Outlines

Chapter 15 Surveying the Stars

What kinds of star out there?
How can we measure their properties?
Chapter 16 Star Birth
How do they form?
Chapter 17 Star Stuff
How do stars live/evolve?
Chapter 18 The Stellar Graveyard
How do stars die?

Chapter 15
Surveying the Stars
Insert TCP 5e Chapter 15 Opener
Sun
Lets look at some pictures of stars
A variety of colors.
Star Evolves (Change with time)
High mass star
Low mass star
Evolution depends on mass.
Planetary Nebula (singular)
Planetary Nebulae (plural)
The end stage
of most stars.
Nova -- Novae
Small explosion on stellar
surface causes nova (star
suddenly becomes bright).
The explosion is caused by
the material falling from a
companion star.
Binary star
Two stars orbiting around each other.
Prof. Fred Walter is an expert of Novae.
Supernova Supernovae
Two types of suparnova
(Type I and Type II)
Type II Supernova
Type I Supernova
Computer simulation
(By Prof. Alan Calder at SBU)
Stellar Clusters
Open Clusters
Cluster in Formation
M45 (Pleiades)
Open clusters are mostly in the Milky Way.
Stellar Clusters
Globular Clusters
Concentrations of stars. All stars in stellar clusters formed almost
at the same time (hence, all stars have the same age).
Mostly outside the Milky Way
(MW) disk, but still inside the
MW.
15.1 Properties of Stars
Our goals for learning:
How do we measure stellar luminosities?
How do we measure stellar temperatures?
How do we measure stellar masses?
In science, we measure stuffs and
understand them. But how?
Remember: In case of Sun
We know the mass and luminosity (amount of
lights per second) of the Sun.
From those numbers, we made the model of the
Sun.
For other stars, we have to measure those numbers
first, and then make models (understand it!).
How do we measure stellar
luminosities?
What is the intrinsic brightness of stars?
How bright this Bulb is?
How much watt??
The brightness of a star depends on both distance and luminosity
Luminosity:

Amount of power a star
radiates

(energy per second =
watts)



Apparent brightness:

Amount of starlight that
reaches Earth

(energy per second per
square meter)
Insert TCP 5e Figure 15.1
Thought Question
These two stars have about the same
luminosity -- which one appears
brighter?

A. Alpha Centauri
B. The Sun
Luminosity passing
through each sphere is the
same


Area of sphere:

4! (radius)
2



Divide luminosity by area
to get brightness
The same amount of energy passes through these three squares.
The area of the squares increases with distance ! energy per unit
area decreases.
The relationship between apparent brightness and
luminosity depends on distance:

Luminosity
Brightness =
4! (distance)
2



We can determine a stars luminosity if we can measure
its distance and apparent brightness:


Luminosity = 4! (distance)
2
x (Brightness)



Thought Question
How would the apparent brightness of Alpha
Centauri change if it were three times
farther away?

A. It would be only 1/3 as bright
B. It would be only 1/6 as bright
C. It would be only 1/9 as bright
D. It would be three times brighter
So how far are these stars?
To calculate luminosity from apparent brightness, we need distance.
Parallax
is the apparent
shift in
position of a
nearby object
against a
background of
more distant
objects
Parallax angle
Because the Earth orbits around the Sun every year, the direction of
a star changes with season.
Apparent
positions of
nearest stars
shift by
about an
arcsecond
as Earth
orbits Sun
Parallax angle
depends on
distance
Angle=1 arcsecond
Because the Earth orbits around the Sun every year, the direction of
a star changes with season.
Distance = 1 parsec
Parallax and Distance
p = parallax angle
d (in parsecs) =
1
p (in arcseconds)
d (in light-years) = 3.26 !
1
p (in arcseconds)
Parallax angle gives us distance.
Now you know

Apparent brightness
how much energy you receive on Earth
Distance
Measuring Luminosity
You can calculate Luminosity
Most luminous
stars:

