REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Introduction
Reproduction is the process by which a living organism creates a likeness of itself. The process may be
either asexualmeaning that an organism reproduces by itself aloneor sexualwhich requires both
male and female sex cells. The organs, glands, and other structures that enable an organism to
reproduce are known as the reproductive system. (This article deals only with reproduction in animals.)
(For plant reproduction see Plant.)
Organisms can create likenesses of themselves because they possess genes, the basic units that transmit
a species' characteristics to the next generation. Genes, composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), are
arranged on strands of chromosomes. Each chromosome of each species has a definite number and
sequence of genes that govern the structure and function of the entire organism.
Reproductive Cells and Gonads
Human male and female reproductive systems have the same structural origins. The basic organs of
sexual reproduction are the gonads, which are ovaries in females and testes in males. The gonads are
dormant until they are activated by hormones at sexual maturity. (See also Sexuality.)
The male gametes, called spermatozoa or sperm, are produced in the testes. Spermatozoa are
microscopic tadpole-shaped cells with long tails. In all invertebrates the testes are internal, but in most
mammals, including humans, they lie in an external sac called the scrotum. The scrotum acts as a
temperature-regulating device to protect the developing spermatozoa.
The female gametes, called ova or eggs, are produced in the ovaries, small almond-shaped organs.
Although all mammals have gonads arranged in pairs, most invertebrates and some vertebrates,
including female birds, have only one gonad.
The development and function of the gonads vary from the simple to the complex. In worms and some
insects, a single tube constitutes the gonad. Oviparous, or egg-laying, vertebrates have a single cavity
called the cloaca that serves in males and females as both a chamber for the reproductive tract and an
outlet for the digestive system. Females lay eggs through this cavity, and the males of some species can
extrude the cloaca to fertilize the female internally. Many fishes and insects have a tubular structure for
laying eggs, called an ovipositor, that extends outside the body. Animals that bear their young live have
a hollow muscular organ, the uterus, in which the young develop. The birth canal, or vagina, is the
passageway from the uterus. This is the passageway through which the young must pass to be born.
Chemical secretions called hormones are essential in regulating the reproductive cycles of vertebrates
(see Hormones). The primary male hormone, testosterone, is produced by the testes. The female
hormonesthe estrogens and progesteroneare produced mainly by the ovaries and by the placenta
in pregnant mammals. Hormones stimulate sexual maturity and prompt mating behavior in both males
and females. They also help maintain the proper environment in the womb for the fetus to develop.
Human Reproduction
The external reproductive organs in the human male are the scrotum and the penis. The scrotum houses
the two oval testes. Spermatozoa are made in the testes and stored in a tubular structure called the
epididymis, which is connected to the testes by the efferent ductules. The epididymis empties into a
long, narrow duct called the vas deferens through which sperm cells pass to a larger storage areathe
seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts end in the urethra, a hollow canal leading from the bladder and
serving as the common tract for urine and semen. The seminal fluid, the transport fluid for the sperm, is
secreted by glands located around the urethrathe prostate gland and the twin Cowper's glands. The
penis is the organ of copulation, or sexual intercourse. It contains columns of tissue that cause the penis
to become firm and erect when stimulated. The end of the penis, called the glans penis, is covered by
the foreskin, a loose hood of skin that is sometimes removed by a minor surgical procedure called
circumcision (see Circumcision). At the tip of the glans penis is an opening where the urethra exits.
The external reproductive organs of the female are known collectively as the vulva. The outer portion is
a cushionlike mound called the mons pubis that is covered by pubic hair. Folds of tissue that extend
from the mons pubis are known as the labia. Toward the front, where the folds of the labia join, lies the
clitoris, a small buttonlike structure that, like the male penis, contains erectile tissue. Inside the labia are
two openings, one to the urethra and the other to the vagina. The internal organs are the vagina, the
uterus, the fallopian tubes, and the ovaries. The vagina is a tubular canal extending from the vaginal
opening to the uterus. The vagina serves as the female organ of copulation and as the birth canal. The
uterus, shaped like an inverted pear, is a thick-walled, muscular but expandible organ about 3 inches
(7.5 centimeters) long and 2 inches (5 centimeters) wide. It houses the growing fetus during pregnancy.
The cervix, the neck of the uterus, extends into the vagina. The uterine section above the cervix is
connected to the fallopian tubes. Near the uterus on each side are the two ovaries. Each ovary contains
about 300,000 eggs, which are formed during fetal development.
Ovulation, the process in which an egg is released from the ovary, occurs about once a month. If
copulation occurs within about 24 hours of ovulation, conception, or fertilization, can occur. When the
male ejaculates, about
1
/
10
ounce (3 milliliters) of semen is deposited in the vagina. This small amount of
semen contains between 200 and 300 million spermatozoa. The sperm swim from the vagina up through
the cervix and uterus to meet the ovum in the fallopian tube (see Sexuality).
Accessory Glands
The alkaline seminal fluid in the male is produced by the prostate gland and Cowper's glands. The
prostate, a chestnut-sized gland located under the bladder, surrounds the top of the urethra. The two
pea-sized Cowper's glands are located on either side of the urethra just under the prostate.
