, Supervising Graphic Artist, LACOE Communications Dept.

Rick de la Torre, Communications Specialist, LACOE Communications Dept.
Laura Castrellon, Secretary, Safe Schools Center
Gwyn Jackson, Intermediate Typist Clerk, Safe Schools Center
Advisory
Committee
Debbie Alderson, Counselor, Norwalk-La Mirada Unified School District

Delfina Andersen, Parent Representative, Rowland Unified School District
Frank Boehler, Supervisor, Child Welfare and Attendance, Orange Unified
School District
Michael Collins, Teacher, Hawthorne School District
Vivian D. Cowan, Teacher, Los Angeles Unified School District
Willie Crittendon, Administrator, Los Angeles Unified School District
Roseanne De Beneditti, Teacher, Lennox School District
A. Robert Diaz, Teacher, ABC Unified School District
ix
Advisory
Committee
(continued)
George Fullerton, Assistant Principal, Pomona Unified School District

Ernest Gomez, Principal, Lucia Mar Unified School District
Darian Gotti, Assistant Principal, Lennox School District
Debbie Ishi Uyeda, Teacher, Culver City Unified School District
Miriam Miranda, Teacher, Pomona Unified School District
Margie Moriarty, Dean, Whittier Union High School District
Karen Roubinov, Teacher, Long Beach Unified School District
James E. Shaw, Ph.D., Director, Norwalk-La Mirada Unified School District
Vicci Tucci, Consultant, Tucci Educational Services
Hill Walker, Professor, University of Oregon
Administration
California Department of Education

Safe Schools and Violence Prevention Office
Mary Tobias Weaver, Assistant Superintendent/Division Director
Karen Lowrey, Education Programs Consultant
C H A PT E R 1
OVERVIEW: PREVENTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR
EACHERS AND OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL NEED TO
be aware of factors that relate to problem

behaviors among students. Awareness of
these factors in the classroom is a first step toward
preventing behavior problems in the classroom.
Problem behaviors may have a variety of possible causes. Many people point to the students
home environment (child abuse, neglect, divorce),
peer group or social pressures (gangs, drug use),
violence in the media, and other factors outside the
school. These are beyond the scope of the classroom teacher. However, many factors have been
identified within the school and classroom, through
school-based research by Mayer (1995) and his
colleagues, that appear to contribute to the occurrence of problem behavior. These are factors that
the administrator and teachers can control and address. School-related factors include the schools
discipline policy, the schools norms and standards
for acceptable behavior, administrative support of
teachers, and mutual staff support.
Classroom-related factors that teachers can
change or modify to decrease problem behavior are
summarized below and described in more detail
throughout this chapter.
Teachers can make a difference by:

Reducing the use of punitive methods of control
Addressing students academic failure experiences
Teaching students critical social skills
Providing clear rules for student conduct
Appropriately using behavior management procedures by delivering consequences consistently,
reinforcing positive behaviors, and using consequences that are suitable for individual students
due to their distinctive learning histories
Respecting and understanding ethnic/cultural
differences
Supporting students involvement in academic
and after-school activities
Assessing support in developing and enforcing
discipline standards
Evidence suggests that when positive approaches are incorporated into an overall school
plan that makes the school environment more reinforcing for students and staff, there are many benefits:
A variety of antisocial behaviors (including vandalism and classroom disruptions) are reduced.
Attendance improves.
Dropout and suspension rates decrease.
Students spend increased time on assigned tasks
in the classroom.
Cooperation and positive feelings among students and staff increase.
When similar positive practices are incorporated
in the home, not only do parents praise their children more, set clearer and calmer limits, spank less,
and criticize their children less often, but there is a
reduction in antisocial behavior by their children. In
other words, it appears that incorporating these
identified positive elements not only can help prevent problem or antisocial behavior but also can
help to create an environment more conducive to
learning appropriate social and academic behaviors.
Teachers can have a strong influence on
whether these classroom factors will create a positive or negative environment for students. This
chapter provides overview information about how
these factors operate in the classroom and the overall school environment. Subsequent chapters will
discuss what can be done to further address these
factors.
Reduce the Use of Punitive

Methods of Control
Research indicates that coercive or punitive
environments predictably promote antisocial behaviors such as aggression, violence, vandalism, and
escape. For example, when a small child gets
spanked by a parent, he or she often goes off and
sulks alone or responds by hitting a younger sibling,
the parents, or any other handy person or object. A
parent who has been punished (e.g., criticized) at
work may take it out on his or her family or may
seek isolation for a while. A student, after being
punished verbally or physically by a teacher, may
fight back by destroying school property or fighting
with others. For example, paraphrasing what one
teacher shared with us:
An art teacher has students stand in a corner,
yells at them, or makes them write rules if
they talk too much or engage in other misbehaviors. Such power plays dont work. They
create fear and not respect. The students hold

back their feelings, but later they blow up,
sometimes by retaliating. One day they took
and hid her glasses. They broke them on
another occasion. She has no clue as to why
the students dislike her.
Not all students respond to a punitive environment with aggression or retaliation. Some react to
an overreliance on punitive methods of control (e.g.,
harsh penalties, disapproving comments, lack of
acknowledgment or reinforcement for desired behavior) by becoming physically ill. For example,
one teacher shared how her best student was assigned to a teacher who emphasized punitive methods of control. The student began to throw up each
day before coming to school. Her academic performance also fell. Chapters 3, 4, 5, and others provide
information on how to reduce punitive methods of
control.
Other students attempt to escape by being tardy
or truant, by tuning out in class, or by dropping
out of school. Overly punitive environments may
foster vandalism, violence, retaliation, emotional
distress, and attendance problems; therefore, the use
of strictly punitive consequences should be minimized.
Address Academic Failure

Experiences
We now understand that there is a strong relationship between delinquency and illiteracy. Failure
in academic tasks results in significant increases in
problem behavior for some students, and poor
scholastic experiences are significant causes of delinquent and disruptive behavior (Gold and Mann,
1982, p. 313). Berlin and Sum (1988) report that
poor basic skills are evident in 69 percent of all
those who have been arrested, 79 percent of welfare
dependents, 85 percent of unwed mothers, 85 percent of dropouts, and 72 percent of the unemployed.
Students who experience repeated academic
failure often feel as if they are being unfairly punished, and this may lead to behavioral problems. A
series of instructions followed by a series of errors
provides a context in which the next instruction can
result in an aggressive response by the student.
Moreover, it is not uncommon to discover mismatches between a students assignment and his or
her level of academic functioning. For example, a

group of high school students may be asked to read
and comprehend material at the eleventh-grade level
when their reading skill is only at the third-grade
level. It cannot be overemphasized that academic
failure situations set students up for punitive or
aversive experiences that often result in increased
problem behavior both in and out of the classroom.
Chapter 6 provides information on how to minimize
academic failure experiences.
Teach Critical Social Skills

Many students lack the social skills necessary to
relate positively to peers and to do well academically. While most youngsters learn to pay attention
when they are read to and when they participate in
family discussions, others do not have these experiences and do not learn to pay attention effectively.
Similarly, some students might not have learned the
skills needed to persist on a task, comply with requests, negotiate differences, handle criticism from
adults and teasing from peers, or make appropriate
decisions.
Too often youngsters who lack critical social
skills are punished by their teachers for their misbehavior rather than taught the necessary social
skill(s). As a result, a classroom environment is
created that is perceived as hostile and fosters further student misbehavior. Chapter 5 provides information on how to teach critical social skills.
Provide Clear Rules for Student

Conduct and Discipline
Clearly communicating the rules of a social and
personal conduct code is a major step in setting up
an effective program for classroom discipline. This
step not only makes sense but is reinforced in statute. For example, Section 35291.5 of the California
Education Code requires that the principal of each
school take steps to insure that all rules pertaining
to the discipline of pupils are communicated to continuing students at the beginning of each school
year, and to transfer students at the time of their
enrollment in the school. Too often we mistakenly
assume that classroom and school discipline standards are understood or that students already know
how to behave when they often do not. Furthermore, we frequently communicate standards indi-
rectly rather than directly. That often results in students learning the rules through trial and error. Unclear policies or rules dealing with classroom discipline are likely to result in a lack of compliance or
an increase in problem behavior, because the students are unclear as to what behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable. Unfortunately, the lack of
compliance is likely to promote an increase in the
use of more punitive sanctions in the classroom.
Chapter 2 addresses how to develop and clearly
communicate rules.
Use Appropriate Behavior

Management Procedures
Both parents and teachers must be informed
about the appropriate use of behavior management
procedures to help prevent their misuse. As they
receive training, parents and teachers learn about
the importance of consistency. They also learn that
distinctive learning histories can cause particular
consequences to be more or less effective for individual students. Learning about behavior assessments (which are discussed in Chapter 8) will help
them to understand how specific events influence
behavior. As a result, parents will learn not to give a
child the item at the store for which he or she is
throwing a tantrum. To do so, would teach the child
to throw tantrums to get what he or she wants because it works.
Teachers learn not to place a child in time-out (a
form of isolation) when the student is misbehaving
to escape from an activity, request, assignment, or
demand. The use of time-out in this situation (when
the student is misbehaving) would be reinforcing
the student to misbehave. Why? Because if the student misbehaves, he or she can escape from the
request or difficult task (i.e., he or she will be
placed in time-out). Similarly, teachers learn not to
redirect into another activity students who are misbehaving to obtain attention. Redirection provides
them some of the attention they are seeking; therefore, the misbehavior works, proving functional for
the youngsters. Any behavior that proves functional,
or gives the student what he or she wants, is likely
to be repeated. It follows that consequences that
reinforce the function of the students misbehavior
can result in an increase, rather than a decrease, in
the misbehavior. Thus, the use of inappropriate consequences can result in teaching misbehavior. And,
as we have seen, the resultant increase in misbehavior often results in the administration of more punitive consequences that can further increase the occurrence of problem behaviors.
Chapter 8 explains how to conduct a behavior
assessment to determine the function or purpose of
the students behavior. Knowing how to do a behavior assessment will enable a teacher to respond
more effectively to difficult problem behavior in the
classroom.
Respect and Understand

Ethnic/Cultural Differences
Some behavioral problems are a result of a lack
of understanding and sensitivity by students, teachers, and others toward students from cultures different than their own. There are actions that teachers
can take to facilitate learning for students from different cultures. For example, Dunn (1996) suggests:
Use culturally relevant reading materials that include ethnic characters, deal with universal issues,
and include settings and experiences with which
students can identify. In addition, expose children to
the culture in which they currently live in order to
expand their horizons.
A body of literature is currently being developed
to describe ethnic and cultural differences. Teachers
who are aware of this information are in a better
position to avoid inequitable discipline and to understand and work more effectively with students
who are culturally and linguistically different from
their own culture. Kea (1998), Steinberg, Brown,
and Dornbusch (1996), and others have summarized
ethnic/cultural differences from the literature. However, findings from one study or report may not be
representative of the ethnic or cultural group in a
particular community and, therefore, may not apply.
There also is a wide variety of values and beliefs
within any ethnic or cultural group. Caution: Do not
assume that findings from one report are true for
every student within a particular ethnic or cultural
group. Every chapter in this manual incorporates
and addresses individual differences.
Support Students
Involvement
Low student participation in the classroom and
in after-school activities is usually caused by one of
the other factors discussed above; e.g., academic
failure experiences or deficient critical social skills
that form the basis of doing well academically and
relating positively to others. Often, students become
disengaged and hate school because they are rejected by their peers. Many have a history of failure
and being frequently punished in the classroom.
Other students tend not to be involved because they
lack support at home for attending and/or doing
well in school. Chapters throughout this guide provide suggestions as to how to help students become
more accepted and involved.
Ensure Support in Developing

and Enforcing Discipline
Standards
A lack of consistent support for implementing
desired discipline programs can result in teachers
and parents not implementing beneficial programs
or in their implementing them inconsistently. In the
same way that social support from a spouse or family member increases the effectiveness of a parent in
the home, support from other teachers and administrators appears critical for effective program implementation by a teacher at school.
It is the mutual responsibility of everyone to
implement and enforce discipline codes in the
school. Teachers and administrators need to depend
on one anothers support. Administrators need to
know what steps a teacher took before sending a
student to the office. Similarly, if teachers are to feel
supported, they must know that action will be taken
consistently by the administration when a student is
sent to the office. Thus, classroom and schoolwide
discipline programs must be closely coordinated
and enforced consistently, as pointed out in
Chapter 2.
Summary and Discussion

Problem behaviors by students have many
causes, and the evidence suggests that the teacher
can be a contributor. Similar contextual factors contributing to antisocial behavior have been identified
in both the home and school: a punitive environment, a lack of positive consequences, and inconsistencies in setting rules and applying consequences.
These factors, along with the lack of awareness or
responsiveness to individual differences, including
those related to ethnicity, may result in the inappropriate punishment of problem behaviors. A failure
to recognize a students effort and accomplishment
also occurs. This punitive, nonreinforcing condition
appears to evoke not only lower achievement but an
increase in aggression, attendance problems (escape), and other antisocial behaviors that occur in
and around our schools.
Students misbehaviors present a problem for all
educators because they make it impossible to
achieve optimal learning conditions. Sometimes
they endanger the safety of those involved. Nonetheless, various conditions within the classroom
promote at least some of the students antisocial
behaviors. To promote classroom environments that
are more conducive to learning, teachers must identify and address these contextual factors within their
own classroom. Until such factors are addressed, we
will continue only temporarily to suppress various
behavioral problems. Punitive measures appear to
aggravate, not reduce, many problem behaviors
over time. Punitive measures are necessary, at
times, but must be viewed as temporary, reactive
interventions to help gain control in the classroom
while contextual factors are addressed. The following chapters provide alternatives or solutions to
address the factors discussed in this overview chapter.
References
Berlin, J. A., and A. Sum. 1988. Toward more
perfect union: Basic skills, poor families, and our
economic future. New York: The Ford Foundation.
Dunn, R. 1996. Nineteen easy-to-try ways to turn

on students. Teaching Pre kindergarten-8, 27(3),
5051.
Gold, M., and D. W. Mann. 1982. Alternative
schools for troublesome secondary students.
Urban Review, 14, 305316.
Greenberg, B. 1974. School vandalism: Its effects
and paradoxical solutions. Crime Prevention
Review, 1, 105.
Kea, C. 1998 (June). Focus on ethnic and minority
concerns. Newsletter, Council for Children with
Behavioral Disorders, 11(6), 45.
Larson, K. 1994. Negative school culture. In Office
of Special Education Programs, Spring Leadership Conference Executive Report, May 912,
p.8. Available from the Mountain Plains Regional Resource Center, Utah State University,
Logan, UT 84341.
Mayer, G. R. 1995. Preventing antisocial behavior
in the schools. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 28, 467478.
Moore, W. L., and H. Cooper. 1984. Correlations
between backgrounds of teachers and students
and teachers perceptions of discipline problems
and disciplinary techniques. Discipline, 5, 17.
Shores, R. E., S. L. Jack, P. L. Gunter, D. N. Ellis,
T. J. DeBriere, and J. H. Wehby. 1993. Classroom interactions of children with behavioral
disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders, 1, 2729.
Steinberg, S., B. B. Brown, and S. M. Dornbusch.
1996. Ethnicity and adolescent achievement.
American Educator, 20(2), 2835, 4448.
Resources
Analysis, 28, 467478.
This article reviews the research, provides an extensive discussion as to what factors within the school
contribute to students problem behaviors, and
describes what educators need to do to address the
problem.
Brantlinger, E. 1991. Social class distinctions in

adolescents reports of problems and punishment
in school. Behavioral Disorders, 17, 3646.
Roseberry-McKibbin, C. 1995. Multicultural

students with special language needs: Practical
strategies for assessment and intervention.
Oceanside, Calif.: Academic Communication
Associates, P.O. Box 586249, Oceanside, CA
92058-6249.
This book helps educators develop a better understanding of linguistically and culturally diverse
students so that they can work more effectively with
them. It also provides extensive information on
families from Anglo-European, African-American,
Hispanic, Asian, Native American, Pacific Island, and
Middle Eastern backgrounds.
CHAPTER 2
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
Ive come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive

element in the classroom. Its my personal approach that creates
the climate. Its my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher
I possess a tremendous power to make a childs life miserable or
joyous . . . .
(Epanchin, Townsend, and Stoddard, 1994, p. 166)
NDIVIDUAL TEACHERS CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE. HOW

the classroom is organized influences the
classroom climate and students behavior.
Ralph (1994) points out that effective teaching and
classroom management are inseparable. In other
words, effective teachers are good at managing
students behavior. The first week of school is very
important. In fact, some (e.g., Wong and Wong,
1991) maintain that success during the school year
will be determined by what you do on the first days
of school (p. 4). The first week or two of school
can set the tone for the rest of the year. Thus, it is
advisable to prepare a thorough, comprehensive
classroom management plan before the opening
day. A comprehensive classroom management plan
includes organization of the physical environment,
routines and procedures, the rules or codes of
conduct to which students will be expected to
comply, and the selected interventions that will
motivate and discipline students.
The Physical Environment

The physical classroom environment influences
students learning, participation, and involvement in
class activities. Spend some time deciding how to
best organize the environment to accommodate the
various classroom activities. Here are some suggestions.
Seating Arrangements
Place the teachers desk in a low-traffic area or
near the door if there is a need to control in-andout student traffic.
Organize students in circles if interaction by the
students is sought.
Organize students in rows or a straight-sided U
shape ( ) for teacher-led instruction.
Provide for quiet independent work areas (e.g.,

beanbag chairs, books, headphones).
Provide for small-group work centers and/or
reward areas (see Chapter 4 for activity table
description).
Space
Plan for easy access to materials by the teacher
and the students.
Plan for a smooth traffic flow to enable students
to move around without disrupting others.
Bulletin Boards
Decide on a theme for one board.
Leave a couple of bulletin boards and other areas empty to display students work.
Encourage students to suggest and design a display.
Place any bulletin board containing items that
may distract students from instructional time in a
high-traffic area located behind the students.
Classroom Routines and

Procedures
Acceptable routines need to be determined for
the classroom. Start teaching routines the first day
of school. Disorganization wastes instructional
time. When students are not sure of expectations,
they often react with insecurity or discomfort and
exhibit problem behaviors that take time away from
instructional activities. Establishing routines, then,
is important. To help students learn the routines,
explain each (demonstrate when helpful), allow
students to practice them, provide feedback, and
continue to reteach as necessary, particularly after
vacation breaks. Here are some suggested activities
to help establish classroom routines.
Beginning the Day or Period

Take roll or attendance. (A seating chart can
facilitate this process.)
Take lunch count (for elementary, if appropriate).
Establish a classroom entry activity to help students focus, organize, and settle down; e.g.,
place assignment on board and have students
copy down assignment and begin working on it.
This allows time to conduct the beginning of the
day or class period activities, such as taking roll.
Classwork/Homework
Determine how it will be assigned; e.g., students
copy assignment from board at end of day in a
log book, or classwork and/or homework assignment sheets are provided weekly.
Ensure that the students have the necessary materials. Create a routine for gathering materials.
Establish a routine to teach students where to
place materials so they can be found easily.
Create assignments with a purpose and make
sure that students understand the purpose. Assignments should never be used as punishment.
Each assignment should be a positive activity
that encourages students to learn. Also, do not
assign busywork. The purposes of homework
often include: reviewing and practicing what
they have learned; getting ready for the next
days class; exploring subjects more fully than
time permits in the classroom; and learning to
use resources, such as libraries, reference materials, the Internet, and encyclopedias.
Match assignments to the skills, interests, and
needs of students whenever possible. (See Chapter 6 for suggestions.)
Consider assignments that require teamwork.
Students can work with classmates to improve
social interactions and/or with family members
to increase family activities.
Avoid assigning homework that requires students to use skills they may not yet have mastered. Assign homework that allows students to
practice a skill. This will increase the likelihood
that they will benefit from the assignment and
achieve success.
Assign an appropriate amount of homework.
This often involves about 20 minutes or less for
students in first through third grades, 20 to 40
minutes for students in fourth through sixth
grades, up to 2 hours for students in seventh
through ninth grades, and 90 minutes to 2 1/2
hours per night for students in the tenth through

twelfth grades. Amounts can vary for some students. Also, be sure to check the schools policy.
The policy that applies to assigning homework
varies from school to school.
Transitions
Smooth transitions help to prevent students
misbehavior. Such transitions also increase the time
students are engaged in a task that improves academic achievement.
Specify standards for the quality, neatness, and

format expected.
Give clear instructions about what to do to prepare for the next activity.
Determine when and where work will be turned

in; e.g., at beginning of period, after classroom
entry activity, or at the end of class period.
Notify students of approaching end of activity

cue at 15, 10, and 5 minutes before end.
Work out with students what to do if they finish

an assignment early; e.g., work on computer,
extra-credit assignments, free reading, homework, journal writing, activity table (see Chapter
4), art, puzzle, class project, and so forth.
Determine when you will return the classwork
and/or homework and give feedback. Be sure to
praise for improvement and quality work.
Provide students with specific feedback. This
will help students learn what is expected and
required of them.
Be prepared to conduct lesson, assignment, or

activity.
Monitoring
Monitor students behavior instructionally, not
punitively.
Move around the classroom. Do not remain
seated in one place for extended periods of time;
inspect the students work, offering encouragement and praise.
Communicate high expectations for what students are able to achieve.
Reward or positively recognize students for

following the classroom rules and for behaving
appropriately.
Communicate with parents regarding homework

requirements and what they can do to help. (See
Chapter 7 for suggestions and illustrations.)
Use modeling strategy described in Chapter 4,

praising a students appropriate behavior at the
time of another pupils misbehavior.
Classroom Helpers/Officers
Involving students as helpers or classroom officers can enhance the sense of belonging or community in the classroom. Such activities often provide
needed recognition for students. They provide a
constructive means of obtaining attention and help
students acquire appropiate social skills. Thus, it is
important to explain that all students will be given
an opportunity to participate as a helper or officer.
This activity, then, is not used as a reward or punishment.
Determine the positions; e.g., rotate captains,
assignment collectors, and so forth.
Determine their duties; e.g., distributing and
collecting materials, taking roll, and so forth.
Determine how students will be selected; e.g.,
names drawn from a hat.
Other
Determine procedures for allowing students to
leave class for the restroom or a drink of water;
e.g., raise hand and obtain permission before
going or take hall pass with permission.
Determine procedure for asking for help; e.g.,
student goes to teachers desk, raises hand and
waits quietly, places colored paper cup or help
sign on desk and continues work until helped, or
seeks peer assistance.
Determine procedure for lining up.
Determine cleanup procedures, if applicable.
Determine when pencil sharpening is acceptable.
Some teachers provide students with a box of
sharpened pencils and another box in which they
place the pencils that need to be sharpened. The
rationale for this is to increase the students time
working and to prevent the noisy disruption of
pencil sharpening. A class helper or officer can
be assigned to sharpen the pencils before class

or at another specified time.
Determine when interactions and/or talking
among students would be appropriate. It is beneficial for students to interact; however, teach
them how to interact appropriately. Different
activities call for different types of interaction:
free talk, academic talk, help talk, silence. See
Chapter 5 on social skills for detailed illustrations.
Write out a schedule for the day, period, or activity and clearly display the schedule on a board
each day, including expectations, goals, or objectives. Consider allowing choices in selecting
some of the activities. Specify the time to be
spent on each activity and adhere to it once set.
Get to know your students. Examine cumulative
files, keep a card on each student, note if there
are any behavioral problems or learning issues to
be aware of and planned for, and get to know
their interests, hobbies, pets, and so forth. The
more you know your students, the better able
you will be to both relate to them and help them.
Also, note cards provide a ready-made system
for documentation of contacts with parents or
other important issues.
Display respect and appreciation of the students
culture, individuality, and uniqueness.
Foster a sense of community/belonging. Greet
students at the door. Create a name tag for each
students desk. Pin up students work on a bulletin board. Incorporate activities that involve
students in praising and complimenting one
another (see Chapter 4).
Contact parents and caregivers early in the
school yearbefore problems arise. Let the
parents or caregivers know that you are available
to talk about homework or any other aspect of
their childs education. This can often be communicated at back-to-school nights or during
parent-teacher conferences if they are scheduled
early in the school year. Telephone calls and
notes home that must be signed and returned
also can help convey this information. For more
information about working with parents and
caregivers, see Chapter 7.
10
Classroom Rules
Too often we assume that standards of classroom discipline are understood or that students
already know how to behave. Furthermore, we frequently communicate standards indirectly rather
than directly. This often results in students learning
the rules through trial and error, and it also results in
more classroom behavior problems. Therefore, it is
important to clearly communicate the classroom
rules to students.
In Chapter 1 we discussed the need to communicate clearly the rules of a conduct code. This is a
major step in setting up an effective discipline program. Establishing classroom rules and teaching
them during the first weeks of school are the primary methods of achieving and maintaining classroom order. Here are some guidelines for kindergarten through grade twelve classrooms.
Become familiar with the schools policies with
regard to acceptable behavior and discipline
procedures.
Involve the students in the development of the
classroom rules. Initially, a number of rules will
be suggested. When students are involved in the
development of the rules, they are more likely to
adhere to them, report rule infractions, and understand the rationale for the rules.
Develop a behavior code containing no more
than five to seven rules for ease of recall. Keep
the list simple and to the point. Help the students
simplify and combine the suggested rules.
State each rule positively, rather than negatively.
For example, rather than stating, Dont be late
to class or Dont talk without raising your
hand, say, Be in your seat before the tardy bell
rings and Raise your hand before asking questions. Also, Dont be late to class does not
communicate to the students that they should be
in their seats before the tardy bell rings. A positive list will guide the students in how to behave
in preference to how not to behave.
Obtain approval of classroom rules from the
responsible administrator.
Teach the behavior code to the students. It is
helpful to present classroom rules both visually
and orally to promote communication and reduce misunderstandings. The rules can be dis-
played prominently on a poster, printed in handout form, and copied by the students in their
notebooks. For preschool and primary pupils,
and for students with cognitive handicaps, it is
helpful to role-play each rule as part of the explanatory process.
Share the classroom rules with the parents. Continued parental support is helpful for classroom
rules to be effective. Therefore, share the final
draft with parents. A letter home detailing the
rules can help to avoid misunderstandings and
solicit increased parental support.
Rules should be reviewed orally at regular intervals, and constructive changes should be made
when necessary.
In summary, students need meaningful interactions with the rules to learn the code of conduct. Do
not just give the students a paper or booklet about
the rules. A set of classroom rules might look like
the following:
Illustrative Classroom Rules

1. Bring books, pencil, and paper.
2. Be in your seat when tardy bell rings.
3. Listen carefully.
4. Follow directions.
5. Complete assignments.
6. Show courtesy and respect to others.
In addition, students must receive reinforcement
for adhering to the rules, because rules will be followed only when differential consequences are applied for compliance and noncompliance. This will
be discussed later in greater detail. Thus, rules alone
do not bring about appropriate behavior. Classroom
rules are part of the management plan that also includes predictable routines, frequent monitoring,
and consistent reinforcement of rule following and
consequences for not following the rulesour next
topic.
A Framework for
Implementing Behavior
Management Interventions
It is helpful to plan what student behavior will
be recognized positively, when and how it will be
recognized, and how minor versus major infractions
will be responded to in the classroom. The discipline framework described here is supported by
research findings at the elementary, junior high, and
high school levels (Mayer, 1995; 1999). Subsequent
chapters will elaborate on the strategies contained in
this model framework and will present additional
strategies for reducing and preventing classroom
behavior problems. However, before the framework
is discussed, the term reinforcer needs to be defined.
What Is a Reinforcer?
A reinforcer is an object or event that follows a
particular behavior and maintains or increases the
behaviors occurrence or strength. Note that for a
consequence to be called a reinforcer, it must increase or sustain the behavior that it follows. If,
after receiving praise for doing her work, Maria
smiles and works harder, then praise is probably a
reinforcer. If, on the other hand, she turns away and
her work decreases, then praise is not a reinforcer. If
being yelled at for misbehaving results in the behavior increasing, then being yelled at is a reinforcer.
However, if being yelled at reduces the behavior,
then being yelled at is a punisher. A punisher, then,
has the opposite effect of a reinforcer. A punisher is
an object or event that follows a particular behavior
and reduces the behaviors occurrence or strength.
Students come to school with different backgrounds and learning experiences. As a result, even
the attention that a youngster receives by being
yelled at could serve as a reinforcer for that student.
The teacher always should be aware of the effects
that consequences are having on the pupils in the
classroom. The same consequence will not have the
same motivational effect on every student. By defining reinforcers by the effect that they have on the
behavior, teachers are able to address and allow for
individual differences due to differences in learning
history.
Many different types of reinforcers can be used
in the classroom. These are illustrated in the next
11
chapter. Let us return now to the framework for

implementing reinforcers and other consequences to
behavior.
Reinforce Rule Following

An effective discipline framework emphasizes
that students need positive recognition for complying with the established rules to which they agreed.
Rules are not followed unless consistent consequences are applied not only to rule violations but
also for complying with the rules. When following
the rules is reinforced, the environment will soon
prompt students to behave in accordance with the

rules. The environment signals that if you raise your
hand before speaking in Ms. Finns classroom, you
are likely to receive reinforcement. Thus, when
reinforcement is provided for following rules (e.g.,
hand raising), that behavior becomes the accepted
pattern, or habit, in that setting. However, if rulefollowing behavior is not reinforced or recognized,
it eventually will cease. If Mr. Lindsey frequently
calls on (reinforces) those who speak out, even
though the stated classroom rule is to raise your
hand before speaking, hand raising probably will
not occur much in his classroom.
Points for Following Class Rules: An Illustration

Lets look at how a point system might be used initially to foster rule following. Points for following class rules may be used at the elementary, junior high, or high school level. To implement this
program:
Prepare and post a chart containing five to seven classroom rules stated positively. For example,
the rules might be (1) Be in your seat when the tardy bell rings. (2) Pay attention. (3) Raise your
hand for permission before speaking. (4) Work quietly at your desk. (5) Leave your seat only with
the teachers permission. (6) You may have gum and food outside of class only.
Discuss the class rules with the students and modify any rules when necessary. Be sure students
understand what each rule entails. You may even choose to have the class role-play following and
violating the rules.
Points can be given in a variety of ways. For example, the entire class can earn points for some
special activity; groups within the class can compete for the points; the points can be given out on
an individual basis; or some combination of these. If points are provided for class behavior, consider giving out three points every time all the students are in the room before the tardy bell rings.
One point could be given every time a student raises his or her hand for permission before verbalizing or getting out of his or her seat. Occasionally, the class could earn points for being quiet and
for staying on task. An individual students outstanding or improved behavior also could earn the
class one point.
Mark the points earned on the chalkboard.
At the end of each class period or day, tabulate the points received by the class and add them to
the overall number of points earned by the class to date. Keep an updated tabulation of the groups
total points in the record book and on the top left section of the chalkboard.
When the point total reaches 100, the class earns 10 minutes of free time or some other activity
reinforcer that was jointly selected by the teacher and the students.
When the point total reaches 400, the group might be awarded a free period with music and the
option of bringing things to eat.
12
Apply Consequences Consistently