10
6
L
Sun



Least luminous
stars:

10
-4
L
Sun



(L
Sun
is luminosity
of Sun)
The Magnitude Scale
!
m = apparent magnitude , M = absolute magnitude
apparent brightness of Star 1
apparent brightness of Star 2
= (100
1/ 5
)
m
1
"m
2
luminosity of Star 1
luminosity of Star 2
= (100
1/ 5
)
M
1
"M
2
A 1
st
magnitude star is 100 times brighter than 6 magnitude star.
How do we measure stellar
temperatures?
Thermal Radiation
Nearly all objects emit thermal radiation,
including stars, planets, you

An objects thermal radiation spectrum depends
on only one property: its temperature

Properties of Thermal Radiation
Hotter objects
1. emit more light at all frequencies per unit area.
2. emit photons with a higher average energy.
3. are bluer (whiter).

Bluer Redder
Color of Stars
Stars color depends on its surface temperature.

More massive stars have higher temperature, therefore are
bluer (whiter) than less massive stars.

Hottest stars:

50,000 K

Coolest stars:

3,000 K

(Suns surface
is 5,800 K)
Solid
Molecules
Neutral Gas
Ionized
Gas
(Plasma)
So! Spectral lines (level
of ionization) also tell us
stars temperature
10 K
10
2
K
10
3
K
10
4
K
10
5
K
10
6
K
Phase of Matter
1. Phase of matter
depends on
temperature.
2. Spectral line
emission and
absorption depends
on the phase.
Absorption lines in stars spectrum tell us ionization level
Lines in a stars spectrum correspond to a spectral type that reveals its
temperature

(Hottest) O B A F G K M (Coolest)
(Hottest) O B A F G K M (Coolest)

Remembering Spectral Types
Oh, Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me
Only Boys Accepting Feminism Get Kissed
Meaningfully


Pioneers of Stellar Classification
Annie Jump
Cannon and her
collaborators at
Harvard laid the
foundation of
modern stellar
classification
How do we measure stellar
masses?
Most luminous
stars:

10
6
L
Sun



Least luminous
stars:

10
-4
L
sun


(L
Sun
is
luminosity of
Sun)
Most massive
stars:

? M
Sun



Least luminous
stars:

? M
sun


(M
Sun
is mass of
Sun)
Question
The orbit of a binary star system
depends on strength of gravity

REMEMBER:
Newtons law of gravity. Gravity (Mass) Orbital Motion
Types of Binary Star Systems
Visual Binary
Eclipsing Binary
Spectroscopic Binary
About half of all stars are in binary systems
Visual Binary
We can directly observe
the orbital motions of
these stars
Newtons law of gravity is universal
! Binary stars show elliptical orbits
like Earths orbit around the Sun
SBU Prof. Mike Simon is doing this.
Eclipsing Binary
We cannot observe the orbital motion, but can
measure periodic eclipses
A
B
Spectroscopic Binary
Again, we cannot see the orbit, but can determine the orbit by
measuring Doppler shifts
We measure mass
using gravity

Direct mass measurements are
possible only for stars in binary
star systems



p = period
a = average separation
p
2
= a
3

4!
2

G (M
1
+ M
2
)
Need 2 out of 3 observables to
measure mass:
1) Orbital Period (p)
2) Orbital Separation (a or r = radius)
3) Orbital Velocity (v)
For circular orbits, v = 2!r / p
r
M
v

Most massive
stars:

100 M
Sun



Least massive
stars:

