Lecture 03

Find thermal radiation intensity:
Consider slab of
blackbody radiation:
Relate W(f) to I(,,f) = radiation intensity
i.e., to
VOL SURFACE
Let slab radiate without replacement:

vol. = ,
contains W
[J Hz
-1
]
W

= W(f) dV = [J Hz
-1
]
V
[J m
-3
Hz
-1
] [
-2
ster
-1
Hz
-1
]
Unit area
W

= hf
3
8
c
3
e -1
hf/kT
= I
o
cos =
4I
o

c
e -1
hf/kT
I
o
(f,,) = 2hf
3
Wm
-2
Hz
-1
ster
-1
Plancks radiation law
c
2

20
I(f) dt dA d
Wm
/(c cos ) 1 d
I
o
(f,,)
in the limit hf <<kT
2kT
2
Rayleigh-J eans Law
Rayleigh-J eans region
hf << kT
1000 T
o
100 T
o
10 T
o
T
o
log
log I
o
21
Paradox:
1 1 2
2
ster Hz Wm

antenna
blackbody
(radio limit)
KT WHz
-1
Z
0
f()
how?
single mode
Answer:
-1
mode
-1
2

Two polarizations
Number of modes/Hzm
2
ster
) ( f
2
=

22
kT 2
kT WHz
kT 2
kT 2
[ ]
j
j
1 e
1
hf n hf

= [TEM line cavity]
Recall: kT/2 J /degree of freedom m mechanical systems
sin t
cos t
orthogonal degrees of freedom, 2 per mode
Note: In the radio limit: hf
j
...
Therefore we also obtain kT/2 J /degree of freedom
for thermal radiation
23
1 -
kT hf
mode J kT
Thermal radiation from lossy lines:
A
slightly lossy
Z
o
Z
o
dz
P
+
= kT kT e
- dz
+ emission = kT in equilibrium
( ) [ ] ( ) dz kT dz 1 e Emission
dz
= =

24
1 kT 1 kT
What is thermal emission when not in equilibrium?
Answer: same, recall linearity of Maxwells equations

+ =
L
o
dz
dz
in out
dz e ) z ( ) z ( e kT kT
L
z
L
o
( )

+ = e 1 T e T T
line in out
z
T(z)
?
kT
in
T
line
T
in
T
out

+ =

max
L
o
0
dz
in out
d e ) ( T e T T
Equation of radiative transfer

MAX
25
T k

Definition of a decibel:
1 2 10
P P

e.g.:
0 dB if P
2
= P
1
10 dB if P
2
= 10P
1
20 dB if P
2
= 100P
1
26
log 10 gain dB
Example of thermal noise from lossy line:
300K
2 dB loss
3K
T
out
(K) = ?
) 10
P
P
e (
10
2
1
2
= = =

Case 1: = 0 T
out
= 3K
Case 2: 2 dB loss T
out
= 3 113K
Case 3: = T
out
= 300K
27
63 . 0

0.63 + 300(1 - 0.63)
Thermal noise voltage (J ohnson noise) in circuits
R
Z
o
= R
noise
B
Hz
R
R
+
-
e
n
Z
o
= R
Bandpass filter
0K
Thermal noise
Watts dissipated in load R: ( ) R 2 e kTB
2
rms
=
e
rms
=
Example: Amplifier, 50 input, B = 100 MHz, T = 300K
50 10 300 10 4 e
8 23
rms
= =

(9.1 mv if R = 50M)
28
Hz) B (in volts 4kTBR noise) (thermal
v 1 . 9 38 . 1
Shot Noise
For example, occurs in diodes:
0
i(t)
t
single electron
i(t)
B 0
S(f) WHz
-1
S(f) = ei
If each charge moves independently,
arrivals are poisson distributed:
For example, let i = 1 ma, B = 10
8
Hz
i(t)
i(t)
We later show
8 3 19 2
AC
10 10 10 2 B i i = =

50 i Then
rms
AC

f t
29
6 . 1 e 2
noise shot V 9
Approximate derivation of shot noise
B
f
i(t)
anode
cathode
0
n
n
i
>>

=
Assume boxcar i(t)
i(t)
t
e = electron charge
i(t)
e/

t

Poisson distributed
arrival times
Sounds like falling shot
30
assumption by , B
sec electrons/ # avg.
e n
n
n
=
>>

Assume boxcar i(t)
e = electron charge
i(t)
e/

t
) f ( ) (
) t ( i
i i

[ ] ) ) (
i

( )
2 2
2
i
e
= =

( )
2
0
31
-
i ne
avg. #electrons/sec
B, by assumption

- i(t)i(t E
e n
e n
) f ( ) (
) t ( i
i i

[ ] ) ) (
i

( )
2 2
2
i
e
= =

( )
2
0
AC DC
i i i
) f ( +
B
~1/ Hz
0
( )
1 2
Hz i e
= [ ] i
2
i
(f)
f
[ ]
2
AC
2
i
Amp i =

32

- i(t)i(t E
e n
e n
=
e n DC , watts
Be 2 : Hz B in
Shot noise example
i
B
R
6
=
=
=
10 R i v = = =
i
AC
2
i
=
5000 10 10 10 2 R ) shot ( v
3 19 6
AC
2
i rms
= =

=

5000 10 300 10 4
) thermal ( v
6 23
rms
+
R
i(t)
-
33
ma 1
Hz 10
K 5
volts 5 K 5
3 -
Be 2
mv 1 . 0 6 . 1
mv 01 . 0 38 . 1
kTBR 4
- v(t) +
Receiver Architecture
Professor David H. Staelin
Graphics:
Receivers-A1
Scott Bressler
Uses of receivers
I. Power measurement
II.
III. Infinite set possible; estimate one or more parameters,
e.g. arrival time, amplitude, Doppler, etc., e.g.
Design of waveform sets is part of our problem

v(t)
A2
Finite set of transmitted signals is possible; which is it?
Measurement of noise power in B Hz
Noise voltage
Noisy
receiver
Estimate
average power
for sec
Simply compute average output power over sec:
) t ( v
2

A3
Total power radiometer
+
0
B B
P
A
= kT
A
( )
2
h(t)
display
P
R
= kT
R
t
v
d
(t)
t
v
i
(t)
t
v
o
(t)
v
i
(t) v
d
(t)=v
i
2
(t)

=
0
d ) ( h ) t ( v ) t ( v
d o
t
Voltage for T
A
+T
R
f
A4

Total power radiometer
+
0
B B
P
A
= kT
A
( )
2
h(t)
display
P
R
= kT
R
t
v
i
(t)
t
v
o
(t)
t
v
o
(t) compressed time
v
rms
( )
R A o
T T v +
o
v
v
i
(t) v
d
(t)=v
i
2
(t)

=
0
d o
d ) ( h ) t ( v ) t ( v
0
t
Voltage for T
A
+T
R
A5

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