Individuals learn to behave differently in varied
settings because of the different consequences that
they experience in those settings. For example, students learn to raise their hands in Ms. Finns classroom because she only recognizes students who
have their hands up. They learn to speak out freely
in Mr. Lindseys classroom because he sometimes
recognizes students who speak out, even though he
too has the rule to raise your hand. The different
consequences that students experience in the presence of their teachers, regardless of what the rules
are, result in their learning how to behave.
Use Reinforcement Approaches for

Reducing Minor Infractions
Reinforcement approaches, or constructive alternatives to punishment, can be used to reduce the occurrence of minor infractions, behaviors that can be
tolerated temporarily. Examples of minor infractions include: talking out inappropriately, being late
or out of seat, and not paying attention or following
directions. Reinforcement approaches include reinforcing the students behaviors when (1) desirable
alternatives to the minor infractions are hand raising, being in seat, paying attention, following directions, and completing assigned work; (2) their
problem behavior occurs at a reduced rate (e.g.,
fewer inappropriate talk-outs, tardies, or absences;
less littering and off-task behavior); and (3) their
problem behavior does not occur at the moment it is
checked or during a prespecified period of time
(e.g., not blurting out, not pushing, not being tardy,
and not being out of their seat). Another reinforcement approach, or constructive alternative to punishment, includes reinforcing the appropriate
behavior of other students so that their behavior can
serve as models to be imitated. The purpose is to
teach students appropiate behavior as demonstrated
by their peers. (See Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion of modeling.)
Reserve Punitive Consequences for

Serious, Intolerable Infractions
Punitive consequences are discussed in chapters
8, 9, and 10. They include time-out or isolation,
response cost or penalties, reprimands, referrals,
suspensions, restitution, and expulsion. Use these
only for serious infractionsbehaviors that present

a danger to the student or others or are so disruptive
that they cannot be tolerated (e.g., violence or aggression). Thus, the use of punitive consequences is
minimized. Select one or more punitive consequences that will work on the individuals problem
behavior only if the infraction is major, and use the
reinforcement approaches described above to reinforce replacement behaviors. For example, consider
choosing from among the following punitive consequences: time-out, fines or penalties, a call to parents, reprimand, or some form of restitution. It is
important to have the flexibility to choose the appropriate consequence for the infraction, to consider
carefully the behaviors function or context, and to
allow for individual differences. (See Chapter 8 for
a detailed explanation.) Finally, always coordinate
the use of punitive consequences with constructive
alternatives to teach the student the way to behave.
If a student should ask, Why did you isolate me
for five minutes for throwing a spitball while you
only fined Jose three points for doing the same
thing? be honest. The following is an explanation
that might be used: We jointly selected the consequences and we agreed in advance that I would not
be using the same consequence on every student
because the same consequence does not work on
everyone. So, I didnt fine you three points because
fines dont work for you, but they do work to stop
Joses misbehavior. To reward you, I allowed you to
work with Jane on that project, but with Jose I allowed him to work on his homework. Would you
prefer to work on your homework rather than to
work with Jane? You see, thats the point. You and
Jose are different individuals, so how can I treat you
the same?
The above illustration may raise issues or concerns for some people. The concerns usually focus
on the use of reinforcers and treating students differently. We can address those concerns now.
Addressing Concerns
Treating Students Differently
Is it unfair to treat students differently? No. It is
unprofessional to treat them the same. Treating students the same denies that individual differences
exist. Similar experiences affect people differently.
Discover what works best for each student. In addi-
13
tion, recognize that students are already treated

differently by paying attention to troublesome behavior. (Some students receive more attention than
others.) Similarly, would not a student with a vision
or hearing problem be seated in the front of the
class in preference to others? Also, Sulzer-Azaroff
and Mayer (1994) point out:
1. If we treated everyone alike, the effect on their
behavior would not be uniformly beneficial.
2. It does not hurt to explain to students that each
of them is unique and that each has special
interests, skills, and areas of weakness (yourself included). Often they will understand that
it makes sense to focus on different behaviors
to teach (or change) and to use different
methods to do so.
3. Reinforcement is dispensed for improvement in
performance, and everyone can stand to
improve in some manner. If you worry that one
student is getting special privileges but the
others are not, you can consider doing something similar for them. Ask the others to
identify some areas in which they feel they
would like to improve and plan currently or in
the near future to initiate special procedures for
them.
4. Sometimes the student can earn the special
activity or item(s) not only for him or herself
but for the whole class. (The goals for the
student must be easily achievable.)
5. Often it is a great relief to the individual
students classmates when help is finally on the
way. The classmates may have been suffering
from their peers difficulties and may recognize that they stand to benefit from the intervention. Sometimes it helps to point this
benefit out to them, in a manner respectful to
the student receiving the intervention, and
reinforce their supportive efforts.
Providing students with different learning materials suitable to their current levels of functioning is
standard for teachers. Similarly, appropriate consequences must be provided for each person if optimal results are to be achieved.
14
Contrived Reinforcers
What does distributing edible items have to do
with improving academic or social performance?
Very little. Actually, we try to use reinforcers that
are natural to the environment (e.g., praise, grades,
or recognition) to motivate students whenever possible. Natural reinforcers will help to support the
continued occurrence of the desired behavior. Providing interesting reading material permits skilled
readers to access the reinforcement that is natural or
intrinsic to reading. Obtaining a desired object by
requesting it by name is a natural consequence of
increased language proficiency. If natural reinforcers are controlling students behaviors, there is no
need to introduce contrived reinforcers. Sometimes,
though, they are needed as temporary expedients to
motivate the student or to get the behavior started.
Contrived reinforcers should be used only when the
consequences usually provided are not working, or
are not functioning as reinforcers, for a student.
A reinforcement program must start where the
student is at and gradually move toward the place
where he or she should be. As explained before, due
to different learning histories, seldom does the same
consequence prove reinforcing for all students.
Also, because students are at different developmental levels, the type of reinforcer may vary as to its
effectiveness. For example, Seeman (1994) explains
it this way: developmentally (and oversimplifying), children are first motivated by extrinsic rewards (food, toys), then emotional rewards (approval, grades), and finally, if they attain this,
intrinsic rewards (a feeling of pride, self-satisfaction, enjoying it for its own sake). Thus, it might
be necessary to begin with edibles or trinkets for
some students. After all, we all began with milk.
However, do not keep providing such contrived
reinforcers. A gradual shift from a concrete reward
to a less tangible one can be a step toward gradually
helping the student become independent of external
rewards. The goal of any reinforcement program
should be to help individuals become less and less
dependent on material or other contrived reinforcers. However, the program must start where the
individual is at and gradually help him or her move
up the developmental ladder.
Bribery
Is this a form of bribery? No. Bribery has no
place in managing the behaviors of students. Bribery is used to corrupt conduct, pervert judgment,
and promote dishonest or immoral behavior. It also
is used primarily for the benefit of the person giving
the bribe, not for the benefit of the recipient. In
contrast, we see these strategies being applied for
the benefit of the students with whom we work.
Also, we reinforce doing schoolwork and behaving
appropriately with the kinds of events that we experience in our own everyday lives: praise, recognition, and material rewards. How long would we
continue working at our jobs if we received no recognition or remuneration? Why should students be
expected to be any different than we are? Reinforcement is what helps improve self-concept and makes
learning enjoyable. Punitive or nonreinforcing
classroom environments, on the other hand, promote negative self-concept, escape, and aggression.

The table below, based on the research cited in
Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer (1991), highlights the
need to minimize the use of punitive procedures by
illustrating the outcomes of using punitive verses
constructive or positive classroom management
strategies.
Comparison of Punitive Methods and

Positive Classroom Management Strategies
PUNITIVE PROCEDURES
POSITIVE CLASSROOM
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
RAPIDLY STOP BEHAVIOR
SLOWLY STOP BEHAVIOR
PROVIDE IMMEDIATE RELIEF

(REINFORCEMENT) TO THE TEACHER
PROVIDE NO IMMEDIATE RELIEF TO

THE TEACHER
TEACH THE STUDENT AND PEERS

WHAT NOT TO DO
TEACH THE STUDENT AND PEERS

WHAT TO DO
DECREASE POSITIVE SELF-STATEMENTS

(SELF-CONCEPT)
INCREASE POSITIVE SELF-STATEMENTS

(SELF-CONCEPT)
DECREASE POSITIVE ATTITUDES

TOWARD SCHOOL AND SCHOOLWORK
INCREASE POSITIVE ATTITUDES

TOWARD SCHOOL AND SCHOOLWORK
CAUSE WITHDRAWAL (NONTASK,TARDY,

TRUANCY, DROPPING OUT)
PROMOTE ENHANCED PARTICIPATION
CAUSE AGGRESSION (AGAINST

PROPERTY AND OTHERS)
DECREASE LIKELIHOOD OF AGGRESSION
TEACH STUDENTS TO RESPOND

IN A PUNITIVE MANNER
TEACH STUDENTS TO RECOGNIZE

THE POSITIVE
CAN HARM STUDENT-TEACHER

RELATIONSHIP
CAN ENHANCE STUDENT-TEACHER

RELATIONSHIP
15
We have described an approach for preventing

and remediating punitive school climates, and resulting student misbehavior, by emphasizing positive, preventive behavioral interventions. An emphasis was placed on establishing classroom
routines and addressing the physical environment.
The approach involves stating classroom rules and
policies clearly, with a positive focus. Consequences for both complying with and violating the
rules are selected. Allowances are made for individual student differences in terms of provided consequences. Also, rather than just punishing all infractions and reinforcing desired or rule-following
behavior, a model was presented in which punitive
consequences are reserved only for major infractions, constructive alternatives are used on minor
infractions, while reinforcement continues to be
used on desired behavior. Thus, some of the issues
that contribute to problem behaviors (those identified in Chapter 1) have been addressed: Students
are involved from the beginning; rules for students
deportment are clearly communicated; and the use
of punishment has been minimized, while reinforcement has been maximized.
The approach that we are presenting is a preventive, positive approach for creating safe school environments that are free from violence and conducive
to learning: an America 2000 goal. It is an approach
to school discipline that has an empirical support
base demonstrating its potential for effectiveness in
kindergarten through grade twelve schools. Rather
than treating youngsters as though they are the
source of the problem, constructive discipline corrects factors occurring within our schools that promote antisocial behavior and deals with student
infractions from an instructional or constructive
model. It recognizes that problem behaviors, rather
than being located within the student, are often due
to a mismatch between the characteristics of the
learner and those of the instructional environment
or the broader home/school context (Ysseldyke
and others, 1997, p. 5). The emphasis, then, moves
from a reliance on suspensions, expulsions, and/or
punishment to prevention. It focuses on constructing
repertoires by teaching students how to behave
rather than how not to behave.
16
References
Epanchin, B. C., B. Townsend, and K. Stoddard.
1994. Constructive classroom management:
Strategies for creating positive learning environments. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Co.
Analysis, 28, 467492.
Mayer, G. R. 1999. Constructive discipline for
school personnel. Education and Treatment of
Children, 22, 3654.
Nash, J. M. 1998. The personality genes. Time,
151(16), 6061.
Nevin, J. A. 1988. Behavioral momentum and the
partial reinforcement effect. Psychological
Bulletin, 103, 4456.
Ralph, E. G. 1994. Middle and secondary L2
teachers meeting classroom management challenges via effective teaching research. Foreign
Language Annals, 27, 89103.
Seeman, H. 1994. Preventing classroom discipline
problems: A guide for educators (Second edition). Lancaster, Pa: Technomic Publishing Co.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1991. Behavior analysis for lasting change. Fort Worth, Tex.:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994. Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis for
improving instruction2. San Marcos, Calif.:
Western Image.
Wong, H. K., and R. T. Wong, 1991. The first days
of school. Sunnyvale, Calif.: Wong Publications.
Ysseldyke, J., P. Dawson, C. Lehr, D. Reschly, M.
Reynolds, and C. Telzrow. 1997. School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II.
Bethesda, Md.: National Association of School
Psychologists.
Additional Resources
Helping Your Child with Homework.
A U.S. Department of Education publication to help
parents assist their children with homework. Its
online at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/parents/Homework/
Helping Your Students with Homework: A Guide

for Teachers.
A 40-page booklet produced by the U.S. Department
of Education that is filled with ideas from teachers for
assigning effective homework. It provides 18 tips for
getting homework done. It was written by Nancy
Paulu of the Departments Office of Educational
Research and Improvement (OERI). It is online at:
http://www.ed.gov/pubs/HelpingStudents/
Mayer, G. R. 1999. Constructive discipline for

school personnel. Education and Treatment of
Children, 22, 3654.
This is an article that describes the Constructive
Discipline approach. It explains how to clarify
discipline policy, provide staff support, and how to
make allowances for individual student differences in
the discipline policy. Constructive Discipline has
helped create safe school environments and is
probably the most empirically supported school
discipline approach available.
17
C H A PT E R 3
REINFORCERS: RECOGNITION, REWARDS,

AND MOTIVATORS
CHAPTER 2 WE POINTED OUT THAT PROVIDING

students with different learning materials
suitable to their current levels of functioning is
standard for teachers. Similarly, appropriate
reinforcers must be provided for each person if
optimal results are to be achieved. Remember that
there are Different strokes for different folks!
Thus, in this chapter we will look at a variety of
possible reinforcers that can be used to help
motivate students to learn and behave appropriately
in the classroom.
N
Providing Attention/
Recognition
To provide students with attention for their
classroom accomplishments is important for several
reasons. First, as we will discuss in Chapter 8, one
major purpose of behavior is to attain attention. We
all need attention and recognition for our accomplishments and effort. It is a basic human need. If
students cannot get attention for their classroom
accomplishments, they will find another way to
obtain the attention they need. (All too often it is
accomplished via misbehavior.) Secondly, positive
attention and recognition from teachers help build
self-esteem, or self-concept, and a positive attitude
toward school.
Table 3.1 presents a variety of examples of what
to say and do to provide attention and recognition to
students. The listing in Table 3.1 contains only suggestions as to how to communicate satisfaction and
pleasure to students for their progress. Obviously, the
situation, the student, and the student/teacher relationship will dictate the appropriate form of communication or attention in that context. It is helpful to
speak at their level and use their slang at times to
compliment them. Above all, be sincere! Also, the
more attention students receive for positive behaviors, the fewer behavior problems they will exhibit in
the classroom. Students will not need to misbehave
in order to get the attention that they seek (see Chapter 8).
Feedback is another important way of providing
attention and recognition. Feedback involves explaining to students what they are doing correctly
and incorrectly. The emphasis, of course, should be
on what is being done correctly. Stress the positive.
Feedback has been found to be more effective in
promoting learning when it is combined with praise.
Use specific praise. Specific praise appears to be
more effective in promoting learning than the use of
more general or vague expressions of praise. To use
specific praise, include the reason or rationale for its
delivery. For example, rather than saying, Youre a
good student, try saying, Great! You integrated
the material with examples relevant for you. Or,
Richard, you completed that new type of math
problem without any help. Fantastic! Specific
praise, then, places the emphasis on the behavior, not
on the person. It helps the person to discriminate
19
what behavior is effective or functional. Specific

praise also is easier for students to accept and integrate into their self-concepts. It appears more honest
and sincere to them. Thus, try to use specific praise
whenever using compliments or praise statements.
Certificates and awards for accomplishment
have been used successfully to motivate many students (as well as adults). We have provided several
illustrations below, and additional illustrations are
provided in Appendix A. It is more difficult to find

certificates that work at the high school level.
However, we have found that when high school
students in art classes design the certificates, they
work well. In addition, in the reference section at
the end of this chapter we have listed several booklets that contain certificates and awards. Also,
many educational supply stores have a selection of
similar materials.
Table 3.1
Ways of Providing Attention/Recognition: Interpersonal Acts

For Children
For Youths
smile
pat on the shoulder, head, or back
wink
nod
push on swing
assistance
eat with children
smile
nod
laugh (with, not at)
positive comment on appearance
pat on back
handshake
ask to demonstrate or explain something
assist when requested
signal or gesture of approval
Saying (adding reason):

Saying (adding reason):
very good
very good
yes
yes
great
great
nice
okay
fine
exactly
fantastic
thank you
excellent
thats interesting
unbelievable
right
atta-girl, atta-boy
I agree
far out
good idea
thats correct
fantastic
marvelous
unbelievable
you really pay attention well
you are really creative, innovative
that was very nice of you
keep up the good work
wow!
you are really improving
good work
youre really becoming an expert at this
good job
it really makes me feel good when I see so
_____ is a hard worker today, good for you
many of you hard at work
much better
thats a thoughtful thing to do
thats the way
_____has gotten his materials and has start to
you should show this to your parents
work already; good going!
thats perfect
thank you _____ for remembering to raise
youre doing very well
your hand
watch what he did; do it again
show the class your ____
wow, look at ____ work
you look nice today
I can really tell that ____ is thinking
_____ is sitting quietly and doing his work; good for him/her
_____ just earned another point by sitting quietly
_____ has all of his supplies on her desk and is ready to go; good!
its nice to see the way _____ raises his hand when he wants to share
20
21
Providing Access to Activities

and Items
A major function of some behavior is to attain
access to an activity or item (see Chapter 8). Many
of us work on our jobs to have a house, a car,
money to go to a movie, and so forth. At home children are often told that to watch TV, their homework must be completed. Access to activities and
items can also be used in the classroom to help mo-
tivate students to behave, complete their work, and

learn the class content. For example, if Ian remembers to raise his hand instead of yelling out, he can
take the ball out to recess.
A variety of activities and items have been used
to motivate students. Below are listings of sample
activities and items for children and youths, some of
which might be appropriate (functional) for use in
the classroom:
Sample Activities
having lunch with teacher
being a room monitor
tutoring
grading papers
using a computer
use of a piano
passing out paper or supplies
having radio tuned to favorite station
leaving class early
talking to a friend
helping a younger child learn
watching self on videotape
being pulled in a wagon
modeling with clay or putty
solving codes or puzzles
building with blocks
drawing and coloring
helping staff
minutes of free time
picture-taking trips
participating in a class party
being a team captain
writing on the chalkboard
performing special jobs
having access to game room

or activity table
use of a copy machine
viewing movie
leading pledge of allegiance
sitting at teachers desk
arranging bulletin board
painting
having time in class for

homework
helping custodian
Sample Items
(Avoid giving objects small enough to lodge in the windpipes of young or severely developmentally
delayed students.)
22
food
toys
note pads
cookies
toys for siblings
colored pencils
popcorn
jacks
colored paper
pastries
crayons
school decals
potato chips or munchies
coloring book
positive notes home
fruit juice
puzzles
collector cards
soft drinks
posters
gold stars
small candies
eraser
teen magazines
car and sport magazines
balls
art supplies
pens
school pennant
board games
pencils
rental equipment
plaques, trophies
posted compliments
CDs
portrait
Obtaining Free and

Inexpensive Items
Because resources are limited, it is always good
to know how to obtain items for little or no cost that
can be used to help motivate students. Most students will work hard to obtain some of these items.
One good source is the fast-food restaurant. For
example, talk to the manager of a local fast-food
restaurant (e.g., McDonalds, Burger King, or the
like). They will often provide certificates that can be
exchanged for a hamburger, fries, and a soft drink.
Sometimes bakeries donate day-old baked goods.
Dont overlook junk-mail giveaways and promotional items. Many times local merchants, students,
and parents will donate items. Also, be sure to ask
school administrators, nurses, counselors, and other
support personnel for ideas.
Many of the items collected can be loaned or
rented to students for a specified period of time,
rather than given to them. This can help ensure a
continued supply of highly desired items. Prepare
gift certificates and notes that are exchangeable for
the kinds of activity reinforcers described earlier:
You may leave three minutes early for lunch,
You and a friend may have an extra five-minute
break, and so on. Fortunately, items like these require few resources but can serve a powerful motivational function.
Identifying Reinforcers for the

Hard-to-Motivate Student
Many students will work for grades and social
approval and are thus easy to motivate to do their
work. However, some students do not find grades or
teacher approval very reinforcing. We often refer to
these students as being hard to motivate.
Although there are several ways of identifying
what might motivate these students, some teachers
do not want to try to motivate them. Some teachers
feel that students should want to do this, I
shouldnt have to bribe them, even when it is apparent that students do not want to do it. Rather than
try to motivate students, these teachers punish students who do not show sufficient motivation to do
their assigned work. As we discussed in Chapter 1,
this can result in the hard-to-motivate student becoming more of a behavioral problem in the class-
room and developing negative attitudes toward

school and schoolwork. What we encourage is that
teachers try to motivate students. This is more likely
to result in students doing their work, fewer behavioral problems, higher self-concepts, and more positive attitudes toward learning.
One way to discover what might motivate specific students is to draw on the Premack Principle.
Premack demonstrated that those behaviors in
which an individual freely and repeatedly engages
can be used to reinforce low-probability behaviors.
For example, parents might tell their children to do
their homework (low-probability behavior) before
they can watch TV (high-probability behavior). The
teachers task, then, is to discover what activity or
activities will a student repeatedly engage in whenever given the opportunity (or what has the student
demonstrated that he or she prefers to do). This is
usually accomplished through observation and by
asking students what it is that they prefer to do
when given the opportunity. Once the activities that
the student frequently engages in have been identified, determine those that are practical to use and
control the students access to them. In other words,
as with the TV example above, the student is only
allowed access to the desired activity, or TV, after
he or she has performed the low-frequency behavior, doing homework, to some predetermined, acceptable degree. If the student can obtain access to
the desired activity whenever he or she wants, or at
other times, then the activity cannot be used to motivate the student. Thus, the teacher must have control over the student gaining access to the activity if
it is used as a motivator or reinforcer. To repeat, the
student is permitted access to the high-frequency
behavior only when he or she has performed the
low-frequency behavior (e.g., schoolwork) satisfactorily.
Sometimes it is not practical or desirable to provide the high-frequency activity after each occurrence of the low-frequency behavior. For example,
lets say that the high-frequency activity is using the
computer. Rather than allowing the student to use
the computer after each occurrence of the lowfrequency behavior, he could earn points that are
exchangeable for x minutes at the computer, which
is available only at certain times of each day.
A second method is to observe the students
reactions to praise, pats on the back, offer of certificates or positive notes home, and other conse-
23
quences. If the student smiles and appears to work

harder, this is evidence that it may be possible to
use that consequence to motivate the student to
engage in goal behavior (e.g., raising his hand, doing her assigned schoolwork, and so forth). Or, to
experiment by repeatedly giving the student a
choice of activities or items. The activities or items
that the student repeatedly selects are what probably
can be used to motivate the student.
To help the identified reinforcer (e.g., praise or
edible item) work effectively, sometimes it is helpful to reduce (not eliminate) its delivery for other
behaviors. Also, try to provide the praise, or small
amounts of the edible item (provide small amounts
to help keep the reinforcer from becoming ineffective due to the student becoming sated), every time
that the goal behavior occurs. Later we will discuss
what else can be done to help maximize the effectiveness of a motivational program. However, before doing so, let us briefly look at ways to involve
the parent(s) in supporting the students behavioral
change.
Involving Parents/Caregivers in
the Motivational Program
Sometimes it is difficult to identify strong
enough motivators for some students, even after
trying the methods previously described. In those
cases consider involving the family in the motivational program by using a daily report card system. The daily report card system is simply an arrangement between the teacher and the home. The
teacher provides a rating or mark on a card or
checklist (checking off behaviors such as: followed
instructions, completed assigned work, got along
well with classmates, and so on) that is sent home.
The parent provides the rewards for the improvement in behavior. For example, elementary students
can be given a brightly colored sticker and secondary students a check mark on a card immediately
after each period in which they did not engage in
profanity or some other target behavior. Preestablished numbers of these stickers, or check marks,
can be exchanged at home for prespecified privileges, such as having a friend spend the night,
watching extra TV, going swimming, or having a
special snack. Another example would be having a
secondary student obtain her teachers initials each
day that she satisfactorily completes her school-
24
work. At home, privileges (e.g., use of the phone,

watching TV, visiting with friends) could be provided according to the proportion of acceptable
marks. Illustrative report cards are located in Appendix B. Some of the illustrations have many behaviors listed. Use only those targeted for change.
The advantage of such a system is that the home
often controls many potential reinforcers that the
school does not have access or control over; for
example, having a friend spend the night, going
fishing or to Disneyland, phone privileges, and so
forth. This cooperation may result in a more powerful motivational system. Also, it is advantageous
when the home and school are working together
toward the same goal.
A possible disadvantage is that not every home
situation is conducive to cooperation or consistent
follow-through. In addition, even when parents/
caregivers are told the importance of only reinforcing improvement in the targeted behavior, some
parents/caregivers may punish the student severely
for lack of improvement. (See Chapter 7 for suggestions as how best to work with parents/caregivers.)
Maximizing Effectiveness of
Motivational Programs
When you select reinforcers, consider what will
work for the individual student and the optimal
quantity for a given situation. Also, the use of praise
should be specific. This section presents several
more guidelines to follow if a motivational program
is going to work effectively. In fact, when we hear
the phrase, I tried that and it didnt work, the failure is usually because one or more of the guidelines
presented in this chapter were overlooked.
Reinforce Immediately, When

Appropriate
The advantage of reinforcing immediately is
that immediate reinforcement communicates more
clearly to students which behavior is being recognized. It helps students determine which behavior is
functional in meeting their need or getting them
what they want and results in more rapid behavioral
change. If the praise or points are not given immediately, students will not have as clear an understanding of which exact behavior they are being recognized for. And, what the reinforcer follows, it
usually influences. (Another way to facilitate discrimination is to use specific praise, as described
earlier.)
A problem sometimes occurs because it is not
always possible to reinforce immediately. For example, the teacher cannot call on Ian each time he
raises his hand. In these cases, it is best to work out
some supplementary reinforcement program. Give
Ian a wink or some sign to indicate that you know
that he has his hand up and that you will get to him
as soon as possible. Sometimes, too, it is helpful to
teach a youngster to begin work on another appropriate activity while he or she is waiting for assistance or feedback. Furthermore, it is not always
desirable to reinforce immediately. After the behavior is occurring at a high, steady rate, gradually
introduce delay. This is important because seldom
do we receive reinforcement immediately following
our behavior. (How long do you have to wait for
your paycheck?) The student must learn to gradually tolerate longer delays of reinforcement.
Reinforce Every Response Initially

Research has shown that behavior increases
more rapidly when it receives reinforcement (e.g.,
praise) following each occurrence. However, behavior is maintained over longer periods of time if it is
reinforced only some of the time (intermittently),
rather than each time. In other words, try to reinforce the behavior each time it occurs while teaching new behavior. But, once the behavior is learned,
gradually reduce the frequency at which it is reinforced to maintain the behavior over a long period
of time. You want Ian to be able to continue to perform the behavior in the absence of reinforcement
and not forget how to do it by the next day.
Specify the Conditions Under Which

Reinforcement Will Be Delivered
Students need to know what they must do and
when they must do it to obtain their reinforcement.
For example, if Paul is to refrain from hitting others
anywhere on the school campus, that needs to be
clearly stated. If he is to raise his hand during math
and not during English or PE, that needs to be
clearly communicated. Again, such clarity results in
more rapid discrimination and behavioral change.
Use a Variety of Reinforcers

Teachers too often rely on a single reinforcer to
motivate a student to change his or her behavior.
The problem is that the motivational strength of any
consequence is likely to vary. It may not, then, always be reinforcing. For example, Maria just ate a
large meal. Offering her an edible item that is usually highly desired will not motivate her when she is
full. Similarly, playing basketball usually is reinforcing. However, Ian is so sore he can hardly
move. The last thing he wants to do now is play
basketball. Always provide a variety of reinforcers
that students can select among, once they have
earned the privilege of doing so.
Eliminate, Reduce, or Override

Reinforcers for the Problem Behavior
Try to make sure that the problem is not continuing to receive reinforcement. If it is, it will
probably continue to occur and interfere with the
development of the replacement or goal behavior.
For example, if students are told to raise their hands
before participating, but the teacher continues, once
in a while, to listen to or incorporate the points
made by those who blurt out, such blurting out will
continue in the classroom. Or, if the teacher is trying to get Maria to complete her lessons but her
boyfriend, Joe, keeps giving her attention whenever
she looks up from her work, reinforcement is occurring for her being off-task.
When two opposing behaviors are receiving
reinforcement, competing contingencies are occurring. Competing contingencies can come from a
variety of sources. For example, competing contingencies were illustrated above where the teacher
was reinforcing Maria for lesson completion, but
Joe was reinforcing her for being off-task. Similarly,
the attention of friends for being aggressive or talking too much in class can provide competing contingencies to classroom goals. Parents having the TV
on in the room where the student is supposed to be
doing his or her homework is another example. A
competing contingency could even be the relief the
teacher experiences when a student is not present in
the classroom while the counselor is trying to get
the student to come to school more often. Such
competing contingencies need to be reduced, overridden, or eliminated if the goal behavior is to occur
successfully.
25

A variety of certificates, awards, and potential
reinforcers were presented in this chapter. However,
to use them effectively, be sure to select those that
are effective with individual students. Also, the selected reinforcers must be delivered immediately
following each occurrence of the desired or goal
behavior. Once the behavior is established, gradually introduce delay, and the frequency at which the
reinforcers are delivered should be gradually reduced. It also is imperative that the teacher clearly
communicate what the students are to do to receive
the reinforcers. If the program is to be effective, use
a variety of reinforcers, and try to reduce or eliminate reinforcers for the problem behavior. In Chapter 8 you will learn how to identify the purpose of
the problem behavior (i.e., what reinforcers are
maintaining the problem behavior). It is very helpful to identify these reinforcers and use them to
reinforce the students replacement or desired behaviors.
Additional Motivational Resources

Reavis, H. K., S. T. Kukic, W. R. Jenson, D. P.
Morgan, D. J. Andrews, and S. L. Fister. 1996.
Best practices: Behavioral and educational
strategies for teachers. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris
West.
26
This publication offers a practical and easy-tounderstand guide for teachers. Topics include:
cooperative learning, home-notes, reprimands,
teachers praise, behavioral contracts, peer tutoring,
and self-recording. Case studies are provided to
illustrate each procedure. The manual also includes
reproducible forms and handouts to be used by
teachers.
Schumaker, J. B., M. F. Hovell, and J. A. Sherman.

1991. Managing behavior: A home-based school
achievement system. Lawrence, Kans.: H&H
Enterprises, Inc.
A step-by-step program for implementing daily report
cards for intermediate students. However, many of
their daily report cards and procedures can be used at
the elementary and high school levels. This program
resulted in reduced truancy and improvements in
schoolwork, daily grades, and teachers satisfaction
with the students performance.
This book is a comprehensive professional reference.
Regarding reinforcement, it describes how to identify
reinforcers, how to maximize their effectiveness, and
provides many, many illustrations.
C H A PT E R 4
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES FOR

CREATING A POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
OOD TEACHERS USE A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES FOR
promoting a positive environment in which

learning can occur. They realize that
students motivational levels are often related to the
students expectation of success and the value they
place on the task. The following are included
among these good teaching and motivational
activities:
Set attainable but challenging goals for the students. Provide opportunities for each student to
succeed.
Provide appealing, interesting, and novel activities.
Supply new or better tools, supplies, or materials, including the use of personal computers.
Encourage students to actively participate and
respond.
Solicit, listen to, and act on useful suggestions
from students.
Provide opportunities for students to interact
with peers.
Be friendlygreet students cordially, get to
know them well enough to converse with them,
and include illustrations of the things that interest them.
Teach students to assess their own performance
and to set goals.
Express enthusiasm for the teaching material.