In the female, two Bartholin's glands, one on each side of the vaginal opening, secrete a mucus that
provides lubrication during intercourse. Cervical glands secrete fluid that keeps the vagina moist. Each
breast contains 15 to 20 milk-producing, or mammary, glands embedded in fatty tissue. These glands
are connected to the nipple via ducts. After childbirth, hormones cause the mammary glands to produce
milk.
Anal glands, located around the anus, play an important role in the mating behavior of many animals. By
secreting aromatic substances called pheromones, males mark their territories, assert their dominance,
and communicate their sexual status. In insects pheromones are secreted onto the body surface and
advertise the insect's readiness to mate. Humans, too, produce pheromones from glands located in the
armpits and around the face and genitals.
Most female mammals have an estrus cyclethat is, that period when they are ovulating and ready to
accept a male and to mate. The female emits pheromones that alert males to her willingness to mate. In
a few mammals, most notably rabbits, estrus is induced by copulation, but in most animals the cycle is
stimulated by hormones. Most large mammals, such as bears, dogs, seals, and some deer, have one
estrus cycle every year. Smaller mammals and those living in tropical zones experience estrus more
often. Humans and other primates are exceptions to the rule and will mate whether they are ovulating
or not.
Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction does not necessarily require male and female gametes. For example, when an organism
reproduces itself asexually, the genetic material of that organism is copied exactly. This means that the
new organism, or daughter, is genetically identical to the parent.
One-celled organisms reproduce by mitosis, the same mechanism present in normal cell division (see
Cell). When cell division results in the creation of two equal-sized organisms, however, the process is
called binary fission. Multiple fission takes place in some organisms, including some protozoa, in which
the nucleus divides several times before separate cells are formed. Some other primitive life-forms such
as sponges reproduce by binary fission, in which masses of new cells eventually break away from the
parent to form the offspring.
Budding is a process similar to binary fission. The organism undergoes cell division that produces a
smaller daughter cell. The daughter cell clings to the parent cell until it achieves sufficient growth
through division to break away. A variant of budding is a process called vegetative reproduction, which
is seen in certain plants and some aquatic animals such as sea squirts. The parent organism sends out
plantlike runners on which buds form that will develop into separate individuals.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is generally defined as fertilization of a female gamete by a male gamete. Because
two different individuals contribute their chromosomes to create a new being, the offspring will be
similar to both parents but will never be genetically identical to either one. Thus, sexual reproduction in
a species provides an endless variety of genetic combinations.
One primitive form of sexual reproduction, called conjugation, occurs in protozoa and some bacteria.
One cell acts as the male, or donor, by forming a tube that temporarily joins with the recipient cell. The
donor cell transfers a portion of its chromosomes to the recipient. Once the genetic material is
transferred, the two cells separate and the tube disappears. Both cells then reproduce by binary fission.
All vertebrates reproduce sexually. Fertilization can occur either internally or externally. Most fishes
accomplish fertilization by external means. The female lays her eggs, and the male immediately releases
his spermatozoa nearby. Internal fertilization occurs in sharks, rays, skates, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. Generally an external male organ is necessary for internal fertilization, but some amphibians
are able to push their cloaca outward to penetrate the female.
Oviparous, or egg-laying, animals deposit their eggs either before or after fertilization, depending on
whether the species is externally or internally fertilized. Examples of oviparous animals include all birds,
most amphibians and reptiles, and the platypus and spiny anteaters. Ovoviviparous animals such as
some fishes and reptiles retain the fertilized eggs inside their bodies until the eggs are ready to be
hatched. Viviparous animals carry their fetuses inside the uterus and give birth to live young.
Oviparous fishes and amphibians often lay more than a million tiny eggs at one time. The eggs grow
rapidly inside the ovary until they are ready to be laid. In vertebrates that lay larger eggs, such as birds
and reptiles, the eggs are suspended by a stalk from the ovary until mature enough to be laid. In
viviparous animals the eggs are microscopic, and thousands may be contained in a single ovary. Mature
ova from a human and a horse are about the same sizeless than 0.006 inch (0.15 millimeter).
Hermaphrodites within species contain both male and female gametes. Capable of both self-fertilization
and cross-fertilizing, hermaphrodites are more common in bony fishes than in other vertebrates. Usually
the animal functions first as a female to produce eggs, then later as a male to fertilize them.
Flatworms are able to reproduce by the process of fragmentation and regeneration because they are
hermaphroditic (see Regeneration). When a flatworm is cut in two, each section contains both male and
female gametes and is able to grow the missing portion.
Some insects reproduce sexually in one generation and asexually in the next. Aphids, for example,
reproduce asexually in the spring and produce only females. In the autumn both males and females are
produced and mate. In addition, some generations of aphids lay eggs, and others give birth to live
young.
Cloning is a rare variant of sexual reproduction seen in the parasitic wasp. The females mate and then
lay a single egg, which undergoes repeated binary fission until as many as 3,000 wasp eggs are
produced, each of which is genetically identical to all the others. (See also Genetics; Heredity; Pregnancy
and Birth; Sexually Transmitted Disease.)