0.08 M
Sun



(M
Sun
is the mass
of the Sun)
Supermassive
Black Hole at
the Center of
Milky Way
4 million times the
mass of our Sun
Gravity (Mass)
Orbital Motion
What have we learned?
How do we measure stellar luminosities?
If we measure a stars apparent brightness and
distance, we can compute its luminosity with
the inverse square law for light
Parallax tells us distances to the nearest stars
How do we measure stellar temperatures?
A stars color and spectral type both reflect its
temperature
What have we learned?
How do we measure stellar masses?
Newtons version of Keplers third law tells us
the total mass of a binary system, if we can
measure the orbital period (p) and average
orbital separation of the system (a)
15.2 Patterns Among Stars
Our goals for learning:
What is a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram?
What is the significance of the main
sequence?
What are giants, supergiants, and white
dwarfs?
Why do the properties of some stars vary?
What is a Hertzsprung-Russell
diagram?
Stellar Classification
Library Classification (example in our life)
Alphabetical indexing
Subject access (politics, economics, etc)

Stellar Classification
Many types of stars
Need to categorize (classify) them before understanding.
Of course, we want to do this in a scientific way.
Temperature (Color)
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Stellar Classification
on an H-R diagram.

An H-R diagram
plots the luminosity
and temperature
(color) of stars
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
Observe
luminosity &
surface temperature
of stars.
Plot on the H-R
diagram
Roughly,
Three types:

Giants &
supergiants
Main sequence


White Dwarfs
Most stars fall
somewhere on
the main sequence
of the H-R
diagram


Sun is a main
sequence star.
Main Sequence
Stars with lower
T and higher L
than main-
sequence stars
must have larger
radii:

giants and
supergiants
Large radius
Main Sequence
They are redder
!Lower Temperature
! Fainter (in unit area)
! Have to be bigger to
be bright (higher L)
Small radius
Stars with higher
T and lower L
than main-
sequence stars
must have
smaller radii:

white dwarfs
Main Sequence
They are bluer (whiter)
!Higher Temperature
! Brighter (in unit area)
! Have to be smaller to
be faint (lower L)
Temperature
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

H-R diagram
depicts:

Temperature
Color
Spectral Type
Luminosity
Radius

Color Blue Red
High Low
Spectral Type O B A F G K M
Small radius
Large radius
Temperature
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Which star
is the
hottest?


A, B, C, or D
Quiz 1
Temperature
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Which star is
the most
luminous?


A, B, C, or D
Quiz 2
Temperature
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Which star is
a main-
sequence
star?


A, B, C, or D
Quiz 3
Temperature
L
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

Which star has
the largest
radius?


A, B, C, or D
Quiz 4
Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
An H-R diagram is a good, scientific way to
classify stars.
The Location of a star in H-R diagram gives
you an idea of characteristics of the star.
What is the significance of the
main sequence?

Main-sequence stars
are fusing
hydrogen into
helium in their
cores like the Sun

Luminous main-
sequence stars are
hot (blue)

Less luminous
ones are cooler
(yellow or red)
Luminous and
Hotter (blue)
Less luminous and
Cooler
Sun is a main-sequence star.

Mass
measurements of
main-sequence
stars show that the
hot, blue stars are
much more
massive than the
cool, red ones
Mass of main-sequence star
Luminous and
Hotter (blue)
Massive
Less luminous and
Cooler
Less massive

The mass of a
normal, hydrogen-
burning star
determines its
luminosity and
spectral type!
High-mass stars
Low-mass stars
Why more massive
main-sequence star is
more luminous and
bluer?
Two forces balance
Gravity ~ Pressure
Remember: Gravitational Equilibrium
More mass
! Stronger gravity
! Higher core pressure
! Higher core temperature
! More nuclear fusion (more energy)
! More luminosity
Nuclear Fusion
Stellar Properties Review
Luminosity: from brightness and distance

10
-4
L
Sun
- 10
6
L
Sun


Temperature: from color and spectral type

3,000 K - 50,000 K

Mass: from period (p) and average separation (a)
of binary-star orbit

0.08 M
Sun
- 100 M
Sun


(0.08 M
Sun
)
(100 M
Sun
)
(100 M
Sun
) (0.08 M
Sun
)
Mass & Lifetime
Massive star
Less massive star
Guess

Which star dies first?