Provide a pleasant, physical classroom environment.
Comment on and praise students accomplishments, even those that they are expected to perform.
In addition to these good teaching and motivational activities, there are a variety of positive classroom behavior management strategies (positive
behavior interventions) that help to reduce and prevent the occurrence of behavioral problems so that
teaching and learning can occur. Each strategy
teaches students how to behave. They do not rely on
using punishment to teach students how not to behave. These classroom management strategies have
been found to work effectively at different grade
levels, and they also are easy to implement. In other
words, they take little time and effort to design and
use effectively in the classroom. Some can be used
as permanent classroom management tools. However, view the programs as guidelines only. Instead
of using them as a menu, adapt and revise them so
they become tailored to the students personalities
and the pulse of the classroom.
In Chapter 2 we provided a framework that reinforces students for adhering to rules and other positive behavior. It also was explained that minor infractions are dealt with by using reinforcement
27
strategies that teach students replacement behaviors

or how to behave. The activities presented in this
chapter teach students how to behave and will help
to make the classroom environment positive rather
than punitive.
Positive Classroom
Management Activities
Modeling
Modeling is used effectively at all grade levels.
It consists of catching peers engaged in the appropriate behavior (e.g., doing their schoolwork) and
positively recognizing that behavior. When the
other students imitate the behavior, or start doing
their schoolwork, positively recognize the imitation.
A good classroom management rule to follow is:
When a student is engaged in some minor infraction
(such as being out of his seat, blurting out for attention, or talking to neighbors), rather than punishing
the misbehavior, use the misbehavior as a signal, or
a reminder to look for those students who are doing
what they should, and reinforce their appropriate
behavior. For example, Hilda is out of her seat. Try
saying, Socorro (a friend of Hildas), Im so
pleased to see that you are in your seat doing your
work. You too, Tyrone. In fact, this whole row is
working very well! And, when Hilda gets back in
her seat and starts doing her work, be sure to compliment her behavior too. (Always reinforce the act
of imitation or this strategy will not work.) Another
example could be Demian blurting out an answer.
Again, rather than admonishing Demian, call on
someone with his or her hand up and praise him or
her for remembering to raise his or her hand. And
then, if Demian raises his hand, try to call on him as
soon as possible and compliment him for remembering to raise his hand.
Advantages. Too often, teachers give a disproportionate amount of their attention to misbehavior,
rather than to appropriate behavior. By acknowledging appropriate behavior, students who deserve the
recognition and attention get it. (Be careful, though,
not to recognize students who might yell out, I did
that too, teacher, in an attempt to be recognized.
Do not reinforce this type of disruptive classroom
behavior that others might imitate.)
Another advantage of this strategy is that it
teaches students how to behave by providing them
28
with opportunities to witness good behavior being

recognized. The focus is not on punishment but on
teaching. Thus, it also minimizes the negative effects that punishment can have and makes the classroom more positive and more conducive to learning.
It is recommended that this strategy be used frequently throughout the school day as a regular
classroom management tool.
Disadvantages. The major disadvantage of
modeling is that it is not a procedure that works
quickly. Thus, it can take a while to demonstrate its
effects. Because of this, it is not a strategy to use by
itself on serious, intolerable problem behavior in
which you must achieve an immediate cessation.
However, it can be used frequently to reduce most
minor infractions and to help prevent problem behaviors from occurring in the classroom.
Another disadvantage is that some teachers forget to recognize the act of imitation. When this
happens, students soon stop trying to imitate others
in the class because it is not functional for them to
do so. It does not work for them. So what do they
do? They go back to the misbehavior that worked in
the past or escalate it. Therefore, be sure to reinforce any acts of imitating positive behavior.
Catch em Behaving Game

The Catch em Behaving Game often introduces
fun, excitement, and novelty into the classroom.
The reward over time for the teacher may be a
classroom of students who are fun to teach as well
as cooperative and committed to exhibiting good
behavior. The game involves the following steps for
third through twelfth grades, but it also can be
adapted for the primary level:
Have students identify and role-play one or more
behaviors that are desirable for students to exhibit in class (e.g., completing schoolwork, getting to class on time, raising their hands, working quietly, or helping classmates with their
work).
Select with the class various reinforcing activities and items that are appropriate to give individual students in the class. (See Chapter 3 for
ideas.)
Obtain a roll of tickets (at a stationery store).
Explain to students that you will be looking for
the occurrence of the identified behaviors and
that you will be giving a ticket to the students

you catch exhibiting those behaviors.
Request that the students write their names on
each ticket as soon as they receive it. At an appropriate time in the class, have the students
place their tickets in a selected container. The
more tickets each student receives, the better
chance he or she will have for being chosen to
play the game.
Pass out tickets to students you catch exhibiting
identified behaviors (i.e., provide a ticket whenever a student is caught completing his or her
schoolwork, raising his or her hand, or for whatever behavior has been selected). Be sure to
compliment the student receiving the ticket for
his or her appropriate behavior.
Place four to five paper cups upside down on a
table or desk. Under each cup place a piece of
paper on which you have written down one of
the reinforcing items or activities.
Have a drawing every so often in the class.
Draw one to five tickets out of the container and
call out the students name written on each
ticket. (The game should be played frequently
about three times during a periodwhen it is
first introduced to the class.)
Have each student whose name was called select
a cup and read to the class what reward he or she
is to receive. (If you have students who have
difficulty reading, you might want to read the
notes yourself to the class to avoid inadvertently
punishing or embarrassing certain students.)
Provide the rewards mentioned on the paper note
to the students who won them and congratulate
each.
Gradually reduce the frequency of playing the
game after a day or two. Eventually, this is an
activity that may be phased out completely, or
just played once in a while as a special treat for
the class, after the game has obtained its desired
classroom management effects. However, be
sure to continue using compliments and praise.
Adaptations. The teacher can use other ways to
select students to play the game. For example, the
teacher keeps point records in a notebook and allows only those students with a certain amount of
points to play the game. Or students are selected to
participate based on their current behavior at the
moment the game is to be played. At the primary

school level, one of the above adaptations can be
used and the notes can be read to the students.
Activity Table
The Activity Table, like the Catch em Behaving
Game, introduces fun, excitement, and novelty into
the classroom, and teaches students in kindergarten
through grade twelve how to behave. Use the Activity Table for specific behaviors or to achieve control
in disruptive classrooms. To implement the Activity
Table:
Display an assortment of reinforcing items on
the Activity Table that are appropriate for the
developmental level and interests of the students
in the classroominteresting reading materials,
checkers and chess sets, cards, a television or
VCR and/or CD player with head phones, and so
on. (See Chapter 3 for ideas.)
Identify one or more behaviors students are to
exhibit (e.g., completing schoolwork, getting to
class on time, raising their hands, working quietly, or helping classmates with their work).
Again, involve students who are identifying the
desirable behavior(s).
Award individual students points, tickets, or
check marks for performing the behavior(s).
Allow students access to the Activity Table once
they have obtained their tickets, points, or
checks. Each point or check can equal five minutes at the Activity Table. Students can bank
their checks up to a total of 20 minutes, or spend
them at the Activity Table as soon as they earn
them.
Terrific Tables
The Terrific Tables activity introduces competition among students for behaving well. To implement this activity:
Divide the class into teams, usually four to six,
and allow each team to select its teams name.
Discuss and list a positive behavior that students
and the teacher want to reinforce (e.g., everyone
on the team has completed his or her homework
or everyone on the team is back from recess on
time).
29
TERRIFIC TABLES
Number of times all team members completed class assignment
Team
Dolphins
Lions
Dinosaurs
Eagles
Pythons
10
10
X
X
Number of times all team members arrived to class on time

Team
Jaguar
Mercedes
BMW
Porsche
Corvette
Display a Terrific Tables chart, such as the one

in the illustration above.
Describe a behavior that you want your students

to improve on or to learn.
Ask each team to select an activity reward. (See

Chapter 3 for ideas.)
Select with the class the reward they would like

to earn for their behavior improvement. (See
Chapter 3 for ideas.)
Add a star or check mark each time the target

behavior is achieved by a team (never remove
stars or check marks). Or slide picture of team
mascot along boxes. (When the teams row is
filled in, or the picture reaches the end, that team
receives a reward. The winning team starts over;
other teams continue until they too win a reward.)
Mark a line on the jar that will serve as the goal

point.
Add a marble to the jar each time you observe a
student perform the behavior (or the student can
place the marble in the jar). Be sure to frequently praise the occurrence of the behavior.
Provide the reward once the class reaches the
goal point on the jar.
Marble in the Jar

The Marble in the Jar technique is similar to the
ones previously described in that it too is easy to
implement and fun to play. Like the others it reduces problem behavior by teaching elementary and
middle school students how to behave. It can provide reinforcement through auditory, visual, and
kinesthetic channels. To implement this strategy:
Keep a sack of marbles and a glass jar in a visible spot in the class.
30
Points for Good Behavior

Points for Good Behavior may be used at the
elementary, middle, or high school level. To implement this program:
Share with the class that each student may earn
points by doing the following: (1) be in your seat
before the tardy bell rings; (2) have your pencil
and paper ready; and (3) work silently and complete assignments. (Or, they may earn points for
whatever goal behavior is selected.)
Give students points for quietly entering the

room, sitting at their desks, reading instructions
on the chalkboard, and beginning work without
being told.
The student with the most points can be the auctioneer if he or she wishes. (Students do not
have to use all their points each week. They can
save them for the following week.)
Give those who continue to work additional

points. Give assignments that can be completed
during the class period, and give points to students who complete them.
Continue to praise, but gradually reduce the

points that you give out after the program has
been in operation for several weeks. Eventually
use points only on an occasional day, about once
a week, and then phase out completely.
Pair the points with specific praise statements,

such as, I appreciate that you were on time to
class!
Fuzzy-Gram Notes
Allow students who finish early to choose one of

several activities; for example, going to a learning center, working on their homework, or reading material of their choice.
Permit students to exchange points for various
reinforcers (see Chapter 3). One suggestion for
fun and variety is to hold an auction for: items
that students have brought from home, things
collected from wherever, special privileges,
and so forth. The students bid on the items with
points they have earned throughout the week.
Fuzzy-Grams, which students give to each other,

foster the development of a positive learning environment by encouraging and teaching students to
look for and to positively recognize the appropriate
behavior of their classmates. They help to reduce
mutually aversive interactions among students and
provide peer reinforcement for appropriate social
and academic behavior of their classmates. An illustrative Fuzzy-Gram is provided below. Note that it
includes spaces for both the senders and recipients
names plus a complimentary message.
FUZZY-GRAM FORM
5.
4.
FROM
3.
2.
1.
FOR
TO
FUZZY
GRAM
Fold along
dotted line.
FU
ZZY
GR
AM
31
To implement a Fuzzy-Gram program for grades

three through twelve:
Duplicate a supply of Fuzzy-Grams (see illustration).
Discuss, model, and role-play with your class
the writing of positive notes.
Provide opportunities for sharing completed
Fuzzy-Gram messages, such as in small-group
discussions.
Compliment and perhaps provide other reinforcers for those who provide positive Fuzzy-Grams.
Adaptations. There are many variations of the
Fuzzy-Gram notes, and, of course, students can
create distinctive Fuzzy-Grams for the class. Variations include Gracias-Grams, Thank-You-Grams,
Boo-Grams for Halloween, Love-Grams for
Valentines day, Patty-Grams for St. Patricks day,
Bunny-Grams for Easter, and Gobble-Grams for
Thanksgiving. Some student clubs have used various Fuzzy-Grams to help raise money. For example,
one school club sold carnations (white carnations
signified, Id like to get to know you while pink
or red signified, I like you) along with a Valentine-Gram that the student would fill out, omitting
his or her name. A member of the club delivered the
carnation and Valentine-Gram. If, on the day of
delivery, a recipient wished to find out the name of
the sender, he or she had to pay the club a small fee.
Problems. It is not always easy to get students
to provide positive comments to one another.
Sometimes, particularly with elementary schoolchildren, we have found it helpful to teach complimentary words that they can use (e.g., athletic, brave,
cheerful, cool, cute, dependable, fair, friendly, fun,
good sport, helpful, honest, kind, leader, loyal, neat,
nice, polite, smart, strong, terrific, trustworthy, understanding, and so forth). We also have found it
helpful to incorporate a Compliment Meter program
to encourage and reward the class for writing
32
Fuzzy-Grams. Also, modifying the program into a

Secret Pal Game or an I-Spy program can sometimes be helpful. These programs are described in
the following sections of this chapter.
Advantages. Students begin to express their
appreciation more frequently in the classroom and
in other settings. Motivated by mutual praise, they
notice the good things that their peers are doing.
Teachers report that they have fewer problems with
discipline and spend less time nagging and punishing their students.
Compliment Meter
A Compliment Meter encourages students to
give one another Fuzzy-Grams. It looks like a thermometer and can be drawn on a chalkboard or on a
chart (see following illustration). To implement a
Compliment Meter program:
Draw a Compliment Meter on the chalkboard or
on a chart.
Place numbers on it as in the illustration.
Select with the class the special activities they
would like to earn (see Chapter 3 for ideas).
Place the name of the activity opposite the number of fuzzy-grams given, as indicated on the
Compliment Meter (e.g., at 50 Fuzzy-Grams
there will be no quiz that day, at 150 they earn
an extra 20 minutes to play games, at 250 they
can have a popcorn party, at 350 they can watch
a video, at 400 the class has a field trip, etc.)
Count the number of Fuzzy-Grams given out at
the end of each period or day and add the total to
the Compliment Meter .
Provide each earned activity when the class
reaches the predetermined goal or number of
Fuzzy-Grams.
COMPLIMENT METER
400
Go on a field trip
350
Watch a video
300
250
Have a popcorn
party
200
150
20 minutes
to play games
100
50
No quiz today
33
Secret Pal Game

The Secret Pal Game is a variation of the FuzzyGram program in that it helps to ensure that all students receive compliments. This game can be used
at any grade level, but with the early grade levels,
verbal rather than written praise may be used or the
students may draw pictures denoting complimentary
messages. To help increase the number of compliments that each student receives, the Compliment
Meter, described above, can be combined with the
Secret Pal Game. To implement the Secret Pal
Game:
Ask each student to place his or her name on
two slips of paper and place them into a container, such as a hat or bowl.
Ask each student to draw two names from the
container. If the student draws his or her own
name or the same name twice, he or she must
draw again.
Duplicate a supply of Secret Pal forms (see following illustration).
Discuss, model, and role-play with the class the

writing of positive notes.
Explain that each student is to: keep the identity
of his or her secret pals a secret; watch the secret
pals and notice when they do something nice;
write on a form (see illustration) the nice thing
that each secret pal did; and place or keep the
forms in an appropriate location where others
cannot see them. (The teacher and the class can
decide how and when to deliver the forms. Some
teachers have had their students place their
forms in envelopes that have each students
name on them. The envelopes were located on a
large poster or bulletin board.)
Ask the class to share the comments each received. This can be done at the end of the week
or more often when the program is first initiated.
Each student also finds out the identity of his or
her secret pal. With some groups it may be necessary to screen the notes before they are seen or
shared.
SECRET PAL FORM

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
AND ILL NEVER TELL WHO!
CUT
Some of the things that my

secret pal did this week that I liked:
FOR THIS WEEK IS

MY SECRET PAL
IVE GOT A
SECRET PAL!
34
Fold along
dotted line.
IVE
GOT
A
SEC
RET
PAL
!
I-Spy Game
The I-Spy activity, a variation of the FuzzyGram program, works well at the upper elementary,
intermediate, and in some high school classes (e.g.,
homerooms, psychology classes, or special education classes). It is implemented similarly to the Secret Pal Game:
Ask each student to place his or her name on a
slip of paper and place the paper into a container, such as a hat or bowl.
Ask each student to draw a name from the container. If the student draws his or her own name,
he or she must draw again.
Duplicate a supply of I-Spy forms (see following
illustration).
Discuss, model, and role-play with the class the
writing of positive notes. The notes should be
specific, such as: participated in class discussion, volunteered to help teacher, loaned a pencil, or turned in homework on time.
Explain that each student is to: keep the identity

of the students name drawn a secret; watch the
student and notice the date, time, and the positive behavior; write on a form (see following
illustration) the nice thing that the student did;
and place or keep the form in an appropriate
location where others cannot see it.
Ask the class to share the comments each received at the end of the week (perhaps more
often when the program is first initiated). Students hand in the I-Spy cards, and the teacher
distributes the cards, after reviewing them, to the
suspects. The cards may then be read aloud in
class.
Consider providing weekly prizes for the three
students who write the most positive comments.
Also, as in the Secret Pal Game, it is often better
to ask each student to draw two names so that
two peers will be providing positive feedback to
each student.
I-SPY FORM
I SPY
I CAUGHT MY SUSPECT
DOING THE FOLLOWING POSITIVE THINGS:
DATE
Outside of Form
TIME
BEHAVIOR
Inside of Form
35

This chapter has described classroom management activities that can be used to create a positive
classroom environment that is conducive to learning. The focus of these strategies has been to teach
students how to behave, not how to punish or teach
students how not to behave. Each strategy that was
presented is easy to implement and helps to prevent
and reduce classroom problem behaviors. The activities are not designed to address intolerable behavior problems such as violence, aggression, vandalism, or serious self-abusive behavior. When a
behavior must be stopped immediately, a punitive
procedure may need to be selected as discussed in
Chapter 2. However, punitive procedures should be
selected cautiously, as they have serious side effects.
Several programs were presented that can be
used for teaching peers to recognize one another
positively. However, in order to create and maintain
such a supportive classroom learning environment,
the teacher will need to model, cue, prompt, and
reinforce positive recognition. Once implemented,
these programs have major benefits:
Students learn to identify and recognize the positive behaviors of their peers and teachers.
Students receive praise for their own good behavior. This helps them to recognize what others
view as appropriate and admirable behavior.
The classroom environment becomes more conducive to learning.
When selecting one of the programs in this
chapter, remember that learned behaviors do not
change overnight. Do not give up too soon on a
program. However, it is important to recognize that
what works to motivate one student or group does
not work for all. Thus, anticipate that the programs
will need to be modified before, and sometimes
during, implementation to fit particular situations
36
and students. This will ensure better results. Also,

older students should be involved in modifying the
program to address their identified classroom issues. When students are involved, they will feel
greater ownership of the program and learn how to
devise their own solutions to address issues of behaviortheir own and that of others.
It is best, particularly when setting up a program
for an individual student, to base the program on the
purpose or function that the behavior serves. This is
explained in Chapter 8.
References
This is a more technical, comprehensive book, but
Chapter 12 has a variety of classroom and peer
reinforcement programs. Chapter 13 describes token
economies for the classroom.
Mayer, G. R., T. Butterworth, H. L. Spaulding, P.
Hollingsworth, M. Amorim, C. CaldwellMcElroy, M. Nafpaktitis, and X. Perez-Osorio.
1983. Constructive discipline: Building a climate
for learning. A resource manual of programs and
strategies. Downey, Calif.: Office of the Los
Angeles County Superintendent of Schools.
The book contains many programs developed by
teachers for teachers. There are chapters on students
reinforcing students, individual student programs,
improving classroom performance, and on managing
classroom behavior. Each chapter contains about 10 to
20 distinct programs similar to those contained in this
chapter.
C H A PT E R 5
TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS
OCIAL SKILLS ARE VITAL TO A STUDENTS SUCCESS

in school and his or her ability to get along
with others. These are skills that allow the
student to interact positively with the teacher and
peers and to do well academically. A student without appropriate social skills will not do well in
school. Social skill deficits are a root cause of many
adjustment problems.
All too often when a student does not demonstrate appropriate social skills (e.g., the student does
not pay attention, persist on task, invite others to
participate, or assist a peer who requests help), the
teacher responds with punishment rather than an
effort to teach the deficit social skill. Punishment
does not teach the student how to behave, and when
social skill deficits are not addressed by teaching
replacement behaviors, the student continues to
have problems into adolescence and adulthood
(Sheridan, 1995). In other words the problem behaviors persist unless appropriate social skills are
taught to the child, adolescent, or adult.
One might ask, then, Why is it that many students demonstrate appropriate social skills while
others do not? In some home environments children are not given puzzles or encouraged to engage
in activities that help them learn persistence on task.
Similarly, some children are not read to or encouraged to participate in family discussions or other
activities in which they could learn to pay attention.
Or, to put it another way, some children have not

experienced an environment that has taught them
critical social skills.
The goal of social skills training is to teach students socially acceptable behaviors that will result
in natural recognition and acceptance (reinforcement) from their teachers, classmates, and others.
As will be discussed in Chapter 8, the problematic
behavior that a student engages in meets a need or
serves a purpose for that student. The task is to discover the purpose and teach positive alternative
behaviors that will satisfy that purpose more effectively. How, then, might social skills training be
approached?
Two Major Social Skill Areas

The two major areas of social skills that influence academic performance are: academic survival
skills and peer relationship skills. They are discussed below:
Academic Survival Skills

Academic survival skills include the following
social skills:
Persistence on the task
Eyes directed toward the teacher when the
teacher is talking or demonstrating
37
Compliance with the teachers requests and directions
Steps in Teaching Social Skills
Requesting help when needed
Identify Missing Skills (Deficits)
Raising hand and waiting for permission before

asking questions
There are two major ways of identifying deficits: observation and rating scales.
Observation. One can often determine social
skill deficits through classroom observations. Sometimes the social skills that students need training in
are very obvious, as when certain students consistently fail to pay attention: The students may fail to
look at the teacher during instruction, and their
questions or answers are irrelevant to the lesson.
One also can observe the behavior of students who
appear to have good social skills to obtain an idea of
which behaviors are desirable in the classroom and
with peers. Some social skill deficits, however, are
more difficult to identify. It may be helpful to review a social skills inventory, or rating scale, to
become more sensitized to the behaviors to observe.
Still, there will probably be times when it is not
possible to determine the deficit through observation alone. In those cases you should consider using
a social skills rating scale.
Rating scales. There are many inventories
available; however, parts of two are included here
for illustration. The first, an illustrative rating scale
developed by McGinnis and Goldstein (1997) for
students to fill out, is provided in Figure 5.1. The
second, a rating scale developed by Sulzer-Azaroff
and Mayer (1994) that the teacher and the students
parents can fill out, is provided in Figure 5.2. Another option is to prepare your own rating scale to
target a specific social skill area. For example, you
might want to focus on the peer relationship or academic survival skills previously mentioned.
Once the inventory is selected, anyone who
knows the students well can fill out the rating scale.
In addition, it is best to have the students fill out the
inventory themselves (if they are old enough or
functionally able) because, if they perceive a need
to learn a new behavior, they will more likely use
the behavior in new situations (McGinnis and
Goldstein, 1997). Items, or social skills, that are
rated low should be selected for possible intervention.
Requesting feedback over appropriately spaced

intervals
Nodding to communicate understanding
Providing appreciative feedback or approval
(Thank-you, Oh, now I understand, smiles)
Greeting the teacher
Many of these skills serve as building blocks on
which classroom learning occurs. Students cannot
survive academically or obtain good grades if they
have deficits in a number of these skills.
Peer Relationship Skills

Critical peer relationship skills include the following:
Says Hi or Hello
Introduces self by name
Asks questions about the other student (name,
likes, and so forth)
Identifies common interests and discusses them
Shares something about self
Provides compliments and specifies what is
being complimented
Asks for permission
Shares objects with others
Assists others who desire assistance
Introduces others
Invites others to participate
Smiles
Cares for physical appearance or grooming
Takes turns with preferred items
Students who are popular usually have most of
these skills, while students who tend to be rejected
by their peers do not. Students who feel rejected by
their peers usually do not find school a pleasant,
reinforcing place to be.
38
Figure 5.1: RATING SCALE FOR STUDENTS

INSTRUCTIONS:
Each of the questions will ask you about how well you do something.
Next to each question is a number.
Circle number 1 if you almost never do what the question asks.
Circle number 2 if you seldom do it.
Circle number 3 if you sometimes do it.
Circle number 4 if you do it often.
Circle number 5 if you almost always do it.
There are no right or wrong answers to these questions.
Answer the way you really feel about each question.
1. Is it easy for me to listen to
someone who is talking to me?
2. Do I tell people thank you for

something they have done for me?
3. Do I have the materials I need for my

classes (like books, pencils, paper)?
4. Do I finish my schoolwork?
5. Is it easy for me to start a conversation

with someone?
Figure 5.2: RATING SCALE FOR TEACHER AND PARENTS

When in situations in which the following
would be desired, the individual
B. Initiates social contact as evidenced by:
2. Introducing self by name.
4. Asking questions about other person
(name, likes, and so forth).
H. Handles teasing as evidenced by:
1. Ignoring it.
2. Making a joke of it.
K. Responds positively to teacher as evidenced by:
2. Providing verbal feedback that is
appreciative or approving (e.g.,
Thank you, Oh, now I understand, and so forth).
9. Complying with the teachers requests.
Never
Seldom
About
half the
time
More
Always
often
than not
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
39
Select the Skill to Be Taught

(Replacement Skill)
Replacement skills are the appropriate alternatives that will replace the problem behavior. For
example, in place of not paying attention, the student is to look at the teacher during instruction and
provide relevant questions and answers: paying
attention. (Additional examples can be found by
reviewing the rating scales.) When selecting the
replacement skill, give choices to the student. The
final selection should meet the following criteria:
Works as well or better than the problem behavior in communicating or meeting the students
needs
Serves as an acceptable alternative to the problem behavior
Is supported by the students teachers, friends,
and family
Builds a positive reputation for the student
Measure and Evaluate the Behavior

Measuring the behavior is helpful if you want
evidence of the effectiveness of your social skills
program. A simple means of measuring the social
skill is to tabulate daily how often the replacement
and/or problem behavior occurs during three to ten
days before implementing the training. If the problem behavior occurs frequently, rather than counting
throughout the day, the behaviors occurrences can
be tabulated during a 20- to 30-minute segment of
the day in which the behavior is typically at its
worst. Then, once the instructional intervention
begins, continue to tabulate the occurrence of the
problem and replacement behaviors in the same
manner and during the same time segment used to
record them prior to intervention. Next, compare the
rate of occurrence prior to intervention with that
during intervention to see what effect the intervention program has possibly had on the instructed and/
or problem social skills. For example, Demian
yelled out answers during math on the average of
twice per period. However, once intervention began,
his yelling out decreased to zero, while hand raising
increased.
Another means of measuring the behavior, if
you are using a rating scale, is to administer the
rating scale again after the social skills training
program and compare the pretraining rating to the
40
post-training rating of the skills taught. This method

is certainly a more subjective method than directly
observing the effects of the program, but it can tap
consumer satisfaction, which is an important element in judging the success of any educational program.
Design and Conduct the Program

Informal methods. There are several informal
methods of teaching social skills during regular
classroom activities. These include:
Involve the student in selecting the skill.
Ensure that the selected skill will be supported
in a variety of settings.
Request specific skills: Look at me while Im
talking, so Ill know that you are paying attention. And then, of course, praise the student for
looking at you. (This particular request may be
uncomfortable for students who come from cultures that stress not making eye contact as a
form of respect. In such situations it can be helpful to teach students in which social/cultural
situations eye contact would be appropriate and
not appropriate. By so doing, you can increase
the number of social situations in which the
students can interact effectively.)
Catch and reinforce students for engaging in the
desired social skill. This incorporates modeling,
in that others see their classmates being reinforced for the desired social skill (see Chapter
4), and it strengthens the students desired social
behaviors.
Teach the skill in a variety of settings with a
multitude of people.
Incorporate classroom motivational programs,
described in Chapter 4, to help motivate students
to begin practicing the desired social skills.
Gradually thin out and eliminate special consequences.
If there is someone on the school staff who does
social skills training (e.g., a counselor or school
psychologist), consider referring students for that
service. This has the advantage of providing students with more intensive training in the selected
social skills. However, such training outside of the
classroom can only be successful if the classroom
teacher also implements the above informal meth-
ods. Social skills learned in the counselors office

must be supported (reinforced) in the classroom if
they are to continue to occur in the classroom. It is
important to keep abreast of what skills are being
taught in the social skills training group to reinforce
the use of the skills in the classroom. (An alternative to referring students would be to request classroom consultations for help in designing effective
interventions that support targeted social skills.)
Systematic methods. Some teachers like to
teach social skills more systematically and make the
training part of their classroom activity. Social skills
may be taught in many different ways. No one
method appears to be considerably better than another. For those who would prefer to use commercially prepared social skills training programs, several sources are provided at the end of this chapter.
For those who prefer greater flexibility and like to
create their own programs, the basic steps to systematically teach social skills are as follows:
Schedule time for social skills training.
Describe the purpose and benefits of the training
to the students (e.g., overcoming deficiencies;
learning to relate to others better; making friends
more easily; or changing how teachers, parents,
or peers treat you).
Involve students in the selection of the incentives or reinforcers (if any are being used).
Involve students in the selection of the skills and
scenarios to be discussed.
Put on the board or chart the social skill the class
is working on.
Discuss the behavior with the class. What does it
consist of, or how do you do it?
Develop with the class the components of the
social skill and list them on the board or on a
chart. For example, the components for following the teachers instructions might include:
listen carefully, ask questions if there is anything
you do not understand, repeat the instructions to
yourself, and do what you have been asked to
do. In rewarding yourself, determine if you have
done something that deserves a reward, decide
what you can say and do to reward yourself, say
it, and do it.
Discuss with the class when to use the skill and
when not to use it; e.g., hand raising can be used
in the classroom during discussions or when you
have a question but not on the playing field. This

becomes particularly relevant when teaching an
academic survival skill such as prompting the
teacher for reinforcement. The students must be
taught to spread their cueing across the work
period rather than bunching it up at the beginning or at the end. It is helpful to give them
some idea as to when to cue: after about a page
is completed without many mistakes, or after
working carefully for a period of time. For example, after they finish a page of work, or work
for a period of 20 minutes, they then might cue
the teacher with such comments as Hows
this? or Look at how much Ive done or Am
I doing this correctly?
Select two to three classmates as models to demonstrate the social skill with other students in the
class. The models must be competent in the social skill and be well likedfriendly and cooperative with their classmates.
Select real-life situations with the models for
their role-playing demonstrations; e.g., the
model complies with typical instruction given by
the teacher or the model rewards self after doing
well on an exam by complimenting self and
renting some videos.
Use techniques for enhancing the likelihood that
classmates will imitate the models behavior:
Praise each models behavior, provide incentives
(if using them), and prompt other group members to positively recognize the behavior; reemphasize the purpose and benefit of the specific
skill and discuss how it relates to the students
lives; keep the modeled performance simple or
easy to imitate; and point out similarities among
models and classmates.
Request each student to role-play the modeled
social skill. Place students in groups of about
three each. Do not place students together who
have a history of fighting or who are silly and
goof off when they are together. Praise good
role playing, provide incentives, if you are using
them, and prompt others to positively comment
on the episode.
Watch carefully for mistakes. Models may help
in this activity. Demonstrate and have the student practice one subskill, or component, at a
time before again attempting the more complex
skill. Be sure to positively acknowledge the
41
attainment of each subskill and any improvements.

Continue to role-play until response fluency is
achieved. Response fluency has been achieved
when the social skill occurs easily without
thought or effort.
Assign practice, after response fluency is
achieved, in a variety of settings or situations.
Have students determine (write down if able)
where, when, and with whom they will try the
skill and how they will reward themselves after
performing the skill. Also, after the students
have completed the assignment, have them write
down what they did, what reactions they observed, and how they rewarded themselves.
Reinforce students for completing practice assignment. (Reinforcers and programs from chapters 3 and 4 can be used to help motivate
students in practicing their social skill.) Prompt
students to use the social skill in situations in
which they should be using it but are not.
Incorporate discussion of skills into the curriculum through films and books.
Encourage parents, peers, and other teachers to
look for and reinforce the newly learned social
skills.

To achieve success in school, students must
have a variety of social skills. Students who have
not learned appropriate social skills tend to have
more difficulty with peer relations, misbehave more
often, and do worse academically. This chapter described several approaches for teaching social skills.
Social skills training places the emphasis on teaching, not on punishing, and constructive alternatives
to problem behavior are identified and taught.
Because of the critical nature of many social
skills, we no longer can ignore them or assume that
our students have learned them. Social skills need to
be recognized as an integral part of the curriculum,
and their acquisition no longer should be left to
chance. You now have the knowledge to teach them.
42
References
McGinnis, E., and A. P. Goldstein. 1997.
Skillstreaming the elementary school child: A
guide for teaching prosocial skills. Champaign,
Ill.: Research Press.
Sheridan, S. M. 1995. The tough kid social skills
book. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994. Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis of
achieving classroom and schoolwide behavior
change. San Marcos, Calif.: Western Image.
Cartledge, G., and J. F. Milburn. 1996. Cultural
diversity and social skills instruction: Understanding ethnic and gender differences.
Champaign, Ill.: Research Press.
This book was written to stress the importance of
understanding diverse cultures when teaching social
skills. It offers a social skills model for teaching as
well as an in-depth look at Asian-American, AfricanAmerican, Native American, and Hispanic-American
cultures as well as a look at gender differences. This is
a very informative book for teachers who are teaching
students of diverse cultures.
Goldstein, A. P. 1988. The PREPARE curriculum.

Champaign, Ill.: Research Press.
This is an in-depth guide to teaching a variety of social skills, including problem solving, interpersonal
skills, anger control, moral reasoning, stress management, and empathy training. This curriculum is geared
toward adolescents who are demonstrating aggressive
behavior, but it can be beneficial to all students in
need of social skills training.
Goldstein, A. P., and B. Glick. 1987. Aggression

replacement training: A comprehensive intervention for aggressive youth. Champaign, Ill.: Research Press.
This social skills curriculum is designed to teach students to understand and replace aggression with positive behaviors. The program includes three
components: (1) prosocial skills; (2) anger control;
and (3) moral reasoning. This program is designed for
adolescents.
McGinnis, E., and A. P. Goldstein. 1997.

Skillstreaming the elementary school child: A
guide for teaching prosocial skills. Champaign,
Ill.: Research Press.
This guide provides instructions on how to conduct a
social skills group. It provides 60 skills to be taught
along with charts and checklists to be used with the
curriculum. The curriculum includes strategies for
making the curriculum most effective, including ideas
for reinforcement and ways to refine skills. Also available are Skillstreaming the adolescent and
Skillstreaming in early childhood.
Panayan, M. V. 1998. How to teach social skills.

Austin, Tex.: Pro-Ed.
This small, practical booklet takes one step by step in
teaching social skills.
Sheridan, S. M. 1995. The tough kid social skills

book. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West.
This social skills curriculum is designed for teachers,
school counselors, and school psychologists to help
them implement a social skills program for students.
The book contains reproducible forms and charts and
step-by-step instructions to implement a social skills
curriculum. The program also includes several ideas
for motivating students to use the skills taught and to
participate in the program.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994. Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis of
This book provides a chapter on social skills training.
The authors take you step by step in developing a
social skills training program with an emphasis on
generalization and maintenance.
Walker, H. M., and S. R. McConnell. 1995. WalkerMcConnell scale of social competence and
school adjustment. San Diego, Calif.: Singular
Publishing Group.
This scale is designed to rate the social skills of students. It helps the teacher target individual skill deficits of the students. Instructions are included to help
the teacher administer the rating form as well as interpret the completed form. The scale is available in both
adolescent and elementary versions.
Walker, H. M., S. McConnell, D. Holmes, B. Todis,

J. Walker, and N. Golden. 1983. The Walker social skills curriculum: The ACCEPTS Program.
This social skills curriculum is designed to transition
children with disabilities into less restrictive settings.
Specific instructional scripts are provided for the
following classes of behaviors: (1) classroom skills;
(2) basic interaction skills; (3) getting along skills;
(4) making friends skills; and (5) coping skills. The
program includes videotape models of skills being
taught that demonstrate both negative behavior and
positive behavior.
Young, K. R., R. P. West, D. J. Smith, and D. P.

Morgan. 1991. Teaching self-management strategies to adolescents. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris
West.
This is a manual for teachers who are interested in
teaching adolescents self-management strategies. The
manual includes an in-depth and easy-to-follow guide
to teaching academic self-management. It provides
reproducible forms for use in the classroom, including
an assignment planner and class performance record.
43
CHAPTER 6
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
NSTRUCTION INVOLVES THE TEACHER, THE
curriculum, and the student. Problems can stem

from any one of these factors. Instructional
strategies that address the individual students
learning needs will facilitate the students learning,
prevent behavior problems, and provide the student
with opportunities to succeed. Part of the teachers
role is not only to motivate students but also to
provide them with successful experiences, reinforce
their progress, and increase their interest in
learning.
Difficulties in learning may be the result of a
mismatch between the curriculum and the student,
or the instructional method and the student. As
pointed out in Chapter 1, these academic difficulties
can result in academic failure experiences for the
student, which are a primary cause of problem behavior. In addition, Chapter 8 emphasizes that one
reason behavior problems persist is that they allow
the student to escape from or avoid difficult assignments or classroom failure experiences. The use of
varied instructional strategies will help prevent and
remediate poor academic performance, and thereby
reduce behavior problems.
A number of different strategies will meet the
different needs of diverse students and their teachers
and help prevent boredom. They will also help prevent teacher burnout. The teaching strategies and
materials selected must be appropriate to the learning objectives and the students level of functioning
(skills and abilities), learning style, and motivation.

It is important that the teacher identify what it is
within the classroom or instructional material that is
causing the student difficulty in order to determine
which instructional approaches might be best to use.
Effective teaching practices require that teachers
constantly monitor and adapt instruction and materials to fit the learning needs of students.
Selecting Instructional
Strategies
The California Department of Education recently (1998) issued a call for higher standards and
comprehensive services that enable all students to
attain rigorous content and academic performance
standards. The call places an emphasis on effective
curriculum and instructional strategies. This chapter presents several ways of adapting instruction and
materials to fit the learning needs of students. More
specifically, we present numerous instructional
strategies for determining and addressing students:
Sensory learning styles
Motivation
Anxiety
Social skill deficits
Academic skill deficits
Self-management of learning skills
45
In addition, numerous general instructional suggestions are included to help provide students with
successful experiences and increase their interest in
learning.
to be more auditory in their learning styles (Dunn,

1998). The younger the student, the more tactual/
kinesthetic their learning style is likely to be. As
students get older, the more their auditory and
visual modalities develop.
Students Sensory Learning Style

There are three major sensory learning styles:
visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic. Some students learn more rapidly when taught through one
or more of these modalities. As materials are presented in the classroom using visual, auditory, or
tactile/kinesthetic methods, note how different students in the classroom grasp the concepts under the
various conditions. Such observation will help determine the best means of teaching (i.e., which sensory modality to emphasize) various students in the
classroom. Generally, a combination of these modalities will be successful with more students than
just relying on one or two modalities. This strategy
can also encourage students to strengthen an area
that may not be a preference. Lets briefly look at
various instructional activities that address each
sensory learning style.
Visual (Learn by Seeing.)
Display key concepts (charts, tables, bulletin
boards).
Use visual practice activities (look and say, recopy, fill in blanks).
Develop/use visual support materials (pictures,
flash cards, outlines, films, TV).
Provide directions in written form.
Auditory (Learn by Listening.)
Verbalize information (lectures, verbal instructions, verbal questions, discussion groups).
Use other auditory approaches (tape recorders,
group readings).
Tactile/Kinesthetic (Learn by Doing.)
Encourage movement (centers, work groups).
Provide hands-on activities (touch, move, construct).
Encourage creativity (students develop own
bulletin boards, notebooks, and/or calendars).
Males tend to be more visual and tactual/kinesthetic and need more mobility than females do
(Dunn, Beaudry, and Klavas, 1989). Females tend
46
Students Motivation
Some students do sloppy and/or incomplete
work, and some do not do their work at all. This
could be caused by a lack of motivation. When a
student is not performing as anticipated, motivation
should be among the first factors checked out because of the ease with which this factor can be determined. A low level of motivation can be checked
out by providing the student the assigned task under
heavy incentives (selected based on the guidelines
presented in Chapter 3). For example, the teacher
might present a student with an assignment (with
the answers removed) on which he or she did poorly
and say, If you are able to get at least X correct (80
percent), then Ill treat you to a cola, extra time on
the computer, or we can play ___ or ___. If the
student succeeds at the task, then the problem
would appear to be motivational. Continue to provide the incentives, pairing them with praise, recognition, and emphasizing the students accomplishments. Gradually, phase out the more intrusive
incentives or reinforcers and continue to stress the
students improved competence and accomplishments. If, however, the student fails the task, you
might want to check out the possibility of high anxiety, a lack of academic survival skills (or academic
skill deficits) and apply the strategies suggested
under the appropriate causal factor.
Students Anxiety
A high-anxiety level can interfere with learning
and the students completion of assignments. Observe the student for anxiety indicators (e.g., tremors, muscular tension, and so forth), and reduce the
amount of work assigned. For example, rather than
requesting that 20 to 40 problems be solved, request
that two or three be solved under incentive conditions. If the student correctly solves the problems,
gradually increase the number of problems assigned, frequently pointing out the students accomplishments and quality of work. If the student fails
this task, the problem may be due to a lack of academic survival skills or a skills deficit. However, if
a high-anxiety level is suspected, confer with the

counselor, school psychologist, and the parents. It
may be necessary to discuss the possibility of counseling or psychological services. If it is decided to
refer the student for counseling or psychological
services, be sure to establish close communication
with the person providing the services for the student.
Social Skill Deficits

A major reason for poor academic performance
can be a lack of one or more of the social skills
discussed previously in Chapter 5, Teaching Social
Skills. Review Chapter 5 for ways to address social skill deficits.
Academic Skill Deficits

If you suspect an academic skill deficit, examine
the students written work and identify mastered
concepts and errors. Look for problems of inconsistent accuracy, slow responding, and consistently
made or repeated errors. These problems can be
addressed by matching your verbalizations and instructional materials to the students level of understanding.
Inconsistent Accuracy
If inconsistent errors are discovered, the source
of the problem might be insufficient prompting,
practice, and feedback. To correct this situation,
provide the student with increased opportunities for
active practice with the curriculum materials. Provide immediate feedback for his or her active responding. It is important to provide opportunities
for positive feedback of correct answers and to correct errors immediately rather than allowing students to practice the wrong answer.
Combine high levels of student engagement
with immediate feedback on student performance to
promote students accurate academic achievement
in the classroom. There are a number of ways to
promote accuracy through active student responding
along with immediate feedback. The following describes how to use several of the more effective
methods. Note that all these methods involve modeling the skill, prompting its occurrence, and providing feedback or error correction.
Response cards. Provide blank, laminated cards
and instruct the students to write the answers to
questions during group instruction in math, spelling,

or other content lessons (after correct answers have
been modeled or taught). The students hold up their
cards with their answers on them. Next, scan the
cards and provide feedback to the students. (Be sure
the feedback is respectful and constructive, not
negative nor demeaning.) Response cards have been
shown to be more effective in raising quiz scores in
elementary and secondary school classrooms than
the use of the traditional hand-raising method to call
on individual students (Cavanaugh, Heward, and
Donelson, 1996; Narayen and others, 1990). These
cards also have helped increase on-task behavior of
disruptive, off-task students (Gardner, Heward, and
Grossi, 1994).
Choral responding. Request that all students
respond verbally in unison to answer questions or
imitate responses. If any student appears to have
difficulty, assist that student. Choral responding has
been shown to be more effective in improving
learning rates than the use of a more traditional
method of instruction in which the teacher praises
students for paying attention and asks the same
number and type of questions of individual students,
while calling on those who raise their hands (Sterling and others, 1997).
Flash cards. Use flash cards with a small group
of students, or pair students to practice accurate
responding. (Each flash card has the answer on the
back.) The instructor, or classmate, praises the
students correct answers (e.g., says correct or
right, good, youre doing great! and so forth)
and corrects errors. A simple error correction procedure is to say, No, the correct answer is
________. Then have the student provide the correct answer after hearing it.
Peer tutoring. Peer tutoring engages students
and provides the student with meaningful feedback.
It readily promotes generalization and maintenance
of learning across settings (e.g., different classrooms or in the home), times of day, and following
program termination. Not only do the students
skills increase but so do those of the tutors. Classroom behavior problems have been shown to decrease and interpersonal relations improve among
all students, including racially and ethnically different students, and between those with and without
disabilities. Peer tutoring has been used in preschool
through higher education. Students have helped one
another learn colors, shapes, language, math facts,
47
social skills, reading skills, social studies, calculus,

and many other skills.
If you want to set up a successful peer tutoring
program, work out the routine clearly in advance.
All participants should know who is to do what,
where it will take place, with whom they will be
working, what materials will be used, how long it
will take place, what to expect, and the purpose of
the lesson. When teaching peers to tutor, Greenwood and colleagues (1988) suggest the tutors:
Provide the tutee (a) repeated opportunities to respond (e.g., task trials presented by tutors); (b) immediate feedback and consequences (e.g., placing a
flash card on a pile or verbal praise); (c) remedial
prompts for incorrect responses (e.g., No, the word
is spelled C A T, write it three times); and (d) tutorcollected data (number of points earned by the
tutee).
Tutors need to be carefully trained and supervised as well as reinforced for carrying out their
roles. They have to be taught to:
Cue or instruct without overprompting, by not
providing extraneous hints.
Assess and score performance accurately.
Role-play and model.
Be friendly.
Praise, deliver rewards, and correct errors.
The progress of the tutors and learners should be
monitored and evaluated regularly to ensure that the
tutors are doing as instructed and that the learners
are progressing as anticipated. If not, the necessary
corrections or feedback will need to be implemented (e.g., correct and provide more frequent
feedback to tutors, change difficulty level of material or learner objective). In addition, SulzerAzaroff and Mayer (1991) point out that it also is
important to:
Resist the temptation to involve students as
tutors when the activity can no longer be
justified as educationally advantageous for
them, as in the case of too many repetitions
of instruction in the same content. Once
tutors have become very fluent with and have
sufficiently generalized concepts and skills,
they deserve to progress to material more
advanced for them. (p. 203)
48
In summary, to set up a tutoring program,

Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer (1991, pp. 202-203) suggest that the following steps be implemented:
Plan the program.
Train tutors.
Select and adapt curricula and materials.
Supervise tutoring sessions.
Reinforce tutoring.
Evaluate progress.
Revise procedures as necessary.
There are manuals available to help guide you in
setting up tutoring programs. Several are listed at
the end of this chapter.
Slow Responding
Once an examination of the students written
work determines that the student is accurate but
slow in responding, the next step is to help him or
her to perform the skill fluently. A performance is
fluent when it is well practiced, effortless, flowing,
and accurate. There are four major reasons for
achieving fluent performance. Research has recently
shown that fluent performance, like overlearning,
results in:
Increased task endurance (i.e., students who are
fluent with the task are less likely to be distracted and are more likely to engage in the task
for extended periods of time without tiring)
Improved student performance on related, more
complex skills (e.g., 4 x 8 = 32 will be useful in
the future with long division)
Improved long-term and short-term retention
A greater likelihood that the learned skill will
occur at other times and in other situations
To increase fluency, provide extra opportunities
for practice, while offering incentives to students
for beating their last score. Teach the skill and request practice during different times and situations.
In other words, fluency is enhanced by strategies
that incorporate practice and reinforcers for rapid
responding. Do not just provide boring, rote drill
activities. Try to challenge the students to beat their
previous times for answering a question, solving a
problem, or completing an assignment. For example, some teachers have used Quick Draw Math
to promote fluency in number facts.
To play Quick Draw Math, each student writes a

different number (0 to 12) on one of 13 separate
index cards. Two students are chosen to begin the
game. Each takes one of the cards, concealing it.
They stand back to back, approximately two feet
apart at the front of the room. When the teacher
says, Draw, the two students turn around and face
each other, showing the number each has chosen.
The first student to respond with the correct sum (or
product) remains at the front of the class. The loser
sits down. The winner then chooses another student,
alternating boys with girls (or a student could draw
a name out of a hat), to challenge. Some teachers
like to break the class into teams of four or five
students to play the game. However it is played, it
does introduce a challenge and encourages the development of fluency.
Consistent Errors
Repeated errors can be due to at least two factors: The student may not have learned one or more
components of the skill being taught, or the task is
not appropriately matched to the students skill
level; i.e., it is too hard.
Addressing missing skill components. As you
review the students written work, note the presence
of any consistent problems at some juncture of the
sequential steps. For example, with double-digit
multiplication problems, do they forget to hold a
place for the zero? Do they forget to carry? With
writing skills, are there specific rules that are consistently violated? Component skills that have not
been learned accurately will need to be taught before more complex skills can be acquired.
Addressing a mismatch between the assignment
and students skills. When too many component
skills are missing, the assigned task is too difficult.
Adjustments must be made in the students assignments to prevent failure. This will help students
continue to learn, continue to acquire knowledge,
and begin to experience success. The assignments
must change from teaching the skill that is too difficult for the student to teaching the subskills that the
student must know in order to eventually learn the
difficult or more complex skill. Supplementary
materials (e.g., teacher-developed worksheets,
manipulatives, visual aides, tape recordings, and so
forth) will need to be used. Help can sometimes be
obtained in meeting the students needs in this area
from district curriculum or resource specialists,
school psychologists, or sometimes from teachers

who teach at a lower grade or skill level.
Once in a while you may come across a student
who does not respond to the teachers best efforts to
help and appears to be functioning nowhere close to
the other students in the class. In these cases the
teacher should follow school procedure, such as
conferring with the schools psychologist or student
study team, as to what further steps might be taken
to best assist this student to develop his or her potential.
Self-management of Learning Skills

Teaching students to self-regulate their learning
can benefit them for the rest of their lives. These
skills help students to:
Capitalize on their own learning-style strengths.
Understand and learn new material or skills.
Integrate the new information or skills.
Use the knowledge or skills in different situations.
Thus, once students acquire self-management
skills, they are able to learn more on their own.
Perhaps this is why research shows that selfmanagement skills are related to increases in academic performance.
Students can be taught some of the many selfmanagement skills. The more common ones include
teaching students to select their own goals, monitor
and evaluate their own behavior, and select and
implement procedures for changing their own behavior.
Select Their Own Goals
Encourage students to formulate goals. Goals
give purpose and direction. They help to motivate
all of us to accomplish tasks. Goals can function as
a cue or reminder as to what we need to do. For
example, your long-term goal of becoming a teacher
certainly influenced your behavior. The short-term
goal of Today I clean my room is more likely to
result in the room getting cleaned than if there were
no such goal. Work with students to help them set
realistic, measurable short-term goals (e.g., Ill
spend 45 minutes on my reading assignments today
and at least 50 minutes tomorrow) and long-term
goals (e.g., Ill get to school everyday this week on
time or Im going to exercise for at least 30 min-
49
utes, four days a week, for the next two weeks). It

can be helpful, for example, to have students write
down their short- and long-term goals each day in
their journals (e.g., a topic might be what they want
to improve about themselves).
Monitor and Evaluate Their Own Behavior
When students monitor their own behavior, they
become more aware of it and are able to achieve
greater control over it. For example, to teach students to achieve more control over what they accomplish when they have a variety of tasks to do
within a limited amount of time, have them list the
tasks in order of importance on a page and check off
each one as it is accomplished. Similarly, if they
need to learn to remain on task longer, have them
measure the amount of time they spend on an activity and see if they can increase it gradually. Or, they
can record if they were on time each day, their frequency of remembering to raise their hand versus
blurting out, and so forth. When the student is motivated to change in an environment supportive of the
change, the act of monitoring ones own behavior
often results in improvement in that behavior.
Select and Implement Procedures for Behavioral
Change
Students need to learn to self-reinforce their
improvements and accomplishments. They can be
taught to compliment themselves (I did it, good
job! I think Im improving.) and to select nice
things to do for themselves (e.g., have favorite dessert, go to a movie, watch TV, talk on the phone,
and so on) after they have improved or accomplished their goal, or a step toward that goal.
It also is helpful for students to learn to selfinstruct or to tell themselves what they need to do
each step of the way. For example, in double-digit
multiplication: First, I multiply the 1s times the
1s, next I multiply the 1s times the 10s. I have to
leave a place for the zero. Now I multiply the 10s
times the 1s, 10s times 10s, and add the partial
products. Self-instruction helps students to obtain
their goals, particularly as they are learning the
task (e.g., To shift gears, first I press the clutch
pedal . . . I first make a right at the stop sign, go
two blocks, then . . . ).
Similarly, students can be taught to engage in
positive self-talk rather than in negative self-talk.
For example, after obtaining a low score on a test,
50
rather than telling themselves I cant do it or Im

stupid, they need to learn statements such as I
have the ability to do better if I put forth more effort.
Students also need to be taught how best to prepare the environment to accomplish their goals. For
example, if you want to diet, dont have your favorite dessert in your house. If you want to study, try to
find a room free of distractions (i.e., no TV, phone,
and so on).
Additional Instructional
Strategies
The previous material focused on the diagnosis
and remediation of instructional/learning problems.
A number of other instructional strategies should
permeate all instruction, including:
Minimize punishment and failure by selecting
learning activities and assignments for which
pupils have the preparation necessary to permit
them to succeed.
Provide very clear guidelines to the students as
to what is expected of them regarding an academic assignment.
Emphasize positive rather than only corrective
or negative feedback. Focus on correcting a few
skills at a time.
Identify the potential functions of the performance and capitalize on them eventually as
natural, intrinsic reinforcement. The ability to
read, for instance, permits students to be captivated by a fascinating story, play enjoyable word
games, follow instructions for constructing a
bike, learn dramatic roles, and many other reinforcing activities. When teachers recognize such
functions, they can incorporate them within the
curriculum as early as possible. Similarly, the
natural function of writing is to evoke a response
from the reader and/or ourselves: to amuse,
guide, inform, or move emotionally. Thus, have
students write directions on how to use equipment or on how to do something. Then, have
others try to do it. Have students share their
stories with the class and experience their classmates laughter following a funny story and so
on.
Take into consideration the students prior experience. Instructional materials are more successful when they are based on the students prior
experiences. For example, when working with
students from varied cultures, Dunn (1996) suggests that the teacher use culturally relevant
reading materials that include ethnic characters,
deal with universal issues, and include settings
and experiences with which students can identify. In addition, expose children to the culture in
which they currently live in order to expand
their horizons (p. 51). Be aware of using different races and gender in history, art, and other
classes.
Prepare students for the lesson. Introduce key
concepts first to improve motivation and understanding.
Incorporate success into new assignments by
interspersing items that the students already
know or that are relatively easy. This strategy
not only results in encouraging students to complete the assignment but also it promotes higher
levels of retention and fluency in that learned
skills are provided with practice opportunities.

A variety of teaching strategies must be used to
meet the diverse needs of students. The use of varied instructional strategies helps to prevent both
academic failure experiences and behavior problems. It is helpful to select instructional strategies
that address students:
Sensory learning styles
Level of motivation
Anxiety
Social skill deficits
Academic skill deficits
Self-management of learning skills
Before asking students to work on an assignment, be sure that the work builds on current skill
levels, that the key concepts have been reviewed,
and that the students show an understanding of the
material. The teacher should incorporate some previously learned material into the assignment for
several reasons: This method promotes retention,
develops fluency of the previously learned material,
and helps to make the current assignment appear

easier. (The students will find items interspersed in
the assignment that they can do easily, though not
yet to a level of fluency.) In addition, clearly communicate expectations in detail regarding the assignment. This will help to reduce confusion as to
who is to do what, where they are to do it, with
whom they can work, what materials they need,
how much time they have, and most importantly,
the purpose of the assignment.
When reviewing assignments, emphasize the
positive! To help accomplish this goal, the teacher
should focus on only a few skills at a time for which
to provide corrective feedback. This strategy can
help positive comments to occur more frequently
than negative comments. Plus, the students are more
likely to learn from the feedback and not feel overwhelmed or defeated. Completed assignments need
to be followed as soon as possible by feedback and
reinforcement. It is important to identify the natural
function of the performance and try to provide that
reinforcement. For example, the natural function of
writing is to amuse, guide, inform, or to move the
reader or listener emotionally. Teachers can provide
opportunities for such natural reinforcers to occur
by encouraging parents and other students and
teachers to read and provide reactions (stressing the
positive). Selected students can read (or show, if a
drawing) their work to the class. Finally, the
performances natural function or reinforcers should
be identified and incorporated as part of the instructional lesson.
References
California Department of Education. 1998. Reaching higher for equity and excellence: Standardsbased accountability system. Available on-line:
www.cde.ca.gov/iasa/standards/
Cavanaugh, R. A., W. L. Heward, and F. Donelson.
1996. Effects of response cards during lesson
closure on the academic performance of secondary students in an earth science course. Journal
of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 403406.
Dunn, R. 1996. Nineteen easy-to-try ways to turn
on students. Teaching K-8, 5051.
Dunn, R. 1998. How children learn: The impact of
learning-style-responsive instruction on students
achievement, attitudes, and behavior. National
Forum of Teacher Education Journal, 8(2), 39.
51
Dunn, R., J. S.Beaudry, and A. Klavas. 1989. Survey of research on learning styles. Educational
Leadership, 46 (6), 5058.
Gardner, R., III, W. L. Heward, and T. A. Grossi.
1994. Effects of response cards on student participation and academic achievement: A systematic replication with inner-city students during
whole-class science instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 6372.
Greenwood, C. R., J. J. Carta, and V. H. Hall. 1988.
The use of peer-tutoring strategies in classroom
management and educational instruction. School
Psychology Review, 17, 258275.
Narayan, J. S., W. L. Heward, R. Gardner III, F. H.
Courson, and C. K. Omness. 1990. Using response cards to increase students participation in
an elementary classroom. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 23, 483490.
Sterling, R., P. M. Barbetta, T. E. Heron, and W. L.
Heward. 1997. A comparison of active student
response and on-task instruction on the acquisition and maintenance of health facts by students
with learning disabilities. Journal of Behavioral
Education, 7, 151166.
Algozzine, B., and J. Ysseldyke. 1992. Strategies
and tactics for effective instruction. Longmont,
Colo.: Sopris West, Inc.
This manual is designed to teach teachers to effectively instruct their students by using four components
of instruction: Planning, Managing, Delivering, and
Evaluating. The manual guides the teacher through
each of the components of instruction and provides
step-by-step instruction on how to implement them in
their classrooms. The manual is written in an easy-tounderstand format and is full of interesting ideas for
the classroom teacher.
Greenwood, C. R., J. C. Delquadri, and J. J. Carta.

1997. Together we can: Classwide peer tutoring
to improve basic academic skills. Longmont,
Colo.: Sopris West, Inc.
52
Together We Can is a program designed to help

teachers utilize peer tutoring in their classrooms. The
manual is a comprehensive description of how to use
the program. It includes how to pair tutors, what subjects to teach, troubleshooting, and reinforcement
techniques to motivate the tutors and tutees. Included
are reproducible forms that can be used in the classroom.
improving instruction2. San Marcos, Calif.:
Western Image.
This book focuses on methods for improving classroom instruction. Chapters include the following topics: Handwriting and Spelling; Written Composition
and Oral Communication; Improving Reading Skills;
Improving Arithmetic Skills; and A General Strategy
for Improving Academic Performance.
Winebrenner, S. 1996. Teaching kids with learning

difficulties in the regular classroom: Strategies
and techniques every teacher can use to challenge and motivate struggling students. Minneapolis, Minn.: Free Spirit Publishing, Inc.
This is an easy-to-understand resource for every classroom teacher looking for answers to student learning
and behavior challenges. The book offers creative and
fun activities for students, including activities for
reading, writing, and math. Behavioral challenges are
addressed as well as teaching to match students learning styles. A large number of reproducible forms are
provided.
Young, K. R., R. P. West, D. J. Smith, and D. P.