In other word,
which star exhausts the fuel for
nuclear fusion first?
A = Massive star
B = Less massive star
Mass & Lifetime
Suns life expectancy: 10 billion years

Life expectancy of 10 M
Sun
star:

10 times as much fuel, uses it 10
4
times as fast

10 million years ~ 10 billion years x 10 / 10
4


Life expectancy of 0.1 M
Sun
star:

0.1 times as much fuel, uses it 0.01 times as fast

100 billion years ~ 10 billion years x 0.1 / 0.01

Until core hydrogen
(10% of total) is
used up
Note: the age of the Universe is 14 billion years.
Main-Sequence Star Summary
High Mass:
High Luminosity
Short-Lived
Large Radius
Blue

Low Mass:
Low Luminosity
Long-Lived
Small Radius
Red
What are giants, supergiants, and
white dwarfs?
Off the Main Sequence
Stellar properties depend on both mass and age: those that
have finished fusing H to He in their cores are no longer on
the main sequence

All stars become larger and redder after exhausting their
core hydrogen: giants and supergiants

Most stars end up small and white after fusion has ceased:
white dwarfs
After the lifetime in main-
sequence, a star evolves to
the giants/supergiants part
of an H-R diagram.
Stellar envelope
(outer layer) expands
! Cool down
! Bigger and Redder
Main-sequence ! Giants/Supergiants
Sizes of Giants and Supergiants
Planetary Nebula
An expanding outer
layer of a star
eventually escapes
from stars
gravitational field.
Planetary nebula is
an expanding
envelope (outer
layer) of star.
White Dwarf
At the end,

The stellar envelope (outer
layer) keeps expanding.

The core shrink to become
white dwarf.
If its a massive star, the
core becomes even more
massive, dense object (i.e.,
neutron star or black hole).
What have we learned?
What is a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram?
An H-R diagram plots stellar luminosity of
stars versus surface temperature (or color or
spectral type)
What is the significance of the main
sequence?
Normal stars that fuse H to He in their cores
fall on the main sequence of an H-R diagram
A stars mass determines its position along the
main sequence (high-mass: luminous and blue;
low-mass: faint and red)
What have we learned?
What are giants, supergiants, and white
dwarfs?
All stars become larger and redder after core
hydrogen burning is exhausted: giants and
supergiants
Most stars end up as tiny white dwarfs after
fusion has ceased
Why do the properties of some stars vary?
Some stars fail to achieve balance between
power generated in the core and power radiated
from the surface
15.3 Star Clusters
Our goals for learning:
What are the two types of star clusters?
How do we measure the age of a star
cluster?
What are the two types of star
clusters?
Open cluster: A few thousand loosely packed stars

All member stars formed almost at the same time, so they have
the same age.
Globular cluster: Up to a million or more stars in a dense ball bound
together by gravity
All member stars formed almost at the same time, so they have
the same age.
How do we measure the age of a
star cluster?
Massive
blue stars
die first,
followed
by white,
yellow,
orange,
and
red stars
Pleiades now
has no stars
with life
expectancy
less than
around 100
million years
Main-sequence
turnoff
Massive stars have
short lifetimes on
main-sequence, and
must have moved to
giants/supergiants.
No star
Giants
Supergiants
Main-
sequence
turnoff point
of a cluster
tells us its age
4 clusters
To determine
accurate ages,
we compare
models of stellar
evolution to the
cluster data
Detailed
modeling of
the oldest
globular
clusters
reveals that
they are
about 13
billion years
old
Born very early in
the Universe.
Globular Cluster
What have we learned?
What are the two types of star clusters?
Open clusters are loosely packed and contain
up to a few thousand stars
Globular clusters are densely packed and
contain hundreds of thousands of stars
How do we measure the age of a star
cluster?
A star clusters age roughly equals the life
expectancy of its most massive stars still on the
main sequence