Morgan. 1991. Teaching self-management strategies to adolescents. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris
West, Inc.
This is a manual for teachers who are interested in
teaching adolescents self-management strategies. The
manual includes an in-depth and easy-to-follow guide
to teaching academic self-management. It provides
reproducible forms for use in the classroom, including
an assignment planner and class performance record.
C H A PT E R 7
COMMUNICATING WITH PARENTS/CAREGIVERS
Parents and families are the first and most important teachers.
If families teach a love of learning, it can make all the difference
in the world to our children.
Richard W. Riley, U.S. Secretary of Education
TUDENT LEARNING IMPROVES WHEN TEACHERS
communicate with parents or caregivers on a

broad range of issues. Good communication is
central to cooperation and support. In recognition of
the importance of parent cooperation and support of
childrens education, the National Education Goals
2000 calls on every school to promote partnerships
that will increase parental participation in the education of children. There are numerous ways in
which schools can increase parental participation in
their childs education. This chapter looks at what
schools can do to foster positive parental involvement through clear and frequent communication,
clarifying homework, behavioral contracts, parentteacher conferences, and home visits.
Clear and Frequent

Communication
Communicating clearly and frequently with
parents can help create situations that will assist
parents in working more closely with their childs
teacher to strengthen all learning, including developing a home environment in which learning can
take place. Here are some suggestions to promote
closer working relations between the teacher and
parents:
Inform parents when they can reach their childs
teacher and how. Is it preferable that they telephone, write a note, set up a meeting, and/or use
e-mail? Is there a voice mail number that they
can use? What hours should they call? Should
they call the teacher at home or at school? Differences in culture and/or language barriers may
make some parents less comfortable approaching the teacher. In this situation it may be helpful
to get someone who can translate and help with
cultural differences to make an initial parent
contact with the teacher.
Provide parents with a list of important numbers
that they can place by the telephone. These
might include the schools main number, absence line, teachers contact number(s), voice
mail extension, counselors number, and the
numbers for other relevant school personnel.
53
Consider developing a parent telephone tree or

other structure to provide all families with current information.
Ask parents to use their first and last names
when leaving messages or when sending notes to
school to facilitate a quick response.
Listen actively and reflectively during face-toface and telephone communications. Face-toface communication is best in that much of a
message is communicated nonverbally. Face-toface meetings provide the opportunity to pick up
on the nonverbal communication. In any event,
let parents know that they are heard and understood. Paraphrase and summarize what they say.
If the teacher and parent speak a different language, involve someone who can translate and
who can help with any cultural differences.
Inform parents frequently about the good things
their child is doing. If parents only hear from the
school when there is a problem, the school for
them becomes a place to avoid. Some have bad
memories of school and feel intimidated when
discussing issues with school personnel. These
typically are the no show parents at parent
conferences and back-to-school nights. By informing parents about what their child is learning and the accomplishments and improvements
their child is making, it becomes clear that you
care and are helping their child. Also, they will
more likely return a phone call and want to help
when a problem does come up. In general, it is
best that contacts with parents begin and end
with commenting on something positive.
Make a special effort to communicate with parents and caregivers who do not initiate contact
or are typically the no shows. Making these
parents feel welcome in the school is the first
step to improving communication. Also, when
there is little or no communication between parents and teachers, both parties often interpret the
others lack of availability as being not concerned about the childs schooling and/or behavior. In reality, however, the lack of availability is
usually due to work and/or family demands.
Making that extra effort to communicate, then, is
very important in that only a small percentage of
parents have personal problems so severe that
they cannot work with the teacher, given the
proper assistance (Olson, 1990).
54
Learn about students family situations, languages spoken in the homes, cultural backgrounds, and life-styles through open house,
luncheons, picnics, evening coffees, and home
visits. This can facilitate communication between the teacher and parents as the teacher
gains insight into the students home environments.
Identify parents talents and interests. The
teacher might send a note home requesting information about the type of jobs the parents have,
hobbies, or any other specific talents and interests that they might be willing to share with the
class. Be sure to specify that the purpose of the
requested information is to identify talents and
interests that can be shared with the class. Or, to
help collect this information, you might want to
request that your students interview their parents
as a homework assignment.
Involve parents as assistants, specialized resources, experts, and in other volunteer capacities to help the teacher and students. Be sure to
acknowledge and honor such participation.
Make full use of options to enhance personal
communications. Visit homes, take advantage of
pickup and drop-off times for parents who
provide transportation; talk to parents when they
are on the school campus, send personal notes
home, and so forth.
Inform parents about homework problems as
soon as they arise. Parents are best able to work
with the teacher and the child if they know about
the homework problem before report cards are
distributed. Some teachers have found it helpful
to have the homework assignment audiotaped on
an answer machine for parents.
Parent/Caregiver Involvement
with Homework
Parents should be informed as to how they can
be involved with their childs homework. Chapter 2
discussed the difficulty level and the amount of
homework to assign and stressed the importance of
communicating with parents regarding homework
requirements and what they can do to help. Some
parents do not know how to help their child but do
want to be shown how they can help. Epstein (1986)
found that 80 percent of the parents would spend

more time helping their child if they were shown
how. Adding to the confusion for parents is that
different teachers have different expectations. Also,
parent involvement needs to change as students
mature and can assume more responsibility. Not all
parents or caregivers can help with homework to the
degree that would be most beneficial. Some parents
lives may be in turmoil, others are extremely busy,
while others do not place a high priority on homework. Parents and caregivers should not be expected
to know or teach specific information to their children, particularly as their children get older. Homework, then, can have both positive and negative
effects, as summarized by Salend and Gajria (1995):
Positive Effects
Can increase academic achievement
Can improve students attitudes toward school
Encourage students to learn outside of the classroom
Promote good study habits
Involve parent in the educational process
Negative Effects
Can promote negative attitudes
Foster academic burnout
Can provide opportunity for cheating
Decrease leisure time
Confuse parents, bringing disharmony into the
home
Create more work for teachers
Increase the differences between low- and highachieving students
Teachers should be aware of both the positive
and negative potential of homework. By carefully
monitoring potential effects, teachers can make
adjustments in homework assignments to help minimize the negative and maximize the positive effects.
Homework Suggestions for Parents

Below are some suggestions to give to parents
on how they can be involved constructively with
their childs homework.
Set a regular time to do homework. Often, the

best time is as soon as the student arrives home
from school. However, the time selected must
work for the family. The most important thing is
to establish a family routine.
Ask your child questions such as: (1) Whats
your assignment today? (2) Is the assignment
clear? (3) When is it due? (4) Do you need special materials or help? For example, a trip to the
library, access to a computer, graph paper, or
posterboard. (5) Is it a long-term assignment?
For example, a term paper or science project.
For a major project, it might be helpful if you
suggest writing out the steps or making a schedule with your child. (6) Would a practice test be
helpful?
Remove distractions. Pick a fairly quiet study
area with lots of light and supplies close by. A
desk in the bedroom often works well, but a
kitchen table or a corner of the living room has
also worked just fine. Be sure the television is
off and other distractions are kept to a minimum.
It is usually best not to allow TV, phone calls, or
friends over until the homework is completed.
However, a small proportion of students do appear to work better when there is light music in
the background.
Provide supplies and resources. The student
needs pencils, pens, erasers, writing paper, an
assignment book and/or calendar, book bag,
folders, and a dictionary. A computer is desirable. Encourage parents to check with the
teacher, the school counselor, or the principal if
they cannot provide their child with the necessary supplies and resources.
Look over the homework but do not do the
homework for your child. It is often helpful to
discuss the homework to allow the child to think
about what steps are needed to complete the
assignment.
Review with your child the teachers comments
placed on the homework.
Contact the teacher if there is a homework problem or need that you cannot resolve. Teachers
need to be flexible in scheduling meetings with
parents to discuss homework problems to accommodate inflexible job schedules and other
demands.
55
Provide praise for good work habits and satisfactory completion.

Always communicate positive expectations to
your child.
A Strategy for Homework Problems

If a problem arises with homework, work out a
solution together with the parent/caregiver and student. Counselors and school psychologists can also
assist with this problem. The strategy will depend
on what the problem is, how severe it is, and the
needs of the student. Here are some questions that
will help direct which strategy to use.
Does the student need to make up work because
of absences? The first step might be to work out
a schedule with the student and parent as to
when certain papers will be due.
Does the student need extra support? Many
students need encouragement, recognition, and
someone available to whom they can ask questions. If someone is not able to provide this type
of support, a mentor program in the community
might be able to provide it, with the student
being paired with an adult volunteer. Many good
mentor programs operate in schools, universities, community organizations, churches, and
businesses. Sometimes, too, schools offer peer
tutoring or after-school tutoring programs.
Is there a lack of motivation to do the homework? Here try a daily report card system or
another motivational program described in
Chapter 3, based on the selection of effective
reinforcers and the function of the behavior (see
Chapter 8). Or, behavioral contracts can sometimes be helpful. Behavioral contracts, which the
parent/caregiver, student, teacher, and possibly
counselor or school psychologist agree to and
sign, are discussed and illustrated later in this
chapter. Again, though, the selection of the reinforcers used in the contract must be based on
their effectiveness for the particular student.
Is there a lack of study skills? The student may
need to be taught how to organize the work by
setting goals and breaking the task down into
achievable steps. A lack of time-management
skills also may contribute to the problem. The
student may need to be taught how to schedule
his or her time and to remain on task for increas-
56
ingly longer periods of time. Teaching selfcontrol skills of self-monitoring, self-evaluation,

and self-reinforcement can be helpful here. See
Chapter 6 for a discussion of self-control skills.
Is the homework too difficult for the student?
Chapter 2 pointed out that assignments need to
match the students skills. See Chapter 6 for
suggestions as to how to approach this situation.
Might the student have a learning disability or a
handicapping condition, or is one suspected? If
a learning disability or a handicapping condition
is suspected, follow school procedure, such as
conferring with the schools psychologist, or
student study team, as to what further steps
might be taken to best assist this student to develop his or her potential.
When resolving homework problems, make sure
that the communication with the parents and/or
caregivers is clear. Follow up to find out how the
approach is working. If it is not working as anticipated, make sure that the approach is being implemented as agreed to. Often, when a program is not
working, it is not being implemented as designed.
This situation needs to be corrected. If, the program
is being implemented as designed, then it is probably best to seek further assistance from the school
psychologist, counselor, or student study team. Perhaps a different goal should be selected, a more
intensive functional assessment needs to be conducted, or a different strategy needs to be used.
Behavioral Contracts
Most students who experience problems completing their homework lack motivational and organizational skills to accomplish the task. Behavioral
contracts can often assist in this situation. They also
can assist with behavior management problems. Not
only do such contracts help motivate and help teach
organizational skills to students but also they assist
students to develop the self-control needed for improving a variety of behaviors, including the habit
of staying on-task.
Behavioral contracts stipulate goals (i.e., what
the student is to do) and procedures (i.e., how the
intervention, or reinforcement, will be implemented) with clarity and detail. This ensures that
everyone involved (e.g., teacher, parents, student,
and perhaps counselor, psychologist, or principal) is
aware of his or her mutual responsibilities and benefits. To be effective, though, Sulzer-Azaroff and
Mayer (1994) point out that the parties to the contract need to incorporate the following guidelines:
Stress the positive. Emphasis must be placed on
what will be done, not on what should not be
done (e.g., Maria will turn in her completed
homework, or Tyrone will arrive to class after
recess on time).
Request and reinforce small improvements. The
contract is designed to help the student succeed
regularly. Start where the student is and gradually increase the demand with subsequent contracts. For example, with a student who is not
completing any homework, start with the subject
matter in which he or she does the best and
stipulate that it will be handed in for three days
in a row. Subsequent contracts can increase the
time and involved assignments.
Clarify the terms of the contract. All involved
parties must know what is expected of them,
when, how, how much, and for how long. (See
following illustrative contracts.)
Reinforce the goal behavior immediately. Immediate reinforcement is important (see Chapter 3).
Immediate reinforcement for making the contracted goal helps the student to discriminate that
meeting the terms of the contract will result in
reinforcement.
Include an option to withdraw or modify the
terms of the contract. This is not always necessary to include in the contract, but it needs to be
clearly understood by all parties. There are several reasons why contracts might need to be
modified or terminated: (1) the selection of reinforcers may not have been adequate or a greater
variety might be needed; (2) the goal is determined to be too complex; or (3) all parties agree
that a contract is no longer necessary due to the
students continued improvement.
Weigh benefits and costs for all participants.
Itemize the immediate and long-term academic,
personal, and social benefits to the student,
teacher(s), staff, parents, and the public. Also list
costs in terms of time, money, effort, and loss of
power or control. If the costs clearly outweigh
the benefits, modify the program to make it
more practical.
57
Contracts can vary in format. They can range

from an oral agreement to an officially notarized
document. There is no ideal standard. Whenever
possible, students should be encouraged to help
Figure 7.1
58
design contracts. Several illustrations are provided

for your review. (See figures 7.1 to 7.3. Blank forms
are located in Appendix B.)
Figure 7.2
59
60
Parent-Teacher Conferences
Regular parent-teacher conferences (e.g., one to
three or more times a year, depending on the family) are an essential building block of home-school
communication. They are a form of personal, faceto-face contact and a time for listening and sharing.
Parents provide important perspectives and information that can be extremely valuable to the
teacher, and teachers provide important information
and can explain their grading criteria and report
cards to the parent. Thus, parent-teacher conferences can reinforce the idea of working as a team.
Moles (1996) points out that parent-teacher conferences are successful when teachers and the
school system create a climate that invites collaboration with parents. Creating this climate involves
effort and planning. The following tips by Moles
(1996) suggest ways that teachers can maximize the
effectiveness of parent-teacher conferences:
Prepare for the conference by developing a conference folder with samples of the students
work and any concerns and questions.
Send a personal letter or make a phone call to
arrange the conference well in advance, outlining a specific but brief agenda that will interest
the parents (e.g., the progress of their child).
Indicate that individual conferences are being
held with all parents and how important it is that
they attend.
Encourage parents to review their childs schoolwork brought home and bring questions, concerns, and comments to the conference.
Confirm the conference date and time by letter.
Create a comfortable and private physical environment with enough adult-sized chairs (chairs
should be at the same level) and no desk separating teacher from parents.
During the conference there are several goals
for the teacher to accomplish. A goal that should
guide the conference, as well as all contacts with
parents, is that of establishing rapport. Show that
you care about what the parents have to say and that
you are listening by paraphrasing (i.e., rephrase into
your own words) their comments. Emphasize the
positive by pointing out the special qualities of their
child. Share a brief anecdote or story about their
child, if possible. Encourage the parents to ask

questions and share concerns. In other words, communicate that you care about their child and have
the childs best interest at heart. As you do so,
though, anticipate and accept those parents who
advocate for their child. Do not interpret their advocacy as belligerence or criticism. They just want
what they believe is best for their child.
Pick one or two areas for growth and improvement to discuss with the parents. Do not discuss too
many areas in that the parents would likely become
overwhelmed. As these areas are discussed, involve
the parents in generating ideas and in creating solutions.
Close the conference with active steps. These
should address:
How will the parent(s), teacher, and possibly
counselor work together on identified concerns?
What are the parents to do and how can the
teacher help them?
What will the teacher do?
What is the best way to keep in contact with one
another, when, and how frequently?
After the conference:
Keep brief notes about the conference, including
any suggestions made and questions raised.
Remember and/or address parents concerns.
Contact other school staff where issues discussed involve their area of expertise.
Follow through and keep parents informed of
any steps that you or other school personnel
have taken.
Follow up with parents on actions that they were
going to take.
Follow up the conference with a phone call or
note to all those with whom you met to show a
commitment to working as a team.
Whether the parent-teacher conference involves
an academic or behavioral problem, there are some
basic dos and donts that should be followed when
trying to solve the problem with a parent. Walker,
Colvin, and Ramsey (1995, p. 280) summarize these
in Table 7.1.
61
Table 7.1
Dos and Donts of Problem Solving

Do
Stay calm.
State the problem using
clear and specific words.
Start by taking some
responsibility.
Dont
Blame the parent.
Go on and on.
Use educational jargon.
Step 2:
Brainstorm
solutions.
Stay calm.
Be specific.
Generate many
possible solutions.
Step 3:
Evaluate
solutions.
Ask parents to do things they cannot.

Skip advantages or disadvantages.
Step 4: Pick
a solution.
Stay calm.
Combine solutions.
Step 5:
Write an
agreement.
Stay calm.
Blame parents for failures.
Take responsibility for
success of intervention.
Be ready to try problem solving again.
Step 1:
State the
problem.
Stay calm.
Talk about the future.
Allow each person an equal say.
Start small.
Home Visits
Home visits can be a good way to (1) obtain a
better understanding of students behavior; (2) build
stronger relationships with parents and their children; and (3) improve students attendance and
achievement. However, they should not be used to
replace parent-teacher conferences nor should they
be used to discuss students progress.
Obviously, each situation has to be evaluated
prior to a visit. Sometimes a teacher can team up
with other teachers or student services personnel as
appropriate to the situation. The teacher should not,
of course, place himself or herself in a dangerous
situation.
The teacher can send a letter home clearly stating that the intent of the 15- to 30-minute visit is
62
Evaluate too soon.

Be defensive.
Lecture.
Bring up the past.
Stop thinking of new solutions
just because one sounds good.
Leave without a solution to try.

Give up.
only to introduce the teacher and family members to

each other. The letter might suggest that the family
think of special things their children might want to
share with the teacher (e.g., home project, pet,
hobby, a drawing, their room, and so forth). Also,
include a form at the bottom of the letter that parents can mail back to accept or decline the visit. A
phone call should be made to parents who do not
respond to the letter to reassure the parents that the
home visit is to get acquainted and not to evaluate
the student. And, of course, if the teacher does not
speak the parents language, a translator needs to
accompany him or her.
It is best to schedule home visits early in the
year in order to better know what to anticipate and/
or how to best work with the student. Unfortunately,
home visits can be very time consuming. Teachers
need the support of the administration if they are

going to try to do more than a couple of home visits.
This may mean, for example, that their schedules
might be adjusted so that they have the necessary
time.

A students learning flourishes through mutual
partnership, respect, support, and interdependence
among the home, school, and community. Teacherparent relationships can be the most critical component affecting the students learning. Thus, it is most
important to get to know the family and share the
accomplishment and improvements of the student.
When the major function of a parent conference is
to share negative information about behavior, academic performance, attendance, or progress without
solutions, communication with the home will
break down. It is important to show parents how
they can help their child with schoolwork at home,
to stress the positive, and to focus on possible solutions for the students problem area(s).
References
Epstein, J. L. 1986. Parents reactions to teacher
practices of parent involvement. The Elementary
School Journal, 86, 277294.
Moles, O. C. 1996. Reaching all families: Creating
family-friendly schools. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational
Research and Improvement.
Olson, L. 1990 (April). Parents as partners: Redefining the social contract between parents and
schools. Education Week (Special issue), 9(28),
1724.
Salend, S. J., and M. Gajria. 1995. Increasing homework completion rates of students with mild disabilities. Remediation and Special Education, 16
(5), 271278.
change: 3. San Marcos, Calif.: Western Image.
Resources
Barkley, R. A. 1997. A clinicians manual for assessment and parent training. New York: The
Guilford Press.
This manual contains a number of parent handouts to
assist parents with implementing daily report cards,
time-out, and programs that foster compliance, attention, independent play, and so forth.
Moles, O. C. 1996. Reaching all families: Creating

family-friendly schools. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Educational
Research and Improvement.
This booklet presents accumulated knowledge and
ideas on school outreach strategies. Within each strategy suggestions for action are made.
Read*Write*Now! Just add kids: A resource directory of learning partners, reading sites, and other
literacy organizations. 1996.
This resource directory lists local groups that match
up students with reading tutors and mentors. Among
the groups that help support the program are the girl
scouts of the USA, boys and girls clubs of America,
Bnai Brith Youth Organization, and Phi Beta Sigma
Fraternity. To receive further information on
READ*WRITE*NOW! and other literacy materials,
call 1-800-USA-LEARN.
Rich, D. 1994. Summer home learning recipes.

NEA and the Home and School Institute. It is online at: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Recipes/
These age-appropriate activities are ones that parents
can do with their children (kindergarten through grade
twelve). Each pamphlet offers reading, writing, math,
and science activities children can engage in with their
parents. Pamphlets for older children also include
social studies and health activities.
Sheridan, S. M. 1993. Helping parents help kids: A

manual for helping parents deal with childrens
social difficulties. Salt Lake City, Utah: University of Utah.
This manual is written for parents who want additional skills for helping their children with social
difficulties. It can be helpful as a self-help aid for
parents who want to learn more information and
skills, such as debriefing, problem solving, and transferring.
Walker, H. M., G. Colvin, and E. Ramsey. 1995.

Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and
best practices. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Co.
63
C H A PT E R 8
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED

INTERVENTIONS IN THE CLASSROOM
LASSROOM DISRUPTIONS AND MISBEHAVIOR
should be minimized if the teacher has

established an effective classroom organization; is appropriately using classroom management
strategies, including effective reinforcers; teaches
social skills that help students relate positively to
peers and do well academically; and employs instructional strategies tailored to the individual
learnerall of which have been discussed in the
preceding chapters. However, there are situations in
which students may continue to misbehave and do
not respond to general classroom management strategies. In these instances, it is important to identify
the possible causes for the misbehavior and to select
interventions that more specifically address the
causes of the misbehavior. This chapter addresses
that endeavor.
All types of behavior are learned. Most behavior
serves a purpose, a goal, or fulfills a need; the same
could be said for misbehavior. When teachers take
the time to conduct a behavioral assessment to determine that need, they can develop effective interventions and activities that truly improve the
students behavior and subsequently enhance his or
her learning opportunities. These teachers go beyond merely punishing students for misbehavior.
They search for probable causes and address them.
Some of the most common behavioral interventions, unfortunately, historically have used punitive
consequences, although much research indicates

greater success in changing negative behaviors
through positive strategies that specifically address
the causes of the misbehavior.
Punitive Approaches
Punitive approaches to misbehavior were once
considered the most effective means of reducing
students misbehavior. However, punitive approaches, such as reprimands, scolding, time-out,
penalties, and restitution, can foster other negative
behaviors and consequences. Some students respond to punishment with aggression (e.g., violence, assaults, verbal abuse, or vandalism) or escapism, which is evidenced by leaving ones seat,
tardiness, truancy, or dropping out. Punishment can
also lead to low self-concepts, negative attitudes
toward school, and other behavior problems. These
negative consequences of punishment have increasingly attracted the attention of policymakers and
have resulted in restrictions or bans against physical
punishment across the United States.
In California any intervention with students that
is considered to be corporal punishment is illegal.
Statutes and case law provide specific examples of
activities that are no longer allowed in our schools:
Corporal punishment that causes physical pain
(Education Code sections 4900049001)
65
Use of sprays, toxic or otherwise unpleasant

sprays, mists, or substances near a students face
(Title 5, Section 3052 [l] [2])
Assessment to Determine
Causes of Misbehavior
Denial of adequate physical comfort or access to

bathroom facilities (Title 5, Section 3052 [l] 3])
[
Teachers, with the assistance of specially trained

professionals, such as school counselors and school
psychologists, can begin to assess causes of misbehavior if they focus on three analytical components:
behaviors, antecedents, and consequences. Examining these three components can lead teachers
through a comprehensive analysis of a students
misbehavior and result in appropriate interventions.
For example, by observing the specific misbehavior
that occurs, the events that lead to the misbehavior
(antecedents), and the results (consequences) that
the behavior produces, the teacher can eliminate
certain approaches and find alternative ways to
reinforce positive behavior. The following questions
are useful in that assessment:
Subjecting a student to verbal abuse, ridicule or

humiliation, or excessive emotional trauma
(Title 5, Section 3052 [l] [4])
Locked seclusion (Title 5, Section 3052 [l] [6])
Any intervention that deprives the student of one
or more of his or her senses (Title 5, Section
3052 [l][8])
Requiring a student to remain in class during the
noon lunch intermission (Title 5, Section 3052)
Requiring a student to remain in class during
any recess, unless there is an adopted governing
board policy that specifies reasonable rules and
regulations to authorize a teacher to restrict students access to recess for disciplinary purposes
(Education Code Section 44807.5)
Recent research suggests that specific positive
reinforcement approaches are just as effective as the
more traditional punitive approaches, if the reinforcement approach addresses the purpose of the
problem behavior. This chapter focuses on how to
determine why a student is misbehaving in the
classroom and offers some hints on selecting appropriate interventions that address the causes of the
misbehavior.
Problem Behavior as a Form

of Communication
When teachers assess external or visible results
that are associated with a students behavior, they
can begin to determine the communicative intent of
the behavior; i.e., what is the student requesting or
protesting through the display of the behavior?
Some students learn early that certain problem behaviors result in a response that lets them achieve a
goal. For example, a student who wants to avoid
taking a quiz in class that would reveal he or she did
not do homework may begin an annoying behavior
that results in him or her being sent to the office or
to time-out. Or the same student might engage in
the same annoying behavior simply because he or
she has not learned to request help in a satisfactory
manner.
66
What factors in the environment influence the

behavior?
Why is the behavior occurring at this time in this
situation?
What does the behavior provide to the student?
What is the goal or function of the behavior?
Behaviors
The teacher must first identify the behavior that
needs to be changed and the positive alternative
behavior that should replace the misbehavior. The
more accurate the description of both behaviors, the
more likely that the students behavior can be addressed. For example, Mike becomes aggressive
during a math lesson and he either hits other students or throws objects at others. These behaviors
can be observed and counted, if necessary, to determine the frequency of the event. The teacher then
identifies a behavior that Mike should be able to do;
e.g., complete the math lesson without hitting his
neighbor and throwing paper across the room. The
positive behavior becomes the behavior goal that
also can be observed or counted. If the problem is
disruption to class discussions, the misbehavior
observed might be a student blurting out answers
without being called on and the desired positive
behavior might be the student raising his or her
hand and waiting for the teacher to call on him or
her for the answer.
Antecedents
In the next step of analyzing the misbehavior,
the teacher identifies what events usually lead to the
misbehavior and to the desired behavior. When the
teacher has the answers to the following questions,
he or she can better assist the student to respond to
situations in a more positive manner:
1. Under what circumstances does the student
engage in the misbehavior and in the desired
behavior?
2. Under what circumstances does the identified
misbehavior not occur? In those situations,
does the student behave in a positive or negative manner?
3. Does the behavior occur at specific times in the
day? If so, are there routine events that precede
the misbehavior?
4. Does the misbehavior occur only in the presence of certain people?
5. Does the misbehavior occur after certain
events that might occur in another setting (e.g.,
in the home, on the way to school, or during
recess or lunchtime)?
6. Does the misbehavior occur prior to or at the
same time as another behavior (e.g., working
on an assignment)?
7. Is the behavior related to a deficit in communication, social, or academic skills?
The answer to these questions might provide a
lead to understanding the precipitating antecedent
event(s) and identifying a successful intervention.
Consequences
If the teacher can identify what immediately
follows the misbehavior (i.e., consequences), he or
she can more easily determine what function the
misbehavior satisfies. Psychologists have determined that misbehavior can accomplish or lead to
specific, often unspoken goals or functions. These
functions include:
1. Escape or avoidance (Does the student want to
escape or avoid a specific activity or person?)
2. Attention (Does the student receive a heightened sense of recognition or attention from the
act?)
3. Material rewards (Does the student ultimately

receive items, access to activities, or food after
acting out? Are these material rewards items
the student actively seeks?)
4. Self-reinforcement (Does the student appear to
be comforted when he or she engages in repetitive physical behaviors, such as rocking back
and forth, sucking a thumb, or twisting ones
hair?)
The process of assessing behaviors can help
teachers identify which function or goal the student
is trying to achieve by engaging in the misbehavior.
After the teacher has determined what goal or function the student desires, these goals (e.g., attention)
can often be rearranged to be achieved through
more acceptable behavior.
Teachers must understand why a student misbehaves before they can develop and implement appropriate interventions. When they are able to assess the goal or function behind the behavior, they
can develop a response strategy that will lead to
new behavior. For example, in a situation in which
Nancy frequently leaves her seat, the teacher must
analyze if she leaves her seat to gain her teachers
attention. If that is so, the teacher might consider
ignoring the behavior and rewarding Nancy for
work performed while in her seat. If, however,
Nancy leaves her seat to avoid doing an assignment
that she finds too difficult, or if she leaves her seat
to talk to a friend, the same intervention would be
ineffective. The teacher needs to establish an intervention that addresses the desired goal or function.
The same intervention does not always work on the
same outward behavior. What is important in maintaining effective classroom management is assessing the goals underlying the behavior. (Refer to
Appendix C for practice exercises in assessing a
students behavior.)
Selecting Interventions Based

on the Behaviors Function(s)
Interventions that address the function behind
the misbehavior are more likely to effectively
change the behavior. The following section examines the common goals behind behaviors and provides possible interventions. Teachers, with the help
of their schools support services team, can then
67
identify the best interventions for a specific misbehavior.
Escape/Avoidance
Psychologists identify two items that prompt
escape or avoidance: (1) assignments, requests, or
tasks; and (2) social contacts. Students often use
misbehavior to avoid or have adults remove demands, requests, or other situations or activities
they dislike. For example, a student who does not
do well in reading might respond to a reading assignment by engaging in aggression or complaining
of a stomachache or headache to avoid doing the
assignment. In other cases students engage in misbehavior when they receive attention from another
person. They have associated the attention they
receive from that individual with some form of punishment and, as a consequence, they misbehave to
get the person to leave them alone.
Possible Interventions. If the teacher determines that the goal behind a students behavior is to
escape or avoid a specific task, he or she might
consider the following possible interventions:
Giving positive rewards for complying with the
assignment, request, or task.
Initially removing or reducing the task demands,
followed by gradually increasing the task demands once the student is achieving success.
Teaching students how to seek help when they
are confronted with difficult tasks.
Providing positive reinforcement for avoiding
the escape/avoidance behavior.
Teaching alternative, acceptable ways of escaping (e.g., short work breaks).
If the motive behind the students behavior is to
escape or avoid a specific person or group of
people, the teacher needs a different intervention.
For example, the teacher might have success in
changing the avoidance by pairing a strong reinforcer (e.g., food or special, fun activities) with the
person or group. This would help the social contact
to become less aversive and more positive for the
student. Teachers also might provide intensive reinforcement for social contact.
Cautions. In some instances, teachers unintentionally reinforce the very behavior they consider
inappropriate by selecting an intervention that does
not address the function that the misbehavior serves.
68
For example, students who seek to escape or avoid

specific tasks, demands, assignments, or people are
reinforced for their misbehavior when they are assigned to time-out or the task or assignment is no
longer requested of the student. Jim screams when
requested to do a difficult assignment. The assignment is terminated, or he is placed in time-out. Such
consequences result in his escaping or avoiding
tasks. Thus, if acting out leads to time-out, or removal of the assigned task, a student who desires
escape or avoidance will learn that he or she can
achieve this by acting out.
Attention-Seeking Behavior
Some student misbehavior is motivated by the
need to gain attention in the classroom rather than
the need for escape/avoidance. Therefore, teachers
must assess carefully the goals behind the behavior
before selecting an intervention.
Possible Interventions. Teachers confronted
with students who seek attention might consider the
following interventions:
Provide more frequent attention to the student
(thereby reducing the students need to act out to
get the attention).
Withhold attention, if possible, at the time of the
inappropriate behavior.
Teach and attend to alternative and acceptable
behaviors.
Cautions. When the goal or function underlying
the misbehavior is determined to be seeking attention, avoid using verbal reprimands and interrupting
or redirecting the students behavior. These strategies can make the attention-seeking behavior worse,
because they provide desired attention and thereby
reinforce the behavior. Also, teachers should avoid
frequent time-out periods. Time-out should be used
as an intervention for serious misbehavior and as a
last resort, because of its punitive nature.
Material Rewards
Misbehavior also occurs when students want to
obtain access to an item or activity. For example,
young children may have a temper tantrum in the
classroom because they want a toy or other item. If
the teacher gives it to them, the tantrum has served
a purpose. The success in obtaining the item rein-
forces the misbehavior and teaches the child how to

obtain other desired items.
Possible Interventions. Teachers confronted
with students who seek material rewards, such as
food or activities, might consider the following
interventions:
Teach or reinforce alternative behaviors to obtain a desired item.
Provide more frequent access to desired items
but not when the problem behavior occurs.
Use penalties, fines, or time-out (isolation) only
in a limited manner.
Cautions. The student must be denied the item,
food, or activity that he or she is demanding. If the
misbehavior results in access to the item or activity,
the misbehavior will continue to occur.
Self-reinforcement Behavior
Some students, especially mainstreamed or
fully included special education students who
exhibit repetitive physical behaviors, may engage in
self-reinforcement. For example, these students may
rock back and forth, suck their thumb, wave their
hands in front of their eyes when sitting in front of a
light, rub their nose or ears, or scratch. Although
these behaviors are relatively rare, or more common
among students with special needs, teachers need to
identify appropriate interventions that help redirect
the students attention.
Possible Interventions. Teachers can assist students who display repetitive behaviors that are selfreinforcing by considering the following interventions:
Interrupt the students repetitive behavior (e.g.,
ask the student a question or direct the student to
do something).
Help the student become engaged in an alternative activity that he or she enjoys.
Reinforce the student when the problem behavior is not occurring.
Cautions. Avoid withholding attention or placing the individual in time-out when self-reinforcing
behavior occurs. The individual is likely to continue
the self-reinforcement behavior while he or she is
being ignored in time-out.
Table 8.1, a revision of one developed by Mayer
(1996), presents the four functions and summarizes
some potentially useful and nonuseful interventions

for each function.
When to Assess Behaviors

Teachers cannot be expected to conduct in-depth
behavioral assessments on every student in the
classroom because of the amount of time required to
do a thorough analysis of the behaviors and underlying functions. Instead, teachers might reserve this
detailed assessment of misbehavior for students
who have not responded to the usual classroom
management strategies. (Refer to Appendix C for
practice exercises in conducting classroom behavioral assessments.) Sometimes, teachers observations will offer an initial clue as to how to vary
classroom management techniques and help students develop responsibility for acceptable classroom behavior. At other times, teachers will have
the need for a more thorough assessment. Teachers,
of course, should take advantage of every possible
support system when they assess misbehaviors in
the classroom. In collaboration with the schools
student support services team, teachers and counselors or school psychologists can devise a collection
of behavioral interventions so that all students in the
class can refocus on the instruction expected in the
classroom.

Behavioral interventions, based on the
behaviors functions or purposes, are becoming
widely recognized, accepted, and in some instances,
mandated by special education laws and regulations. The advantages of doing such assessments is
that they lead to more long-lasting effectiveness in
helping students develop appropriate behaviors.
Behavioral assessments are often time consuming, and as a result, teachers should reserve them for
students who do not respond as anticipated to typical classroom management strategies. However, as
teachers become skilled in behavioral assessments,
they often will be able to quickly determine the
function or purpose behind the students behavior
through informal observations. When teachers encounter a difficult, complex case, specialists on the
student support team can provide in-depth help in
assessing the dimensions of the misbehavior.
69
Table 8.1
Matching intervention to behavioral function
Function of behavior
Potential interventions
ESCAPE/AVOIDANCE
For Task Avoidance

Reinforce for Compliance
Teach How to Seek Help
Teach Acceptable Alternatives to Escape
Reinforce for Absence of Problem
Initially Remove/Reduce Task Demands and
Then Gradually Introduce/Increase Demands
For Social Avoidance
Pair Social Attention with Strong Reinforcers
Reinforce for Compliance
Reinforce for Absence of Problem
Teacher Should Avoid
Removing the Assignment or Requesting
Time-out
ATTENTION SEEKING
For Attention Seeking

Increase Attention for Appropriate Behaviors
Withhold Attention for Problem Behavior
Teach Acceptable Alternatives for Obtaining Attention
Use Time-out as Last Resort
Verbal Reprimands
Response Interruption/Redirection
ACCESS TO MATERIAL REWARDS

(Material, Activity, or Food)
For Access to Material Rewards

Deny Access
Teach Acceptable Alternatives to Obtain Access
Provide Frequent, Noncontingent Access
Use Penalties, Fines, or Time-out as Last Resort
Access to Material, Activity, or Food Following
Problem Behavior
SELF-REINFORCEMENT
For Self-reinforcement
Increase Access to Alternative Sources of
Reinforcement
Interrupt/Redirect Inappropriate Behavior
Reinforce When Behavior Is Appropriate and
When Problem Behavior Is Absent or Reduced
Withholding Attention
Time-out
70
Teachers must remember that in a behavioral

assessment, antecedent conditions prompt the misbehavior and antecedents must be considered carefully before selecting an intervention. Also, it is
important for teachers to remember that, within
each major function category (i.e., escape/avoidance, attention, material rewards, and self-reinforcement), there can be many variants to be identified
before selecting effective interventions. For example, if the goal is social avoidance, the teacher
and the student support team might discover that
self-injury occurs immediately following the attention from specific adults and not others. Or, if the
goal is to avoid a task, a student might be aggressive if the task is too long and not aggressive if the
same task is presented in small parts. Sometimes, a
change in the antecedent conditions alone can substantially reduce the occurrence of the problem
behavior. Thus, both antecedents that precede the
behavior and the consequences that follow the behavior must be analyzed during the behavioral assessment to clearly define the most effective intervention.
Occasionally, the misbehavior serves many purposes. For example, aggression might be used to
avoid doing math and to obtain access to a basketball in a different setting. The behavior is the same
with two different outcomes. To further complicate
behavioral assessments, what reinforces a behavior
can change over time. For example, a student uses a
problem behavior initially to avoid a difficult task,
and the teacher identifies an intervention that successfully reduces the behavior. Later the student
begins to again increasingly use the problem behavior although the teacher has consistently used an
effective intervention. Further analysis of the
reemerging behavior may show the problem behavior is now used for another purpose. Thus, when a
relapse in behavior occurs and consistently used
interventions no longer have the same results, teachers, with the help of the student support services
team, need to conduct a new behavioral assessment
to determine if new interventions are needed.
Conducting behavioral assessments are ongoing
activities, not one-time events. Continual assessments not only help to monitor the ongoing effectiveness of the intervention but also identify as early
as possible when the behavior and intervention disconnect. There is no one best intervention. Many
interventions are possible and, depending on the
antecedents, some interventions might be more

appropriate in various contexts.
References
Mayer, G. R. 1996. Why must behavior intervention
plans be based on functional assessments? The
California School Psychologist, 1, 2934.
Additional Resources on Conducting

Functional Assessments
Durand has written a chapter on Functional Assessment. ONeill and his colleagues have developed a manual as have Tilly and others (1998).
Functional assessments are integrated in the books
by Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer. And Wright and her
colleagues have written a booklet containing functional assessment forms and illustrations for implementing the Positive Behavior Interventions Regulations in California:
Durand, V. M. 1993. Functional assessment and
functional analysis. In Behavior modification for
exceptional children and youth (pp. 3860). Edited by M. D. Smith. Stoneham, Mass.: Andover
Medical Publishers.
ONeill, R. E., R. H. Horner, R. W. Albin, K.
Storey, and J. R. Sprague. 1990. Functional
analysis of problem behavior: A practical assessment guide. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994a. Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis for
school personnel. San Marcos, Calif.: Western
Image.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994b.
Achieving educational excellence: Behavior
analysis for improving instruction. San Marcos,
Calif.: Western Image.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., and G. R. Mayer. 1994c. Achieving educational excellence: Behavior analysis for
Tilly, W. D., J. Kovaleski, G. Dunlap, T. P. Knoster,
L. Bambara, and D. Kincaid. 1998. Functional
behavioral assessment: Policy development in
light of emerging research and practice. Alexandria, Va.: National Association of State Directors
of Special Education (NASDSE).
71
Wright, D., H. Gurman, N. Gronroos, B. Knight,

J. F. Mayer, K. Morton, M. K. Poulsen, and
T. Weddle. 1998. Positive intervention for serious
behavior problems: Best practices in implementing the positive behavioral intervention regulations. Sacramento: California Department of
Education.
72
C H A PT E R 9
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS
HE PREFACE OF THIS RESOURCE GUIDE DESCRIBED

the state of affairs regarding aggression and
violence in and near our schools. Students
aggress against other students, teachers, and the
school facilities (i.e., vandalism). Aggressive or
antisocial students are at risk for long-term negative
outcomes, including dropping out of school, drug
and alcohol abuse, higher mortality rates, arrests,
and relationship problems (Walker and others,
1995). Why aggression occurs was discussed in
chapters 1 and 8.Aggressive behavior is used by
students to get what they want from others, to escape from aversive situations, and to obtain peer
attention or prestige. In this chapter numerous strategies for prevention and reducing aggression are
presented. However, for the selected strategy to be
effective, it is important to determine what triggers
the aggressive behavior and what purpose the aggressive behavior serves for each individual student:
Is it used to gain access, prestige, or to escape; or is
it some combination of these functions?
Strategies for Preventing and

Reducing Aggression
Include Parents in Interventions
Aggression is serious. Therefore, it is important
to keep parents informed of, aware of, and involved
in the planning of any interventions that will be
used to prevent future occurrences of aggression.

Parents and/or caregivers must be actively involved
in conferences that also include student services
personnel. Their continued involvement must be
encouraged through follow-up meetings, phone
calls, and home-school notes. Parents often can
assist by delivering reinforcers for appropriate
school behavior at home. (See Chapter 7 for methods of communicating and working with parents.)
Remove Punitive Environments

As discussed in previous chapters, punitive environments set off or help trigger the occurrence
of aggressive behavior. Anything that you can do to
identify and remove aversive conditions in the
students school environment will help reduce aggressive behaviors. Examples of aversive factors or
conditions that you can look for to remove or minimize include (1) excessive use of disapproval or a
lack of approving statements by the teacher or classmates; (2) academic failure experiences; (3) excessive errors; and (4) changes in class routine.
Teach Appropriate Social Skills

Many students become aggressive because they
lack adequate social skills. For example, a student
who uses aggression to get objects from others may
need to be taught to ask politely and wait his or her
turn. Students may use violent behavior to remove
73
an aversive condition (e.g., to remove or escape

from teasing, berating, threats, or a failure situation). These students can be taught to ignore, leave
the situation, rebuff in a firm manner, and to request
assistance when appropriate. Students who act out
to obtain attention or peer recognition can be taught
other, more effective ways to obtain peer attention
that will not turn peers against or away from them
because of their aggressive manner. Such nonaggressive approaches to solving problems need to be
modeled, role-played, and reinforced. Social skills
training is often required (see Chapter 5). Also, a
related strategy was used by Brophy (1996). He was
able to reduce aggressive acts by convincing students that when they became hostile or aggressive,
they were manipulated by others into losing control.
Similarly, convincing students that the use of profanity is often the result of a limited vocabulary can
sometimes have similar outcomes.
Identify Behaviors That Signal a Potential

Escalation to Aggression
As mentioned, some students use aggressive
behavior in an attempt to remove aversive conditions in their environment or to gain attention. Such
behavior often goes through a chain of events or
stages before the actual aggression. The teachers
task is to recognize the chain of events and enter at
an early stage to prevent the escalation to aggression. Table 9.1 illustrates possible stages and interventions.
General strategies for dealing with aggressive/violent behavior. Walker and others (1995)
present the following general strategies for dealing
with stage two (middle stage) behaviors in the classroom:
Speak privately and calmly. Take the student
aside where you can calmly talk privately. Avoid
public statements or threats. Speak respectfully.
Avoid a cold, authoritative tone. Loud, public
talk will likely result in escalation.
Avoid using negative body language; e.g., pointing and/or staring at or crowding the student.
Avoid power struggles. Do not be drawn into I
wont! You will! arguments.
Be brief and stay with the agenda. Do not use
long-winded statements or nagging.
74
Establish an eye-level position when talking to

the student. If the student is sitting, then squat or
sit next to him or her. Do not tower over a student; it can be intimidating.
Terminate the discussion if the problem begins
to escalate. Withdraw from the student and
implement the schools emergency procedures.
Do not encourage students to redirect aggression
toward inanimate objects. Evidence shows this
only encourages aggression.
Acknowledge cooperation. Compliment for cooperation immediately, and praise cooperation in
follow-up situations.
Negative Consequences
Two commonly used negative or punitive consequences are described in this section. It is important
to note the effectiveness of these strategies depends
on the appropriateness of how and when they are
used. They can teach the student what not to do and
bring about a strong, rapid reduction of the infraction. However, because of their rapid reductive effect on the behavior, and the immediate relief they
subsequently bring the teacher, they tend to be overused. Remember, their use must be minimized. Reserve these consequences for intolerable behaviors
only; they do not teach how to behave and are more
likely to promote low self-concepts, aggression,
escape, and other antisocial behaviors. Thus, punitive consequences should not be used unless combined with constructive alternatives that teach how
to behave, as described in chapters 2 through 4.
Time-out
Time-out involves removing access to reinforcement following an infraction by either removing the
student and placing him or her in a nonreinforcing
environment or by removing the reinforcing environment from the student. Common examples include having the student sit behind a file cabinet,
just outside the classroom door, or in the office.
Also, one teacher handled a disabled students temper tantrum (this student was developmentally delayed and blind and was yelling and flailing on the
playground) by removing the rest of the class to
another area of the playground, leaving the student
TABLE 9.1
STAGES LEADING TO AGGRESSION AND POSSIBLE INTERVENTIONS

Potential stages
leading to aggression
Possible interventions
Early Stage: Student

may sigh; place head down
on desk or hold head in hands;
tap his or her pencil; break
pencil lead while writing.
Listen carefully to what the youngster has to say. Provide

nonjudgmental, empathetic talk, and supportive help with the
assignment, unless you have determined that the function of the
behavior is attention seeking. If it is attention seeking, communicate
that as soon as the student starts working, assistance and attention
will be provided. As supportive help is provided, if it is determined
that the assignment is too difficult for the student, adjust the
assignment as necessary (see Chapter 6). Also, at an appropriate
time, teach the student how to request assistance (which will
provide attention and reduce the aversiveness of the assignment
due to the explanation provided or the adjustment in the assignment).
Middle Stage: Student

may wad or tear up his or
her paper; slam book or
fist down on desk; refuse
to do assignment; criticize
teaching skills; yell, argue,
and swear at teacher
and/or other students. Intimidates or threatens teacher
and/or other students.
The suggestions given for the early stage may work, but if the
student appears too agitated, he or she may be asked to sit in
an isolated area (unless the function of the behavior is escape)
until the student has calmed down. Once calm, implement the
suggestions provided for the early stage. If the behaviors function
is to escape from doing the assignment, use proximity control,
empathy (verbalize to the student nonjudgmentally what he or she
may be experiencing at the moment), and offer assistance when
the student is ready. Offer choices as to when the student
might do all or parts of the assignment with assistance. Also,
eventually teach how to request assistance (that will provide
attention and reduce the aversiveness of the assignment).
Aggression Stage: Throws

chair or desk; attempts to
injure self, teacher, and/or
other students.
This behavior cannot be tolerated. Select punitive consequence

following guidelines provided in chapters 2 and 8, or implement
school emergency procedures. (Specific punitive consequences
are discussed in the following section.) Later that day, or the next
day, discuss and role-play with the student more constructive
ways of dealing with frustrating situations.
alone but within the teachers vision, until the temper tantrum ceased.
Time-out will only work if the time-out environment is nonreinforcing. If the student throws things
over the cabinet or makes noises that gain attention,
then time-out conditions no longer exist. Similarly,
if the student who is placed just outside the classroom door talks to the friendly custodian or others
while sitting there, time-out will not be effective. Or
if the student who was sent to the office helps out,
or hears the latest goings-on, again the environment is not nonreinforcing.
Time-out will only work if the environment the

student is being removed from is reinforcing. Some
students act out because the assignment is too difficult, or he or she is failing a task. If placed in timeout as a consequence, the student would learn to act
out to escape an aversive situation. In this situation
the teacher is teaching the student to misbehave.
(The function of the students behavior is to escape
from the situation, which time-out provides. The
acting out worked; it will occur again.) Never use
time-out when it will result in the student being
75
removed from an aversive situation. To use time-out

effectively:
Combine with other constructive alternative
procedures (chapters 2 through 4).
Remove all reinforcement for unwanted behavior.
Make time-in as reinforcing as possible.
Avoid opportunities for self-stimulation. (Some
children with autism and other emotionally disturbed children will use time-out as an opportunity to self-stimulate.)
Keep duration relatively short (two to five minutes).
Clearly communicate conditions as to when
time-out will be used.
Use it consistently.
Be able to implement and maintain time-out.
Time-out also has been known to cause public
controversy. As a result, Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer
(1994) have listed a number of safeguards to help
minimize adverse public reactions and to keep the
procedure from becoming unnecessarily harsh:
Review current policies and laws regulating the
use of time-out. Obtain the administrators approval before using the procedure.
Ensure adequate lighting and comfort. Do not
place a student in a dark room or closet devoid
of furniture with nothing but a cold floor on
which to sit.
Remove all potentially dangerous objects from
the time-out area, such as items that can be torn
from walls, objects with sharp corners, and anything that can be thrown or swallowed.
Be sure that the student can be observed at all
times to help prevent injury.
Set a timer to remind yourself when the time-out
period is over. If the student is left in time-out
too long on several occasions, the shorter timeouts will lose their effectiveness. In addition,
long time-outs result in a loss of instruction, and
students find ways of making long time-outs no
longer nonreinforcing.
Use a neutral description for the time-out area,
such as quiet area or relaxation room rather
than time-out booth. Time-out areas do serve
76
the purpose of quieting and relaxing people

whose behavior is out of control.
Continue to monitor and make available summaries of the effects of the program.
Penalties and Fines

Penalties and fines (sometimes called response
cost) are frequently used to stop misbehavior. Their
use involves removing a specific amount of reinforcers following an infraction. For example, penalties are used in football when a team is penalized so
many yards. Penalties and fines are in operation
when you have to pay a fine for a traffic ticket or
when a youngster loses some TV time for a misbehavior. In the classroom they are used when points
or tokens are removed contingent upon an infraction. To use penalties and fines effectively:
Allow for buildup of reinforcer reserve. Points
or other reinforcers cannot be removed if the
student has not earned enough. Also, be sure to
provide lots of opportunities for reinforcement.
Remember, it is important to make the classroom a reinforcing environment.
Determine the amount of the penalty or fine
ahead of time. To be effective, the amount must
match or exceed what the student has recently
experienced. However, be careful not to overfine. If the fine is too much, the student will
simply stop trying to behave or achieve.
Reduce emotional outbursts:
a. Clearly communicate costs. Involve students in setting costs for infractions.
Costs should be clear to students before
beginning this strategy.
b. Keep fines moderate.
c. Impose fines without fanfare.
d. Ignore or fine emotional outbursts and
reinforce alternative responses.
e. Do not overuse.
f. Return one-half of fine if the student
immediately returns to his or her work, or
penalize only from bonus points. Bonus
points are points students did not earn, and
fines are deducted from these bonus points
only. The points that they have left at the
end of the period or day are those that they
get to keep. The problem with the use of a
bonus point system is that the focus is only

on infractions, not on how to behave. In
contrast, returning one-half of the fine for
appropriate behavior helps to teach the
student how to behave.
Combine with other constructive, alternative
procedures to teach how to behave (chapters 2
through 4).
Maximizing the Effectiveness of Punitive

Procedures
To use any punitive procedure effectively, the
following guidelines must be followed:
Combine with positive, constructive alternatives.
Apply immediately following each occurrence.
Combine with other nonreinforcing conditions.
It is important to make sure that the behavior
being punished is not also receiving reinforcement.
Select appropriate intensity, duration, or magnitude for the students learning history. Increase
abruptly, not gradually. Also, use the minimum
that is effective.
Involve students, when possible, in setting rules
and selecting possible consequences.
Communicate rules clearly.
Types of Aggressive Behaviors

Various aggressive behaviors are discussed below along with a number of possible suggestions for
reducing and preventing the behavior. Many of the
suggestions are designed to remove attention, stop
aversive acts, and/or deny access (making sure the
aggressor does not benefit from such acts), and to
teach how to behave. The strategies selected for use
with a student who is behaving aggressively should
be based on the behaviors purpose(s). Once the
purpose of a students aggression is determined, it
then becomes possible to design a program to prevent future occurrences.
Bullying (Teasing, Harassment, and

Intimidation)
Bullying described. Bullying includes teasing,
harassment, and intimidation. Bullying among boys
involves themes of intimidation, power, domination,

control, threats to ones safety, and humiliation.
Tactics include name-calling, fistfights, extortion,
repeated physical attacks, and sexual harassment.
Bullying among girls involves themes of social
cruelty, deception, subtle rejection or purposeful
ostracism, character assassination, manipulation,
and hurt feelings. Bullying can come from an individual or a group of students. In fact, its organized
manifestation occurs through gangs.
Most elementary and middle school students (90
percent) and high school students (80 percent) report having directly experienced bullying (Hover
and others, 1992; Shelly, 1985). In the average elementary school classroom, two to three students
are afraid because of bullying. Some avoid the cafeteria, restrooms, and hallways to avoid being harassed (Garrity and others, 1996). Contrary to
popular belief, bullying occurs more frequently on
the school grounds than on the way to and from
school (Limber and Nation, 1998). Typically, the
bully-victim interactions have been established by
six weeks into the school year. Yet, most children
dont tell because they are afraid that the bullying
will become worse if they tell. Some victims dont
tell because they are embarrassed or ashamed. And,
an all too frequent response when they do tell is:
You are old enough to solve your own problems.
Work it out! Yet, victims of bullies are not old
enough, nor competent enough, to defend themselves. In addition, Arnette and Walsleben (1998)
point out that:
In this country, bullying has traditionally been viewed
as some perverse sort of childs play, its occurrence
usually eliciting the common phrase, kids will be
kids. Today, bullying is rightfully being recognized
for what it is: an abusive behavior that often leads to
greater and prolonged violent behavior (pp. 23).
Bullying is a risk factor for truancy, dropping

out of school, violence, and delinquency. In fact,
bullies are much more likely than nonbullies to
commit antisocial acts, including fighting, theft,
vandalism, drunkenness, and are five to six times
more likely to have serious criminal records by
young adulthood (Olweus, 1991). There are also
short- and long-term consequences for the victims
of bullying. Victims experience more physical and
psychological problems and are more likely to cut
school for fear of being bullied. Furthermore, studies suggest that chronically victimized students are
77
more likely to experience depression, poor selfesteem, and other mental health problems as adults
(Limber and Nation, 1998).
Interventions for bullying. There are compelling reasons why interventions are needed to prevent bullying: (1) its harmful and frequently
enduring effects on bullies and their victims; (2) its
high frequency among students; and (3) its detrimental effects on the schools learning environment.
Thus, both bullies and their victims need help in
learning new ways to get along in school. Schools
that are bully proof contain teachers who know
how to recognize bullying and how to safeguard
their students against it (Canter and Petersen,
1995, p. 121). Walker and others (1995) provide a
number of dos and donts as to what can be taught
to victims.
This includes teaching the student to:
Ignore the bullys behavior.
Leave the situation.
Rebuff in a firm manner (teach to be assertive).
Protect self.
Request that the teaser stop, and then walk
away; if this does not work, then tell the teacher.
Teach observing students to get help by calling a
supervisor or teacher.
Victims should be taught not to:
Cry.
Lose their temper.
Escalate.
Return the aggression.
Get others to gang up on the bully.
Tease back.
Call the teaser names.
Act hurt.
Sometimes bullying or teasing comes about as a
result of the victim not behaving according to social
norms or the dress code. He or she may exhibit
extreme behavior, such as tantrums, be athletically
unskilled or be very short, have few friends, be
insecure and unassertive, wear a hearing aid, or
have other atypical physical or behavioral attributes.
In these situations, sometimes an understanding and
acceptance of individual differences may need to be
taught to the class. It might also be helpful to pro-
78
vide social skills training for the victim, or see if the

victimized student (with the approval and help of
the parents) could be helped to dress differently, if
that appears related to the problem.
Bullies need training in anger management,
assertiveness, and other self-management skills.
Their behavior needs to be carefully monitored and
rewarded for appropriate behavior with clear, consistent sanctions for acts of bullying. Their parents
usually can benefit from a parenting skills class.
The single most effective deterrent to bullying is
the teacher. Many of the activities listed below, in
addition to the social skills training activities mentioned above, have been successfully used by teachers to prevent bullying (Olweus, 1991):
Post and discuss clear class rules stating how to
behave. (See Chapter 2 for rule development
guidelines; and consider adding rules such as
We will not bully, We will help others who
are being bullied by getting adult help and/or
speaking out, or We will make an extra effort
to include all students in activities. Also, be
sure to provide reinforcement for students who
follow these rules.)
Conduct class meetings to discuss bullying and
what to do about it. Have individual, serious
talks with bullies, victims, and the parents of the
involved children.
Provide close monitoring of cafeterias, playgrounds, and hot spots where bullying is likely
to occur away from direct adult supervision.
Pair isolated students with friends, outgoing
prestigious peers, and do not include victims and
bullies in the same group.
Develop a buddy system to pair each student
with a friend or older student with whom they
can share class schedule information and plans
for the school day. (The buddy should be someone on whom the student can depend for help.)
Be sure that the buddy has been taught the importance of reporting any instance of bullying to
teachers.
Involve members of the student support services
team in working with bullies through individual
and group counseling sessions.
Curriculum publishers now offer a variety of
materials on prevention and intervention to eliminate bullying from the school campus. At least three
criteria should be considered when selecting a program (Colvin and others, 1998):
Is the program supported by research?
Does the program emphasize teaching prosocial
behavior to replace bullying?
Is the program based on sound behavioral principles?
Place easily understood directions for assignments on chalk or bulletin boards and include
start-up ideas and/or examples.
Get the students attention, call her or him by
name, and establish eye contact before making a
request.
The additional resources section at the end of

the chapter provides a brief description of programs
to eliminate bullying. There also are several bullying assessment instruments available. (See Colvin
and others, 1998, for a review.)
Use simple, singular, direct commands without

additional complaining, threats, or nagging; e.g.,
Maria, please take your seat. Not: Maria, Ive
told you over and over to stay in your seat! You
were late and didnt hand in your assignment
either. What does it take to do as youre told?
Dont let me catch you misbehaving again, or
else!
Noncompliance: Refusal and Resistance
Use a quiet voice. Do not yell.
Description. Physical aggression by students

often begins with a teacher telling the student to do
something, followed by noncompliance of the student and escalation into a physical or verbal confrontation between the two. Aside from its powerful
role as a trigger for behavioral escalation, such interactions can damage the teacher-student relationship and lead to teacher rejection. Sometimes, too,
teachers avoid giving assignments or making requests of students who are noncompliant. What we
sometimes find, then, is the process of noncompliance operates to strengthen the resistant responses
of the child and the avoidance behavior of the adult
simultaneously (Walker and Walker, 1991, p. 114),
resulting in noncompliant students missing opportunities to learn. Thus, as Walker and Sylwester
(1998) conclude, student noncompliance is one of
the most frustrating, intractable, and time-consuming behavior problems with which teachers must
struggle daily.
Interventions for fostering compliance and
reducing refusal. Noncompliance usually occurs
when the student is not capable of doing the assignment, does not understand the request, is not feeling
well, is emotionally upset, or seeks to gain peer
recognition. Frequently, noncompliance occurs to
escape from a potentially aversive situation (i.e., a
confusing or difficult request) or sometimes to gain
attention. The following are suggestions for preventing and reducing noncompliance:
Limit the number of commands given to an absolute minimum.
Involve students in development of classroom

rules and/or policies (see Chapter 2).
Focus on initiating students actions rather than

terminating their actions; e.g., rather than telling
a student to stop conversing with Sara, use modeling as suggested below or politely request the
student to begin the activity. Noncompliance is
more likely as a response to a terminating than
an initiating request.
Ignore noncompliance if the student appears to
be in an agitated state. Express your concern:
Something seems to be bothering you. Is there
anything I can do to help? Would you like to talk
with me about it during break or after school?
Use modeling (see Chapter 4) to prompt compliance by complimenting those students who do
follow directions immediately (and then be sure
to compliment those who imitate the modeled
prompt).
Teach alternative skills; e.g., making a request
for clarification, compliance, negotiation, or
problem solving. (See Chapter 5 on teaching
social skills.)
Use behavioral momentum; i.e., the student is
more likely to comply with a request if he or she
has complied with a series of preceding requests.
Thus, present three to five simple requests that
the student is likely to comply with, praising
compliance. Then present the less preferred request and again praise any compliance.
Offer students the option of selecting a more
preferred activity after they perform a less pre-
79
ferred activity. Or, once a student has received

enough checks on a compliance sheet, he or she
may obtain access to a highly preferred activity.
Always provide enthusiastic praise for the
students compliance, even if initial guidance
was provided.
Remove the amount of assistance gradually to
ensure that the student learns to comply independently.
Disengage if the problem begins to escalate.
Move the student to a safe or neutral location
and discuss the matter on a one-to-one basis
during a break, recess, or after school once you
have both had a chance to calm down.
Discuss persistent refusal with the student in an
open, straightforward manner (not hostile), seeking his or her suggestions for a solution. Students in this situation are often as frustrated as
the teacher. They need to know that they are
respected enough for the teacher to seek their
advice as to how to solve the problem.
Some students come to school having been
inadvertently taught a pattern of noncompliance to
adult directives through the parenting practices to
which theyve been exposed (Walker and
Sylwester, 1998, p. 57). These students often require individualized behavior management programs to help them learn to accept the teachers
authority and to comply consistently (see previous
chapters for suggestions as to how to set up an individual program). It may be helpful to obtain the
assistance of the school psychologist or other member of the student support services staff who can
assist in designing a program based on the
behaviors function and triggers.
Profanity/Swearing
Description. Swearing often is used by students
to gain attention and recognition, particularly from
peers. It also can trigger escalation to aggression by
helping the student escape from an aversive situation or achieve access to some object or activity. In
any event it usually is disruptive to the classroom
and needs to be stopped.
Interventions. There are several interventions
that have been shown to be effective and others that
should not be used. First, we will review the Donts
and then the Dos.
80
DONTS
Do not ignore swearing in the hopes that it will
stop. Swearing is an aggression-related behavior.
Aggressive behaviors are likely to be imitated by
others, particularly the male students. But in
addition, peers will continue to provide attention
or reinforce the behavior. Thus, ignoring by the
teacher will not result in extinction conditions
nor the withholding of all reinforcement. Similarly, ignoring the student will often help the
student achieve escape, because demands usually cease if the student is being ignored. If the
teacher ignores the behavior or student, the
classroom disruption will get worse.
Avoid reprimanding, lecturing, or redirecting the
student if the function of the behavior is to gain
attention, because such acts result in providing
the student with attention.
Avoid overreacting. A student, or an adult, may
slip at times.
DOS
A number of interventions have been found to
be effective, depending on the function that the
behavior serves. These include the following:
Request students to participate in finding the
cause of swearing by asking them why students
swear. This can be done in a class discussion or
as a writing assignment. Include in the discussion the possibility of a limited vocabulary, in
addition to seeking attention or escape.
State that swearing is not accepted in the classroom and discuss why. Also discuss when swearing might be considered appropriate with the
help of the students.
Brainstorm with the class appropriate alternatives to swearing.
Use humor to defuse potential, escalating situations. (See Rockwell, 1995, for illustrations.)
Teach alternative ways to communicate frustration.
Reinforce the use of appropriate words.
Identify and remove triggers.
Involve the class in a reinforcement program in
which the class earns reinforcement for the absence of swearing (or perhaps, initially, for
lower rates of swearing). This will prevent the

reinforcement of peer attention because the
peers will pressure the student to stop swearing
to earn the reinforcement. If the student should
swear, and the class is successful in ignoring the
behavior, the class can still receive its reinforcement. If the behavior is being maintained by
attention, it is important that the teacher and
peers withhold their attention.

When working with an aggressive student, a
determination must be made as to what triggers the
behavior and what function(s) the aggression
serves. Is the student engaging in aggression in
response to aversive factors within the environment? Is there a lack of appropriate social skills?
Does the student engage in a chain of behaviors that
escalates to aggression? The selected intervention
strategy should be based on answers to such questions if it is going to be effective.
Two commonly used punitive procedures to deal
with students aggressive behaviors were introducedtime-out and the use of penalties or fines.
These are procedures that must be used with caution, and they must be paired with constructive alternatives to maximize their effectiveness in
reducing the selected aggressive behavior. These
procedures were followed by discussions of how to
prevent and reduce bullying, noncompliance, and
profanity. For additional strategies that can be used
with aggressive students, see the Resources listed at
the end of the chapter.
References
Arnette, J. L., and M. C. Walsleben. 1998 (April).
Combating fear and restoring safety in schools.
Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 13, 615. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Azrin, N. H., and M. D. Wesolowski. 1974. Theft
reversal: An overcorrection procedure for eliminating stealing by retarded persons. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 577581.
Brophy, J. 1996. Teaching problem students. New
York: The Guilford Press.
Canter, L., and K. Petersen. 1995. Teaching students

to get along: Reducing conflict and increasing
cooperation in K6 classrooms. Santa Monica,
Calif.: Lee Canter & Associates.
Colvin, G., T. Tobin, K. Beard, S. Hagan, and J.
Sprague. 1998. The school bully: Assessing the
problem, developing interventions, and future
research directions. Journal of Behavioral Education, 8, 293319.
Garrity, C., K. Jens, W. Porter, N. Sager, and C.
Short-Camilli. 1996. Bully-proofing your school.
Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West.
Hover, J. H., R. Oliver, and R. J. Hazler. 1992. Bullying: Perceptions of adolescent victims in Midwestern USA. School Psychology International,
13, 516.
John, B. H., and V. G. Carr. 1995. Techniques for
managing verbally and physically aggressive
students. Denver, Colo.: Love Publishing Company.
Limber, S. P., and M. M. Nation. 1998 (April). Bullying among children and youth. Juvenile Justice
Bulletin, 13, 615. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice
and Delinquency Prevention.
Mack, D. 1978. Stealing! Teacher, 95(5), 7274.
Mayer, G. R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior
Analysis, 28, 467-478.
Olweus, D. 1991. Bully/victim problems among
schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a
school-based intervention program. In The development and treatment of childhood aggression.
Edited by D. Pepler and K. Rubin. Hillsdale,
N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Patterson, G. R. 1982. Coercive family processes.
Eugene, Ore.: Castalia.
Rockwell, S. 1995. Back off, cool down, try again:
Teaching students how to control aggressive behavior. Reston, Va.: The Council for Exceptional
Children.
Shelly, L. 1985. American crime: An international
anomaly. Comparative Social Research, 8,
8195.
81
Switzer, E. B., T. E. Deal, and J. S. Bailey. 1977.
The reduction of stealing in second graders using
a group contingency. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 267272.
Walker, H. M., G. Colvin, and E. Ramsey. 1995.
Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and
best practices. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks/Cole
Publishing Co.
Walker, H. M., and R. Sylwester. 1998. Reducing
students refusal and resistance. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30 (6), 5258.
Walker, H. M., and J. E. Walker. 1991. Coping with
noncompliance in the classroom. Austin, Tex.:
Pro-Ed.
Resources
Canter, L., and K. Petersen. 1995. Teaching students
to get along: Reducing conflict and increasing
cooperation in K-6 classrooms. Santa Monica,
Calif.: Lee Canter & Associates.
Chapter 7 addresses Standing Up to Bullying Behavior. At the end of the chapter are classroom lessons
for students on Identifying Bullying Behavior, and
Responding to Bullying Behavior.
Garrity, C., K. Jens, W. Porter, N. Sager, and C.

Short-Comilli. 1994. Bully-proofing your school.
Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West.
Key elements of this program include conflict resolution training for all staff members, social skills building for victims, positive leadership skills training for
bullies, intervention techniques for those who neither
bully nor are bullied, and the presence of parental
support.
Goldstein, A. P., J. Palumbo, S. Streipling, and A.

Voutsinas. 1995. Break it up: A teachers guide to
managing student aggression. Champaign, Ill.:
Research Press.
This book outlines physical intervention techniques
that can be used to break up fights as well as defuse
aggressive incidents. It also offers teachers ideas on
how to prevent classroom aggression. This is a practical manual written for teachers and includes narratives
written by teachers describing aggressive incidents
that have occurred in their classrooms.
82
Greenbaum, S., B. Turner, and R. D. Stephens. 1988.

Get straight on bullies. Malibu, Calif.: National
School Safety Center.
The authors provide a student survey on bullies that
will help provide a clear picture of the extent of the
problem in a class or school and the characteristics of
the students involved.
Hall, V. H., and M. L. Hall. 1998. How to use timeout. Austin, Tex.: Pro-Ed.
A small practical booklet in which the title is selfexplanatory.
Huggins, P. 1993. The ASSIST program: Helping

kids handle anger. Longmont, Colo.: Sopris West.
The ASSIST program is designed for the classroom
teacher. It contains 15 lessons for students in both
primary and secondary grades in handling anger appropriately. The lessons are fun for kids and address recognizing feelings, self-talk, problem solving,
communicating anger, and put-downs. The manual
includes sentence starters teachers can use to promote
discussion, weekly class agendas, rules for lesson
discussions, finger puppet cutouts, art and writing
activities, and posters to display in the classroom.
Johnson Institute. 1996. The no-bullying program:

Preventing bully/victim violence at school. Minneapolis, Minn.: Johnson Institute.
This program pinpoints the tell or tattle dilemma
facing many victims of bullying. Teachers are given
step-by-step guidelines on how to teach students the
difference between telling and tattling. Teachers also
are shown how to establish and use immediate consequences when dealing with bullies.
National School Safety Center. 4165 Thousand Oaks

Boulevard, Suite 290, Westlake Village, CA
91362. 805-373-9977. Fax: 805-373-9277.
This resource can provide conflict resolution consultation and training resources plus other services related
to school safety.
Rockwell, S. 1995. Back off, cool down, try again:

Teaching students how to control aggressive behavior. Reston, Va.: The Council for Exceptional
Children.
This book offers teachers a look at methods of teaching
interpersonal skills within a classroom as well as strategies that help de-escalate emotionally charged situations. This resource provides sample lesson plans,
behavior management forms, suggestions for classroom reinforcers, and a step-by-step guide to teaching
social skills in the classroom.
Sharp, S., and S. K. Smith. 1994. Tackling bullying

in your school: A practical handbook for teachers. New York: Routledge.
This book is designed for teachers to use in their
classrooms but includes whole-school interventions as
well. Included is a survey to be used in the classroom
to identify the extent of the problem and identify bullies and victims. Tips are provided for developing
your own survey. Curriculum ideas are included as
well as scripts to use when meeting with a bully and a
victim after an incident of bullying. This is a handy
resource for teachers interested in implementing class
meetings and curriculum interventions to deal with the
problem of bullying.
Sjostrom, L., and N. Stein. 1996. Bullyproof: A

teachers guide on teasing and bullying for use
with fourth and fifth grade students. Wellesley,
Mass.: Wellesley College Center for Research on
Women and the NEA professional library.
This book offers 11 lessons to be taught in the classroom on the subject of bullying. Included are writing
activities, reading assignments, class discussions, role
plays, and homework assignments.
This book reviews a variety of programs, including
strategies for preventing and reducing vandalism, as
they apply to the classroom and school.
Thidadeau, S. F. 1998. How to use response cost.

The title of this small practical booklet is self-explanatory.
U.S. Office of Education. 1998 (August). Early

warning, timely response: A guide to safe
schools.
This guide can help teachers, parents, principals, and
school district leaders prevent violence in schools. It
tells school communities what to look for and what to
do to prevent violence, when to intervene and get help
for troubled children, and how to respond when violent situations occur. The guide is available by calling
1-877-4ED-PUBS, or it also is on-line at: http://
www.ed.gov/offices/OSERS/OSEP/earlywrn.html
This text reviews reductive procedures as they apply
to the classroom, agencies, and home.
83
C H A PT E R 1 0
OTHER PROBLEM BEHAVIORS
HE MORE STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES THAT A
teacher has to address problem behavior, the

more successful that teacher is likely to be
with a variety of students. This chapter addresses
attendance problems (being tardy, truant, cutting
class, and leaving the school grounds without permission); honesty and lying; inattention (including
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder); various
problem behaviors organized in an easy reference
chart; and substance abuse problems so that the
teacher can recognize the symptoms and take appropriate action.
Attendance Problems
The first step in addressing a students attendance problems is to do a behavioral assessment
(see Chapter 8). Many but not all attendance problems are escape reactions to an unsatisfying school
environment. Factors that contribute to unsatisfying
school environments include excessive use of punishment, unclear rules and policies, assignments that
are too difficult for the student (or a skill deficit),
the presence of gangs and weapons on campus,

bullying, poor school spirit, vandalism, lack of appropriate social skills in how to interact with teachers and peers, and high faculty absenteeism.
Anything that can be done to identify and then
minimize or eliminate the factors that are contributing to a particular students attendance problems
can help reduce attendance problems.
Sometimes, rather than being a result of negative experiences in school, attendance problems are
a result of familial or peer pressures. For example,
the student may be required to stay home and help
baby-sit or do things with a parent. At other times
the student might choose to get together with some
friends or gang members to hang out together,
smoke, do drugs, steal, shop, and so forth. In any
event a determination needs to be made as to the
reason(s) for the problem before an effective intervention can be designed.
This section describes strategies that can be used
for preventing and reducing several attendance
problems: being tardy, cutting class, leaving the
school grounds without permission, and truancy.
85
Being Tardy
Being late to class is a common problem. Usually, though, it is a problem that can be remedied
fairly easily. The following activities have been
used to help reduce tardies:
Send letters home informing parents that their

child has been tardy regularly and send letters
home commending demonstrated improvement.
(See sample note home to parents in Figure
10.1.)
Award a field trip to the class that has the best
record of punctuality for two weeks.
Greet the students at the door.

Quickly get students involved in a preferred
activity.
Erase one tardy mark in record book after five
consecutive days of on-time attendance and
praise and recognize on-time attendance.
Post a chart in the classroom that displays the
points earned by each student for being on time.
Students can self-record a point each time they
arrive to class on time. Points go toward special
reinforcers (see Chapter 3).
Write an answer or two to an upcoming quiz or
homework assignment on the board before the
beginning of the period, erasing it when the
tardy bell rings.
Award all students who are punctual nine times

out of ten with a free ticket to the school dance,
movie, and so forth.
Award all students who have perfect on-time
attendance for two weeks with an activity in a
special room during that period; e.g., film showing, a talent show, a fashion show or sewing
project by the home economics classes, and so
forth.
Congratulate winners in a weekly bulletin and
call and congratulate parents.
Figure 10.1
A SAMPLE LETTER TO PARENTS FOR IMPROVED ATTENDANCE*
Dear Parents,
I am happy to inform you that your son/daughter, _____________________________,
has been on time to ___ period for ___ days in a row. This is marked improvement.
I anticipate that he/she will experience greater success in class as a result. Thank you for
working together with your child and the school to achieve and maintain improved attendance.
Sincerely,
Teacher
*Adopted from Sulzer-Azaroff and Mayer, 1994.
86
Cutting Class, Leaving Grounds Without

Permission,Truancy
Cutting class, leaving the school grounds without permission, and truancy are indicators that the
student is at risk and needs help. These behaviors
probably occur much more frequently than school
records indicate. One reason for this situation is that
some students have learned to beat the system and
are able to cut class, and sometimes school, without
being discovered. These methods include
(Gonzales, 1987, p. 38):
Coming to school late, picking up late card, then
not reporting to class. Pupils will not be on the
absent list.
Stating that teachers, administrators, or office
staff detained them on the way to class.
Reporting to the office without a pass during
passing periods and not notifying secretaries.
Such pupils often wait one or two periods without letting anyone know they are there.
Stating they have a counseling appointment.
Going to the nurse without a pass. Often there is
no real problem.
Stating that they have music lessons, band, or
stage crew.
Encouraging pupils taking roll to declare them
present, especially with substitutes.
Taking advantage of substitutes not familiar with
routine.
Getting sent to the office with referral, then not
showing up.
Claiming they are pupil aides.
Leaving classes to go to lockers or bathroom
without permission slips.
Interventions
By helping to close some of the preceding loopholes that allow students to cut class, you can help
prevent subsequent absenteeism problems. Some of
these methods also can be stopped if attendance is
taken every period. Additional strategies include:
Schedule an interview as soon as possible with
students who have been truant or cut class more
than once and start a functional assessment (see
Chapter 8).
Involve parents. If families and schools are to

work together on attendance problems, there
must be mutual trust and communication. The
program that the school and family jointly work
out for the student may include intensive monitoring, counseling, and/or various family services, including parent training.
Communicate frequently with parents to inform
them of the progress. Phone calls and daily report cards (see Chapter 3) are helpful means of
communication.
Implement a peer tutoring or mentoring program
to help the student develop friendships in the
classroom and obtain assistance with academic
skills. If your school has a peer helping program,
discuss referring the student.
Involve the student in extracurricular activities
and or clubs on campus.
Avoid punishing the student when she or he
returns to school. Punishment can increase the
aversive nature of the school environment and
might further the absenteeism problems.
Communicate that the student is welcomed
back!
Consider using daily report cards (see Chapter 3)
or a behavioral contract (see Chapter 7).
Reinforce the students improvement in attendance by issuing award certificates, calling
home to compliment parents, and providing
access to special reinforcers.
Consider establishing a reentry program for
chronically truant students. This is a special
class set up to provide students who have been
chronically truant with intensive instruction in
the subject areas in need of remediation, to help
them catch up to their classmates, and to assist
them in learning needed social skills for interacting with teachers and peers.
Honesty and Lying

Description
There are different types of lying. Some lies are
considered socially acceptable by many people,
such as telling a lie to make someone else feel
good about themselves, embellishing a funny story,
or excluding information in order to protect some-
87
one from harm (Godber, 1998). Excessive lying,

particularly when it lacks a pro-social motive, needs
to be addressed. Lies erode trust, and people tend
not to maintain social relationships, or friendships,
with those they cannot trust. In addition, adolescents who have had the chance to develop into
masters of deception tend to put themselves at
greater risk for potentially harmful activities
(Godber, 1998).
For youngsters in many situations, lying receives reinforcement, usually through escape or
avoidance and sometimes by achieving access to
some desired item or activity or by obtaining attention. As Stokes and Osnes (1991) point out: All too
often, a child or adolescent is taught that there are
payoffs for lying and cheating, and some of those
rewards are so powerful that the child may develop
a history of reinforced deviance (p. 617). In other
words, honesty or lying occurs as a result of the
models the student has observed and particularly the
consequences that the student has experienced.
Interventions
To increase honesty and decrease lying:
Identify the reinforcers that support honesty and
lying by doing a functional assessment (see
Chapter 8).
Identify situations in which correspondence can
be determined between what the student and
others have done and what the student reports
that they have done (do/say correspondence).
Similarly, identify situations in which the student says or promises that she or he will do
something and actually does it (say/do correspondence). The truthfulness of student reports
will need to be monitored.
Use the identified reinforcers to reinforce correspondence between what a student says or promises and then does (say/do) and between how
honestly a student reports what he observed or
did (do/say). In other words, if a student says he
will try to pay attention and does, reinforce the
correspondence. If a student does pay attention
and informs you that he or she did, reinforce.
Reinforce only when there is say/do or do/say
correspondence. Do not reinforce when correspondence cannot be identified or lying is suspected.
88
Reinforce both types of correspondence. If the

objective is to teach students to do what they
promise and to report honestly about what they
did, then both types of correspondence will need
to be reinforced. Teaching one type of correspondence does not usually result in the other
occurring. Thus, if a student says she will play
with a particular friend and does, reinforce the
promised deed. If the student said she played
with a particular friend and she did, reinforce the
honest statement.
Use modeling by reinforcing a models honest
reporting during sharing.
Discuss with the class why it is important to tell
the truth and not lie. Be sure to solicit reasons
from the students. Discuss the social consequences of lying and how easy lying can destroy
trust. This activity is important but must be
paired with reinforcement of correspondence
between say/do and do/say as described above to
be effective. In other words, students must not
only hear but also experience the rationale or
reasons given for the behavior.
Train many instances of correspondence under
many circumstances.
Implement maintenance, as with any behavior
that has become proficient, by gradually thinning or reducing the extrinsic reinforcers, modeling illustrations, and other reminders. Once
correspondence is well established, reinforcement can be provided for statements of what will
occur and what has happened without always
needing evidence of correspondence.
Avoid using threats of punishment when the
probability of detection is small and the outcome
or payoff for the student is large, because they
do not work to reduce lying (Miller, 1987).
Correspondence training also can be used to
help students learn to evaluate their own school
work. Many students appear to not comprehend the
criteria their teachers use to evaluate their school
work and as a result, continue to repeat errors. Reinforce for close or appropriate matches between the
students evaluation of his or her paper and the
teachers evaluation of the same paper. A similar
strategy can be used to obtain greater accuracy or
honesty when students are asked to grade their own
work (i.e., rescore their papers from time to time to
check their scoringinitially very frequently

adding points for truthful grading and taking away
points for cheating).
Inattention and ADHD

Description
The most severe form of inattention is called
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Though most inattention problems interfere with
social relationships and academic achievement,
ADHD students also often demonstrate learning
difficulties, noncompliance, and physical aggression. ADHD is extremely common, affecting approximately 4 to 12 percent of all students, and the
vast majority are educated in the regular classroom.
Characteristics of ADHD students include:
Fidgeting
Squirming in seat
Frequently leaving seat
Easily distractible
Difficulty awaiting turn
Blurting out answers before question is completed
Failing to complete or persist on tasks
Talking excessively
Interrupting often
Appearing not to listen to what is being said to
him or her
Losing things often that are necessary for tasks
or activities (pencil, book, assignment, completed work)
Acting impulsively
Diagnosis of ADHD by psychologists and physicians is most frequently based on observations,
history, and behavior reports from people who know
the student well. The teachers observations are
very important. ADHD is diagnosed approximately
six times as often in boys as it is in girls (Ross and
Ross, 1982). The primary cause appears to be biological factors; e.g., neurological and genetic. In
fact, a recent article in The New England Journal of
Medicine (Zametkin and Ernst, 1999) points out that
investigations using magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) have shown significant differences in brain

structure between healthy controls and individuals
with ADHD. Antecedents and consequences, while
not important etiologically, also directly affect the
severity of the levels of inattention and hyperactivity demonstrated by the student.
There is no known cure for ADHD and there is
no single intervention method (e.g., stimulant medication) that is sufficient in providing short- or
long-term relief to ADHD children (DuPaul and
others, 1991). However, general education classroom accommodation plans are required by Section
504 of the Vocational and Rehabilitation Act of
1973 and the Individual with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) of 1997 to ensure that children with
ADHD are provided free and appropriate education.
The primary interventions that have documented
effectiveness in enhancing student performance
include psychotropic medications (e.g., central nervous system stimulants), behavior analysis, and
their combination. However, because psychotropic
medications are intrusive and can have negative
side effects, it is best to do a functional assessment
and try appropriate behavioral interventions prior to
considering suggesting medical treatment.
Behavioral interventions have been shown to be
very effective in treating ADHD. In fact, Zametkin
and Ernst (1999) point out: In our experience, the
most common cause of the failure of patients with
ADHD to respond to behavioral approaches such as
positive reinforcement, loss privileges, and time-out
is incorrect implementation.
There are two reasons for conducting a functional assessment: the student may not have ADHD
(many students appear to be misdiagnosed with
ADHD because they demonstrate similar characteristics when they have a history of trying to escape
from aversive situations in the classroom); or if the
student does have ADHD, it may be possible that
the behavioral interventions alone may resolve the
problem sufficiently. Below we present interventions that teachers can try that have been shown
effective in ameliorating the behavioral problems
for many students diagnosed with ADHD and related inattention problems.
Interventions
DuPaul and others (1991), Bohlmeyer and others (1998), and Yehle and Wambold (1998) list several guidelines that apply to most any program that
89
might be designed for working with a child with

ADHD. These include:
Conduct a behavioral assessment to guide the
selection of the intervention components (see
Chapter 8).
Arrange the physical environment to minimize
distractions. Seat the student near front of classroom in low-traffic area. Shut the classroom
door to minimize auditory distractions. Allow
the student to get up and move around when
appropriate.
Establish and clearly communicate clear classroom rules (see Chapter 2).
Provide frequent, specific feedback to optimize
their performance. Children with ADHD appear
to require more frequent and specific feedback
than others do.
Keep instructions simple, no more than a few
steps at a time. Have the student repeat them
back to ensure that they have been understood.
Break long tasks into smaller units so as not to
overburden the childs attentional abilities.
Teach students to divide assignments themselves
into smaller tasks. Gradually increase the length
of the units as the student demonstrates that he
or she can do the work.
Focus goals and reinforcement on task completion and accuracy rather than on staying in seat
or paying attention. This not only allows for
easier monitoring, but the tasks become the
prompts to do the work, not just the presence of
the teacher.
Give them tasks that permit them to move
around. Set a timer for a short period of time and
challenge the student to increase the amount of
work completed in the time selected and to increase the amount of time he or she can work.
90
Use a variety of reinforcers that the student can

choose among to prevent boredom or satiation.
Discuss or review the reinforcers that the student
can select among before beginning the activity.
Specific programs that have been effective include the basic ones described in chapters 3 and 4.
In addition, social skills training (Chapter 5), instructional strategies (Chapter 6), and behavioral
contracts or school-home contingencies (Chapter 7)
are sometimes needed. However, the strategies and
accommodations that are effective for one student
may be completely different for another. Therefore,
pick and choose from a variety of strategies and
accommodations to meet the students individual
needs. In other words, base selected strategies on a
behavioral assessment. Consulting with a school
psychologist, counselor, or nurse is generally advised.
Various Problem Behaviors

Dawson and Guare (1998) have presented a
table that suggests a number of interventions for a
variety of behavioral difficulties for adolescents,
although many of the suggestions apply to elementary school students as well. However, as with any
recommendations, they may or may not apply to a
particular student. Their relevance will have to be
determined by the situation, the students learning
history, the skills of the teacher, and the findings
from a behavioral assessment. Keep these facts in
mind when reviewing Table 10.1. Also, Chapter 4
contains many simple-to-implement programs that
have been shown to be effective in reducing various
disruptive and other problem behaviors in the classroom. Finally, whenever possible, ask students (and
parents) to suggest interventions for specific areas
of difficulty.
Table 10.1
POSSIBLE INTERVENTIONS FOR VARIOUS

BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES
Areas of difficulty
Organization
Does not do homework
Incentive system
Supervised study hall
Alternative homework assignments
Self-designed homework
After-school homework sessions in school
Loses homework/possessions
Daily check-ins (home/school); monitoring system

Organizational aids (checklist/reminders/routines)
Targeted incentive system
Does not come to class prepared
Case manager or other monitoring system

Spare materials in class that students can borrow or rent
Messy work
Computer access
Specify clear criteria; have student redo if work does not
meet criteria
Incentive system
Modify expectations (prioritize)
Planning
Prioritizing
Breaking down tasks
Setting goals
Planning steps
Time management
Students with attention disorders need assistance in these areas

and cannot be expected to perform these skills without
adequate instruction and practice. This could occur in planning periods built into the students day. Instruction may
follow a sequence such as: (1) define skills to be learned;
(2) model skill; (3) have student engage in verbal rehearsal;
(4) guided practice; (5) independent practice with follow-up.
A second option is the use of a coach (described in Hallowell
and Ratey [1994] Driven to Distraction).
Remembering
Handing in assignments
Case manager to monitor

Home/school daily check-in
Incentive system
Knowing when things are due

Incentive system
Bringing materials to/from school

Incentive system
Math facts/other rote memory tasks
Memory aids
Allow use of calculators
Reduce demands/expectations
Sequence of steps to follow

(e.g., math)
Construct personalized instructional manual with templates,

directions, examples of problems, models, and so forth.
91
Table 10.1
POSSIBLE INTERVENTIONS FOR VARIOUS BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES (continued)
Areas of difficulty
Following Directions
Verbal
Written
Written Production
Poor fine-motor skills/motor
impersistence
Provide study partner

Repeat directions individually
Check in with student; clarify as necessary
Highlight directions for student; have student highlight
Allow to dictate written responses
Allow the use of tape recorders
Access to computers for writing assignments
Reduce writing requirements
Discrepancy between thinking/

writing speed
Access to computers/recorders
Opportunity to respond orally
Difficulty organizing thoughts
Assistance with prewriting activities (e.g., brainstorming, mind

mapping, outlining)
Jotting down ideas; rearranging to outline
Problems with initiation/word

retrieval
Brainstorming vocabulary, key concepts

Help getting started
Close-ended writing tasks
Proofreading problems
Use spellcheck
Have another student/adult proofread
Use proofreading checklist to cue for specific errors
Problems with Test-Taking

Careless mistakes
92
Allow test retakes

Supervise checking work
Cannot finish within time limits
Allow extra time

Break testing into several sessions
Writing problems
Oral exams
Short answer/multiple choice vs. essay
Reduce demands/allow extra time
Distracted during testing
Let student take test in quiet room
Anxiety
Teach test-taking strategies

Teach relaxation strategies
Test student away from other students
Difficulties with retrieval
Multiple-choice tests
Open book tests
Provide sample items/templates
Cues to aid retrieval during test
Teach test-taking strategies
Table 10.1
POSSIBLE INTERVENTIONS FOR VARIOUS BEHAVIORAL DIFFICULTIES (continued)
Areas of difficulty
Social Skills
Impulsive
Consider the following for all social skills problems:
Incentive systems
Disruptive
Negotiated behavior contract

Match student with teacher
Apathetic
High rate of personalized positive feedback

Alternative curriculum
Discouraged
Credit for out-of-school learning

Work-study programs
Depressed
Hands-on learning
Cognitive Style
Fast and sloppy
Assign shorter tasks with criterion for accuracy

Teach self-evaluation/goal-setting regarding accuracy or
quantity
Problems with initiation
Assign close-ended tasks

Provide templates
Help student get started (e.g., walk through first few
times/brainstorm ideas, and so forth)
Assign study partner
Use cooperative learning
Assign shorter task or divide task
Obtain verbal commitments (e.g., regarding start times)
Low frustration tolerance
Modify assignments
Ensure high rate of success
Frequent reinforcement
Provide individual help
Self-designed assignments (brainstorm ideas)
Processing speed or simultaneous

processing problems (e.g., cannot
listen and take notes)
Provide individual help

Tape lecture
Provide note-takers or access to teachers notes
Present material in organized, sequential fashion
Reduce assignments or allow extra time
Craves novelty or hates repetition
Avoid lecture-style classes

Avoid classes with heavy rote learning or worksheet
requirements
Computers/technology
Use cooperative learning
Use hands-on learning or discussion format
Self-designed assignments
Individualized work contracts
Assign to high-energy teachers
Avoid needless repetition
Build in breaks or opportunities to move around
Vary formats within and across class periods
93
Substance Abuse
Most everyone is concerned with drug and alcohol abuse by youngters. Drug and alcohol abuse
interferes not only with academic performance and
social behavior but also with later-life adjustment.
Yet, many of our youngsters are engaging in substance abuse. A comprehensive national survey
conducted during 1996 on drug abuse in America by
the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services
reported that 54 percent of our high school seniors
and 29 percent of our eighth graders have used an
illicit drug at least once in their life. Similarly, about
80 percent of the seniors and over 50 percent of our
eighth graders report having used alcohol (taken
from a survey conducted by the Partnership for a
Drug-Free America, New York, N.Y., 1998).
The California Safe Schools Assessment reported over 20,000 instances of drug and alcohol
offenses in Californias public schools during 199798 (California Department of Education, 1999).
Regarding factors that contribute to violence against
students, three in five teens blame drugs (Leitman,
Binns, and Duffett, 1995). One in three high achievers believe drugs and alcohol are the most serious
problems facing their high schools (Arnette and
Walsleben, 1998). What can teachers do to help
prevent and reduce drug and alcohol abuse?
Initiate various drug and alcohol educational
programs into the class.
Become aware of the warning signs, indicators,
or effects of drug usage.
Discover local resources to refer students and
their families.
area the student begins having problems in relationships (conflicts at home and old friends dropped),
steals or commits other possibly illegal acts to obtain
drugs, and spends time only with friends who drink
or do drugs. Other signs include a drop in grades and
an increase in absences and problems with discipline. Also, be alert to drug paraphernalia: rolling
papers, small medicine bottles, eye drops, pipes,
butane lighters, and small baggies.
Addressing Warning Signs

Curwin and Mendler (1988) provide the following suggestions for consideration when substance
abuse is suspected:
Do not accept excuses. Demand that all work be
done properly and on time.
Be sensitive. Offer suggestions for dealing with
tension and pressure and listen carefully to the
students feelings.
Offer opportunities to discuss his or her needs.
Point out changes in observable behavior. This
will often communicate to the student that the
secret is out.
Offer choices and state consequences but keep
demands related to classroom performance, not
substance abuse.
Set limits that describe behavior.
Confer with other teachers, the school nurse, and
counselor or psychologist about the student.
Contact parents to share concerns regarding
achievement, behavior, and symptoms. Inform
them of services offered by the school and offer
them a referral to someone who might help.
Warning Signs
Look for the following in the emotional/mental
area: a personality change that usually includes a
change in mood; irresponsible, silly, and giggly
behavior for no reason; uncooperative behavior;
lowered self-esteem; carelessness about appearance
and hygiene; general lack of interest even in previous hobbies and favorite sports; and depression. The
student may take drugs or drink to relax or handle
problems but tries to hide the fact. Also, many frequently report forgetting what happened while
drinking or using drugs. In the physical area there
can be lasting fatigue, repeated health complaints,
red and dull eyes, and a steady cough. In the social
94
Effects of Alcohol
Indicators of the use of alcohol (booze or
juice) or its effects include: disinhibitions, dizziness, excessive talkativeness, and slowed responses.
Low to moderate doses of alcohol can increase aggressive and uncontrolled behavior. Hangovers are
another possible effect. Alcohol is a depressant.
Effects of Drug Use

The more common drugs are reviewed briefly in
tables 10.2 through 10.4 (National Institute on Drug
Abuse, 1995; Sacramento Police Department, 1998).
Table 10.2
HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS* AND THEIR EFFECTS

Drug
How taken
Behavioral indicators (effects)
Marijuana
(pot, grass, weed)
Smoked in cigarette
or water pipe; eaten
Dizzy; trouble walking; appear silly and giggly for no

apparent reason; very red, bloodshot eyes; increased
heart rate; dryness in mouth and throat; altered perceptions; reduced coordination and concentration; difficulty
remembering things that just happened; impaired
reaction time; distortion of time and distance
LSD (acid)
Swallowed; injected;
absorbed by placing
on tongue
Unpredictability; increased pulse rate and blood

pressure; chills; nausea; irregular breathing; sensory
hallucinations; paranoia; violent and bizarre behavior;
disorientation as to time, place, companions; flashbacks
Mescaline
(peyote) and
Taken orally
Same as above
Psilocybin
(magic mushrooms)
*Drugs that bring about distortions in physical senses and mental reactions.
Table 10.3
STIMULANT DRUGS* AND THEIR EFFECTS

Drug
How taken
Amphetamines (pep
pills, speed, bennies,
dexies, uppers)
Swallowed; sniffed;
injected
Excitability; hyperactivity; irritability; anxiety;

loss of appetite; depression
Methamphetamines
(crank, speed, mesh)
Inhaled; injected
Stimulation; agitation; energy; confusion;

weight loss; acne-like symptoms; can lead to
paranoia and thought disorders; bizarre behavior
and hallucinations
Ice (crystal mesh,

crystal, L. A. ice)
Crystal is heated in
pipe; smoke is inhaled
Loss of appetite; intensive, depressive

episodes; possible convulsions; insomnia
Cocaine (coke, flake,

toot, nose candy,
blow, lines, rails)
Sniffed; swallowed; injected

into veins; or smoked in
free-base form
Euphoria; paranoia; irritability; mental

confusion; loss of motivation
Crack (hubba, superwhite,

cloud 9, serpico)
Rocks of free-base
cocaine which are smoked
Euphoria; irritability; insomnia; paranoia
*Drugs that speed up the central nervous system.
95
Table 10.4
DEPRESSANTS, NARCOTICS, AND DESIGNER DRUGS

Drug
How taken
Methaqualone
(Quaalude, ludes,
soaper) Depressant
Swallowed as pills
Faulty judgment; drowsiness; convulsions
Inhalants (gasoline,
spray paints, rubber
cements, solvents,
correction fluid,
nail polish remover)
Depressant
Inhaled
Headaches; runny nose and nosebleeds; nausea;

loss of memory; loss of appetite; loss of
coordination; altered perceptions; mood swings
Heroin (smack,
white stuff, hard
stuff) A narcotid
White; off-white;
brown powder chemically synthesized from
poppy, which may be
cooked into a solution
and then injected (also
taken orally or sniffed)
Restlessness; nausea; vomiting; highly

addictive; mental and physical deterioration;
withdrawal; causes symptoms that resemble
influenza
MDMA (Ecstasy)
A designer drug
that is a hallucinogenic amphetamine
Swallowed as pills
Nausea; muscle tension; blurred vision;

unpredictability; paranoia
Referral Sources
Families Anonymous
P.O. Box 3475
Culver City, CA 90231
(800-736-9805)
Narcotics Anonymous (NA)
World Service Office
P.O. Box 9999
Van Nuys, CA 91409
(818-773-9999)
Cocaine Anonymous World Service Office
3740 Overland Ave., Suite C
Los Angeles, CA 90034
(800-347-8998)
Just Say NO International
1777 No. California Blvd.
Suite 210
Walnut Creek, CA 94596
(800-258-2766)
96
Marijuana Anonymous
World Services
P.O. Box 2912
Van Nuys, CA 91404
(800-766-6779 )
National Council on Alcoholism and
Drug Dependence
12 West 21st St., 7th Floor
New York, NY 10010
(800-NCA CALL)
Nar-Anon Family Groups
P. O. Box 2562
Palos Verdes Peninsula, CA 90274
(310-547-5800)
National Drug and Alcohol Treatment and
Referral Service
(800-662-HELP)

This chapter presented a potpourri of techniques and strategies for dealing with various problem behaviors in the classroom. Even so, not every
situation that a teacher will encounter has been addressed. However, this resource guide provides
strategies on how to approach a problem, recognizing that no one intervention for a problem behavior
will work for all students.
As discussed previously, it is not the behavior
that is the important determinant as to what intervention or technique the teacher uses. The teacher
must address the function that the behavior serves
and the factors in the environment that trigger the
behavior. Thus, different behaviors might be addressed by the same technique, while the same behaviors among different students might require
different techniques. Individual differences must
always be addressed, and this resource guide on
student discipline has provided the tools to address
individual differences.
Strategies to address classroom problem behaviors are selected based on why the behavior is occurring. The emphasis is on teaching students how
to behave rather than on how not to behave: a constructive, rather than punitive, approach to student
discipline. Thus, the emphasis moves from a reliance on suspensions, expulsions, and punishment to
prevention. We hope this resource guide makes the
challenging task of teaching more enjoyable and
easier.
References
Arnette, J. L., and M. C. Walsleben. 1998 (April).
Combating fear and restoring safety in schools.
Juvenile Justice Bulletin, 13, 615. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Bohlmeyer, E. M., D. Cross, M. Valentine, M.
Weill, and M. Wilson, 1998. Attention deficit
disorder. In Helping children at home and
school: Handouts from our school psychologist.
Edited by A. S. Canter and S. A. Carroll.
Bethesda, Md.: The National Association of
School Psychologists.
California Department of Education. 1999. California safe schools assessment, 1997-1998, results.
Sacramento, Calif.: California Department of
Education.
Curwin, R. L., and A. N. Mendler. 1988. Discipline
with dignity. Alexandria, Va.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum and Development.
Dawson, P., and R. Guare. 1998. Attention disorders: Interventions for adolescents. In Helping
children at home and school: Handouts from our
school psychologist. Edited by A. S. Canter and
S. A. Carroll. Bethesda, Md.: The National Association of School Psychologists.
DuPaul, G. J., G. Stoner, W. D. Tilly III, and D.
Putnam. 1991. Interventions for attention problems. In Interventions for achievement and behavior problems. Edited by G. Stoner, M. K.
Shinn, and H. M. Walker. Washington, D.C.:
National Association of School Psychologists
(monograph).
Godber, Y. 1998. Lying: A handout for parents and
teachers. In Helping children at home and
school: Handouts from our school psychologist.
Edited by A. S. Canter and S. A. Carroll.
Bethesda, Md.: The National Association of
School Psychologists.
Gonzales, L. D. 1987. The prevention of truancy:
Programs and strategies that address the problems of truancy and dropouts. Downey, Calif.:
Los Angeles County Office of Education.
Hallowell, E., and J. Ratey. 1994. Driven to distraction. New York: Pantheon Books.
Johns, B. H., and V. G. Carr. 1995. Techniques for
managing verbally and physically aggressive
students. Denver, Colo.: Love Publishing Company.
Leitman, R., K. Binns, and A. Duffett. 1995. Between hope and fear: Teens speak out on crime
and the community. New York: Louis Harris and
Associates, Inc.
Miller, G. 1987. School interventions for dishonest
behavior. Special Services in the Schools, 3,
2136.
National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1995. Marijuana:
Facts parents need to know (NCADI Publication
No. PHD712). Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services.
97
Ross, D. M., and S. A. Ross. 1982. Hyperactivity:

Current issues, research and theory (Second
edition). New York: Wiley.
Sacramento Police Department. 1998. Drugs and
alcohol: Use and abuse. Available on-line:
www.sacpd.org/drugs.html
Stokes, T. F., and P. G. Osnes. 1991. Honesty, lying,
and cheating: Their elaboration and management.
In Interventions for achievement and behavior
problems. Edited by G. Stoner, M. K. Shinn, and
H. M. Walker. Washington, D.C.: National Association of School Psychologists (monograph).
Yehle, A. K., and C. Wambold. 1998. An ADHD
success story: Strategies for teachers and students. Teaching Exceptional Children, 30(6),
813.
Zametkin, A. J., and M. Ernst. 1999. Problems in
the management of attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder. The New England Journal of Medicine,
340, 4046.
Resources
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:
www.mentalhealth.com/dis/p20-ch01.html And
C.H.A.D.D.: www.chadd.org/
These Internet resources provide additional information on ADHD or ADD.
Gonzales, L. D. 1987. The prevention of truancy:

Programs and strategies that address
the problems of truancy and dropouts. Downey,
Calif.: Los Angeles County Office of Education.
This manual contains successful programs currently in
effect with schoolwide and classroom-level interventions. It also provides information on warning signs of
dropouts.
Helping children at home and school: Handouts

from your school psychologist. 1998. Edited by
A. S. Canter and S. A. Carroll. Bethesda, Md.:
National Association of School Psychologists.
98
This resource contains 181 reproducible handouts for

parents and teachers on behavior problems and solutions, cultures and life-styles, home-school connections, family activities, instructional and curriculum
issues, and so forth.
Mayer, G. R., T. Butterworth, H. L. Spaulding, P.

Hollingsworth, M. Amorim, C. CaldwellMcElroy, M. Nafpaktitis, and X. Perez-Osorio.
1983. Constructive discipline: Building a climate
for learning. A resource manual of programs and
strategies. Downey, Calif.: Office of the Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools.
This manual contains many programs developed by
teachers for teachers. There are chapters on students
reinforcing students, individual student programs,
improving classroom performance, managing classroom behavior, social skills training, attendance, and
vandalism deterrents. Each chapter contains about 10
to 20 distinct programs similar in format to those
contained in Chapter 4.
classroom and schoolwide behavior change: 3.
San Marcos, Calif.: Western Image.
This book contains the following comprehensive
topics: improving social skills, improving attendance
among students and staff, reducing school violence
and vandalism, improving conduct outside the classroom (on the bus, in the lunchroom, in the lavatory,
and on the playground), and staff development strategies.
U.S. Office of Education. 1998. Growing Up DrugFree: A parents guide to prevention. Found at:
http://www.ed.gov/offices/OESE/SDFS/
parents_guide/
This booklet includes suggestions on (1) talking with
your child effectively; (2) what to do if you think your
child might be using drugs; (3) how to teach your
child about drugs; and (4) where to get information
and help, and more.
Videotapes
Barkley, R. ADHD. New York: The Guilford Press.
Breggin, P., and M. Balentine. The myths of ADHD.
Children First, 23565 Via Paloma, Coto de Caza,
CA 92679.
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
105
106
107
108
109
APPENDIX C
EXERCISES IN CONDUCTING CLASSROOM

BEHAVIOR ASSESSMENTS:
Data Collection and Analysis
To help determine a behaviors function, there are three useful methods for gathering assessment information:
Interviews with those who know the student well (e.g., parents, current and previous
teachers) and with the student (if at an adequate developmental level)
Review of records and other assessment reports
Direct observation in the classroom and/or on the school ground
The information you obtain should be arranged into an ABC format to help determine the
behaviors purpose. To arrange the information collected into the ABC format, the behavior (B) must
be clearly stated or operationalized. Next, list the antecedent events (A) and consequences (C) that
appear associated with the behavior in their appropriate column. Try to identify any previously used
interventions and any possible health and medical factors that may influence the students behavior.
Let us examine how information collected on several students might look when arranged into
the ABC behavioral assessment format. The first student is John.
ILLUSTRATION NO. 1: JOHN

John is in the seventh grade. Hes the kind of student who disturbs the other children in
the classroom. They frequently tell the adults in the classroom that John is bothering
them with his noises. Lately, he is making a lot of grunting sounds and waving his hands
around. The teacher moved his desk away from the other students, to the rear of the
room, so he wouldnt bother them as much. He seems to be getting worse. He takes a lot
of the teachers time because she constantly has to go back to him and tell him to stop
bothering other students. It is especially bad during math when the other students are
working quietly and she is helping them with their work.
When John was sitting in the front of the classroom, and the teacher was near him, he
tended to work on his math assignments without making noises and waving his hands
around. At that time she smiled at him, patted him on the shoulder, and told him he was
working well. The other times that he didnt bother the other children was when the teacher
worked with him while he was in his seat at the back of the classroom.
On the basis of this description, can you tell why John is misbehaving? Let us see how the ABC
arrangement of this information on Johns behavior might look:
110
Antecedents
Goal behavior
Consequences
Sitting near teacher
John completes
assignment without
waving hands and
making grunting sounds.
Teacher smiles at John and

praises and pats him
on shoulder.
Antecedents
Problem behavior
Consequences
Sitting in the back of

the room
John waves hands and

makes grunting sounds
loud enough for other
children to hear.
Teacher goes to child,

talks to him about his
bothering other students,
and tries to calm him down.
Teacher working
with student
Other children working
on assignment
Math class
Teacher in front of room

Teacher helping the other
students in the class
Students look at him

and complain about
his annoying them.
Math time
Children working on
assignments
Now that you have studied the above ABC arrangement of the information on Johns behavior,
can you determine why his problem behavior is occurring? (i.e., which of the four major functions
escape, attention, access to material rewards or activities, or self-reinforcementdoes the problem
behavior serve?)
John is misbehaving to obtain the teachers attention. His misbehavior, then, is useful to him.
When he is getting his teachers attention, he engages in his goal or replacement behavior. However,
when he has been left for a period of time without the attention, he misbehaves in order to obtain it.
Many students misbehave for attention.
We also can determine from our ABC analysis that we need to redirect the teachers attention
(talking with him) as part of our intervention. In fact, because problem behavior serves a purpose
for the student performing it, it is very difficult to eliminate unless we provide the student some alternative means of achieving the purpose (function of the behavior). Instead of giving John attention following disruptive classroom behavior, the attention could be used to reinforce his assignment completion
without his disrupting the class. In other words, the teacher talks to him and compliments him every so
often while he is working on his assignment. Gradually, the frequency of the teachers attention could
be reduced as John begins to learn to work quietly.
111
ILLUSTRATION NO. 2: MARY

Mary can be such a good student during reading time. She can read all by herself and
she stays in her seat. She enjoys reading so much she even chooses to read in her free
time. At school we are concerned about her eating and sleeping habits at home. She
often complains that she is tired or has a stomachache and frequently requests to go to
the bathroom. Sometimes it seems like she just says these things to be annoying. She
gets that look on her face and starts whining about not feeling well. It is really irritating.
These things seem to happen when the reading assignment is from the new text that the
teacher started a month ago. This new text is difficult for many of the students, including
Mary. Also, whenever she has been asked to read a page out loud from the text, she
whines and complains. She ends up missing a lot of reading time because she is either in
the nurses office, lying down, or in the bathroom. However, when the reading assignment
is terminated and free reading is introduced, all of a sudden she feels better.
On the basis of this description, can you tell why Mary is misbehaving? The following is an
ABC format for you to fill out for Mary. The goal and problem behaviors are filled in for you.
Please complete the ABC functional analysis.
Antecedents
Goal behavior
Consequences
Mary stays in her seat

while working on her
reading assignment.
Antecedents
Problem behavior
Consequences
Mary whines in an
irritating voice, saying
she has a stomachache,
she has to go to the
bathroom, or shes tired
when its reading time.
Now that you have studied the ABC arrangement of the information on Marys behavior, can you
determine why her problem behavior is occurring? That is, what function or purpose is it serving?
The purpose of Marys problem behavior is to avoid or escape from the difficult reading activity,
and it has worked for her. The behavior is functional. When the reading is at her level, there are no
somatic complaints. (The completed ABC format on Marys behavior can be found at the end of
Appendix C.)
112
ILLUSTRATION NO. 3: DEMIAN

Demian is a very difficult student to work with. He is rude and he swears and threatens
everyone. He gets to do what he wants to do because no one wants to take his verbal
abuse.
He likes to work on certain activities and doesnt let other people have a turn. For example,
when the teacher asks him to let other students have their turn on the computer, he
swears at her, the same as he does to the other students. This often results in his being
able to continue on the activity just as he wanted to do. Similarly, when he asks to work on
the computer, he is usually allowed to because who wants to be threatened or yelled at?
Once he gets to do what he wants, he stops swearing and threatening.
Our goal is to have Demian transition to a new activity without swearing and threatening.
Weve noticed he is able to do this when the new activity is something he wants to do.
However, this happens so rarely that obviously some behavior management program will
need to be developed.
On the basis of this description, can you tell why Demian is misbehaving? The following is the
ABC format for you to fill out for Demian. Please complete the entire ABC functional analysis form.
Antecedents
Goal behavior
Consequences
Antecedents
Problem behavior
Consequences
Now that you have studied the above ABC arrangement of the information on Demians behavior,
can you determine why his problem behavior is occurring? That is, what function or purpose is it serving?
113
The purpose of the behavior is to obtain access to whatever it is he wants to be able to do. His
aggressive behavior gets him what he wants; it is functional for him. (The following are the completed ABC formats on Marys and Demians behavior.)
MARY
Antecedents
Goal behavior
Consequences
Reading book of choice
Mary stays in her seat

while working on her
reading assignment.
Mary enjoys reading.
Book at an independent
reading level
Mary gets to participate in

an activity of her choice.
During free reading time

Antecedents
Problem behavior
Consequences
A new reading
assignment
Mary whines in an
irritating voice, saying
she has a stomachache,
she has to go to the
bathroom, or shes tired
when its reading time.
The teacher sends Mary to

the nurse, bathroom, or to
lie down.
Antecedents
Goal behavior
Consequences
New activity introduced

that he wants to do
Demian transitions to a
new activity appropriately.
Demian engages in fun

activity.
Antecedents
Problem behavior
Consequences
Told to put away what

he is working on
Demian swears, hits,

and/or threatens children
and staff members.
He is sometimes allowed
to do what he wants.
Level of reading too

difficult
Asked to read out loud
DEMIAN
Asked to allow others a turn

Someone gets in his way
Told he cannot do what
he wants to do
114
APPENDIX D
SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RESOURCE GUIDE

Fill in the contact person and phone number for each of the appropriate agencies below and
keep available for use as needed. (The county office of education should be able to provide most of
the information needed to complete this guide.)
Name of agency/services
Contact person
Telephone number
Child Abuse Agency/Hotline

Childrens Social Services
Police/Sheriffs Department
Probation Department
School Attendance Review Board (SARB)
Student Study Team (SST)
School Health Program Manager (Nurse)
School Psychological Services
School Crisis Intervention Team
Suicide Prevention Services/Hotline
Emergency Mental Health Services
School Police/Security
Alcohol/Substance Abuse Counseling
Domestic Violence Resources
115
Name of agency/services
Family Services/Parenting Resources
Gang Intervention Resources
Intergroup & Human Relations Resources
Public Social Services
Faith-Based Resources
Grief and Recovery Resources
Legal Assistance Resources
Rape and Sexual Assault Counseling
Victims Assistance Resources
Homeless and Runaway Services
Youth Crisis Hotline
Gay/Lesbian Services
Hate Crime Prevention and Intervention
Special Education Resources
Department of Rehabilitation Services
116
Contact person
Telephone number
INDEX
factors associated with 1-2

related to punitive environment 2
related to unclear rules 3-4
A
ABSENTEEISM
student 85-87
ACADEMIC FAILURE 2
ACADEMIC SKILL DEFICITS
instructional strategies to address 47-49
ANXIETY
instructional strategies to address 46

ASSIGNMENTS (also see HOMEWORK)
ACADEMIC SURVIVAL SKILLS 37-38

ACCESS
as a function of problem behavior 67, 68-69

as reinforcer 22
and academic failure 2

matching to student skill 50
ATTENDANCE PROBLEMS 85-87
ATTENTION
ACCURACY, STUDENT WORK
as a function of behavior 68
as a reinforcer 24
examples of 19
instructional strategies to promote 47-48

ACTIVITIES
as reinforcers 23
positive classroom management activities 28-36
ACTIVITY TABLE 29
ADHD (see ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER)
ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT 4
AGGRESSION/AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS 73-83
general strategies to prevent and reduce 73-74

possible long-term outcomes 73
resources to address 82-83
stages of 75
types of 77-81
ALCOHOL USE 94
AMPHETAMINES 95
ANTECEDENTS 67
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR (see also AGGRESSION,
DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR, ATTENTION DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER, NONCOMPLIANCE)
ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
description and interventions 89

ATTENTION SEEKING BEHAVIOR
interventions for 68, 69

AVERSIVE ACTION (also see PUNISHMENT)
as a consequence for aggressive behavior 2, 65

related to attendance 85
AVOIDANCE, ESCAPE BEHAVIORS
as a function of problem behavior 68

interventions 67-69
AWARDS (see CERTIFICATES)
B
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT 66-69
resources on conducting 71
examples Appendix C 110
BEHAVIOR CONTRACTS 56-60
117
BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
helpers in classroom 9
homework 8
monitoring students behavior 9
transition from activity 9
activities and games in the classroom 28-35

framework for implementing 11-13
BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES
appropriate use of 3
to reduce minor infractions 13
CLASSROOM RULES 10
communicating 10-11
examples of 11
guidelines for developing 10-11
reinforcement for rule following 12
clear communication of 3, 10
BEHAVIOR, MONITORING IN CLASSROOM 9

BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS (see also AGGRESSION, BULLYING, NONCOMPLIANCE, ATTENDANCE )
as a form of communication 66
determinants of 1-5
related to classroom environment 7
identifying function 67-69
interventions for various problem behaviors 90-94
BRIBERY 15
BULLYING 74-79
C
CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
and instructional strategies 45

CALIFORNIA EDUCATION CODE
CLASSWORK 8-9
COCAINE 95
COMMUNICATING
classroom rules 10
with parents and caregivers 53-54
COMPLIANCE (see NONCOMPLIANCE)
COMPLIMENT METER 32
COMPLIMENTS (see COMPLIMENT METER, FUZZY
GRAMS, I-SPY GAME, SECRET PAL GAME)
CONFERENCES, PARENT-TEACHER 61
CONSEQUENCES
applying consistently 11-12

individual student differences 13
of behavior 67
and clear communication of rules 3

CAREGIVER (see PARENT)
CATCH EM BEHAVING GAME 28
CERTIFICATES
as reinforcers 19
samples Appendix A 99-104
CHORAL RESPONDING 47
CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
creating a positive atmosphere 27

physical environment 7-8
CONSTRUCTIVE DISCIPLINE 12, 15, 36

CONTRACTS (see BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTS)
CORRESPONDENCE TRAINING 88-89
CRACK 95
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
and problem behavior 3-4

CURRICULUM
culturally relevant 4
related to behavior and academic problems 45
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT 7-15
positive strategies versus punitive procedures 15

activities to reduce and prevent behavior problems 27-36
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES 27-36
Activity Table 29
Catch em Behaving Game 28
Compliment Meter 32
Fuzzy Grams 31
I-Spy Game 35
Marble in the Jar 30
modeling 28
points for good behavior 30
Secret Pal Game 34
Terrific Tables 29
CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION 7-9
CLASSROOM ROUTINES AND PROCEDURES 8-9
beginning of day 8
classwork 8
determining procedures 8
118
D
DAILY REPORT CARD 24
DEFICITS, ACADEMIC SKILL 47-49
DEFICITS, SOCIAL SKILLS 37
social skill areas 37

teaching social skills 38-42
DISAPPROVAL
related to problem behavior 2

DISCIPLINE
and cultural differences 4

coordination with administration 4
illegal acts 65
punitive methods of control 2, 13, 65-66
DISHONESTY (see LYING)
DRUG USE (see SUBSTANCE ABUSE)
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
to address:
self-management of learning 49-50
student anxiety 46-47
student sensory learning style 46
student motivation 46
student academic skill deficits 47-49
to match individual students learning needs 45-51
ENDURANCE (see TASK ENDURANCE)

ERROR CORRECTION PROCEDURE 56
ESCAPE
as a function of problem behavior 67-69

interventions 67,69
ETHNIC DIFFERENCE 4
INTERVENTIONS (see also SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS)
FAILURE, ACADEMIC 2
FEEDBACK
to promote learning 19,47-49

FLASHCARDS 47
FLUENT PERFORMANCE 42, 48
FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT (see BEHAVIORAL
ASSESSMENT)
FUZZY GRAMS 31
generalTable 10.1 91-93

selecting based on function of behavior 67-69
INTIMIDATION (see BULLYING)
INTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT 14
ISOLATION (see TIMEOUT)
I-SPY GAME 35
K
KINESTHETIC, SENSORY LEARNING STYLE 46
G
GAMES (see CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES)
GOAL BEHAVIOR, OR REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR
in behavior contract 56
selected by student 49
selected by teacher 40
to match function problem behavior 67-69
H
HAND RAISING
academic survival skill 38

as part of program to foster rule following 11
HEROIN 96
HOME, FACTORS RELATED TO LIMITED SOCIAL SKILLS 37
HOME VISITS 62
HOMEWORK
and behavioral contracts 56

assigning 8-9
positive and negative effects 55
strategies to address difficulties 56-57
suggestions for parents 55-56
HONESTY
teaching 87-89
L
LEARNING, DIFFICULTIES & INTERVENTIONS 46-51,
90-93
LEARNING, SENSORY MODALITIES 46
LECTURES, AS AN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY 46
LSD 95
LYING 87-89
M
MANAGEMENT (see BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT,
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT)
MARBLE IN THE JAR 30
MARIJUANA 95
MATERIAL REWARDS 68-69
MDMA 96
MEMORY TASKS, STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVEMENT 91
MESCALINE 95
METHAMPHETAMINE 95
METHAQUALONE 96
MODELING
advantages and disadvantages 28

and social skills training 40-41
as strategy to address noncompliance 79-80
teaching honesty 87-89
MONITORING BEHAVIOR
IMITATION (see also MODELING)
as a positive classroom management technique 28

and teaching social skills 41
INATTENTIVE BEHAVIOR (see ATTENTION)
INFRACTIONS 13
INHALANTS 96
INSTRUCTION (see INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES)
in classroom 9
self-management 49-50
MOTIVATION
activities to motivate student 45

reinforcers for hard-to-motivate students 23-24
MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAM 24-26
(also see REINFORCERS, REINFORCEMENT)
used in conjunction with social skills teaching 40, 56-61
119
NATURAL REINFORCERS 14-15

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES 74-77
NONCOMPLIANCE 79-80
QUICK DRAW MATH 48-49
R
RATING SCALES
to identify social skill deficit 38-39
OBSERVATION
to determine social skill deficit 23-24

to identify reinforcer 23-24
ORGANIZATION
of studentTable 10.1 91-93

in classroom 7-10
RECOGNITION (also see REINFORCEMENT)
examples of 19-21
REFUSAL (see NONCOMPLIANCE)
REINFORCEMENT (see also REINFORCERS, MOTIVATIONAL PROGRAM)
argument for 19
using effectively 24-25
REINFORCERS 19-24
access to activities and items 22

addressing concerns 13-15
and bribery 15
certificates and awards 20-21
definition of 11-12
examples 19-23
for hard-to-motivate students 23-24
for rule following 12
identifying 23-24
in social skills training 56-58
involving parents 24
maximizing the effectiveness of 24-25
obtaining free and inexpensive items 23
related to time-out and penalties 87-89
to reduce minor infractions 13
PARENT-TEACHER RELATIONS
frequent communication 53-54

rapport building 53-54
conferences 61-62
PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT, in
homework 54-60
increasing attendance 85-87
motivational program 56-61, 24
preventing student aggression 73-74
PAYING ATTENTION 89-90
PEER RELATIONSHIP SKILLS 38
PEER TUTORING 47-48
PENALTIES 76-77
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT, CLASSROOM 7-8
PLANNING, STUDENT WORK 91
POINTS
as reinforcers in games 30-31

for following classroom rules 12-13
POSITIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 27
POSITIVE RECOGNITION, TO REDUCE PROBLEM
BEHAVIOR 19-21
POSITIVE REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR (see GOAL
BEHAVIOR)
PRAISE 19-20
PREMACK PRINCIPLE 23
PROBLEM BEHAVIOR (see also SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS)
as a form of communication 66
assessment of behaviors function 66-67
identifying antecedents 67
identifying consequences 67
PROCEDURES, CLASSROOM 8-10
PROFANITY (see SWEARING)
PSILOCYBIN 95
PUNITIVE CONSEQUENCES
arguments against use 2, 5, 65-66

illegal acts of discipline 65-66
maximizing the effectiveness of 77
for serious infractions 13
REPLACEMENT BEHAVIORS (see GOAL BEHAVIOR)

REPRIMANDS 2
RESISTANCE (see NONCOMPLIANCE)
RESPONSE CARDS 47
RESPONSE FLUENCY 42, 48
REWARDS (see also REINFORCEMENT, REINFORCERS)
as a function of behavior 68-69

as intervention 69-71
RULES (see CLASSROOM RULES)
S
SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGIST 40, 69
SCHOOL VIOLENCE,
and ineffective discipline vii

resources 82-83
SEATING ARRANGEMENT 7-8
SECRET PAL GAME 34
SELF-INSTRUCTION 49-50
SELF-MANAGEMENT 49-50
SELF-REINFORCEMENT 50, 69
SELF-TALK 50
SENSORY LEARNING STYLES (also see SPECIFIC
LEARNING STYLE)
determining students style 45-46
120
SLOW RESPONDING 48-49

SOCIAL SKILLS DEFICITS
identifying 38-39
observation of 38
rating scale 38-39
related to academic failure 37-38
related to problem behavior 3, 37
SOCIAL SKILLS, TEACHING 37-43
informal methods 40-41

interventions 93
resources 42-43
systematic methods 41-42
SOCIAL SKILLS, MAJOR SKILL AREAS 37-38
SPACE, IN CLASSROOM 8
STAGES OF AGGRESSION 75
STANDARDS (see RULES)
STUDENT
cognitive style 93
conduct and discipline 3
difficulties and interventions 91-93
duties in classroom 9
individual differences 13-14
interactions with peers 3
involvement in after-school activities 4
T
TACTILE (see KINESTHETIC)
TAPE RECORDERS, AS INSTRUCTIONAL
STRATEGY 45-46
TARDIES 85-87
TASK AVOIDANCE 68-69
TASK ENDURANCE 48
TASK, PERSISTENCE ON 37
TEASING (see BULLYING)
TERRIFIC TABLES 29
TEST TAKING, ADDRESSING DIFFICULTIES 92
TIME-OUT 74-76
TRUANCY
description and interventions 87

TUTORING (see PEER TUTORING)
V
VICTIMS, OF BULLYING 78
VIOLENCE Preface vii
VISUAL, SENSORY LEARNING STYLE 46
W
WRITING, DIFFICULTIES WITH 92
SUBSTANCE ABUSE 94-96
addressing warning signs 94

alcohol 94
drug use effects 94
referral sources 96
SWEARING 80
121

Classroom Management - A California Resource Guide

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A California Resource Guide

Produced and distributed by the

9300 Imperial Highway, Downey,

Los Angeles County Board of Education

Delaine Eastin, superintendent of public instruction

Preface ................................................................................................................................................... vii

Chapter 2: CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ............................. 7

Reinforce Rule Following ..................................................................................................... 12

Chapter 3: REINFORCERS: RECOGNITION, REWARDS,

Chapter 4: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES FOR CREATING A

Chapter 5: TEACHING SOCIAL SKILLS ................................................................................ 37

Select the Skill to Be Taught (Replacement Skill) ............................................................... 40

Chapter 6: INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES ......................................................................... 45

Chapter 7: COMMUNICATING WITH PARENTS/CAREGIVERS ................................. 53

Chapter 8: BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED INTERVENTIONS

Selecting Interventions Based on the Behaviors Function(s) ........................................................... 67

Chapter 9: AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIORS .................................................................................... 73

Chapter 10: OTHER PROBLEM BEHAVIORS ....................................................................... 85

Index ..................................................................................................................................................... 117

HIS GUIDE IS DESIGNED TO ASSIST TEACHERS AND

administrators of elementary and secondary

Each chapter ends with cited resources that

LOS ANGELES COUNTY OFFICE OF EDUCATION, DIVISION OF

G. Roy Mayer, Ph.D., Professor, California State University, Los Angeles

Los Angeles County Office of Education (LACOE)

William J. Ybarra, Administrative Project Director, Safe Schools Center

Dena Pegadiotes and Holly Fogliatti, Graduate Students

Jos Meja, Graphic Artist, LACOE Communications Dept.

Salvador Avila, Supervising Graphic Artist, LACOE Communications Dept.

Debbie Alderson, Counselor, Norwalk-La Mirada Unified School District

George Fullerton, Assistant Principal, Pomona Unified School District

California Department of Education

OVERVIEW: PREVENTING PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

EACHERS AND OTHER SCHOOL PERSONNEL NEED TO

be aware of factors that relate to problem

Teachers can make a difference by:

Reduce the Use of Punitive

create fear and not respect. The students hold

Address Academic Failure

her level of academic functioning. For example, a

Teach Critical Social Skills

Provide Clear Rules for Student

Use Appropriate Behavior

Respect and Understand

Ensure Support in Developing

Summary and Discussion

Dunn, R. 1996. Nineteen easy-to-try ways to turn

Brantlinger, E. 1991. Social class distinctions in

Roseberry-McKibbin, C. 1995. Multicultural

CLASSROOM ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Ive come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive

NDIVIDUAL TEACHERS CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE. HOW

The Physical Environment

Provide for quiet independent work areas (e.g.,

Classroom Routines and