Calculation of receiver sensitivity

( )
A o
o
rms
T v
v
K T
rms

where
A o
T v
calibrates voltage as temperature
o DC o
v ) f (
rms
o AC o
v ) f (
Approach:
) f ( ) f ( ) t (
) t ( v
o d d
d

?
t
v
o
(t) compressed time
v
rms
T
rms
( )
R A o
T T v +
o
v
0
Receivers-B1
T
A
+ T
R

Calculation of
d
(f), Power spectrum of v
i
2
(t), v
i
gaussian
)] t ( v ) t ( v [ E )] t ( v ) t ( v [ E ) (
2
i
2
i d d d
= =
not gaussian
gaussian v
i
It can be shown that:
E[wxyz] = E[wx]E[yz] + E[wy]E[xz] + E[wz]E[xy]
if w,x,y,z are jointly gaussian random variables [J GRV]
with zero mean [J GRVZM]
B2
v
u
v
u
u,v are J GRVZM
u,v are NOT J GRV,
but are each GRVZM

Calculation of
d
(f), Power spectrum of v
i
2
(t), v
i
gaussian
)] t ( v ) t ( v [ E )] t ( v ) t ( v [ E ) (
2
i
2
i d d d
= =
not gaussian
gaussian v
i
It can be shown that:
E[wxyz] = E[wx]E[yz] + E[wy]E[xz] + E[wz]E[xy]
if w,x,y,z are jointly gaussian random variables [J GRV]
with zero mean [J GRVZM]
) ( 2 ) 0 ( ) t ( v ) t ( ) t ( v ) t ( v ) (
2
i
2
i
2
i i
2
i
2
i d
+ =
[Ergodic]
= ) f (
d
) f ( ) f ( 2 ) f ( ) 0 (
i i
2
i

+
7 7 7
B2

v 2 = +

) f ( ) f ( 2 ) f ( ) 0 ( ) f (
i i
2
i d

+
Evaluation of
d
(f)

= = df ) f ( ) t ( v ) 0 ( ) 1
i
2
i i
( )
R A eff eff
T T T B kT +

=
where
-f
o
0
B
f
kT
eff
/2

i
(f)
) f ( ) f ( 2)
i i

-B B 0
f
2B 2B
( ) 2 kT
2
eff

-2f
o
+2f
o
=
f
o
B3
=

B 2
) f ( ) f ( 2 ) f ( ) 0 ( ) f (
i i
2
i d

+
Evaluation of
d
(f)

= = df ) f ( ) t ( v ) 0 ( ) 1
i
2
i i
( )
R A eff eff
T T T B kT +

=
) f ( ) f ( 2)
i i

-B B 0
f
2B 2B
( ) 2 kT
2
eff

-2f
o
+2f
o
=
3) Therefore:
-B B 0
f
( ) B kT
2
eff
-2f
o
+2f
o

d
(f)
( ) ) f ( B kT
2
eff

B4
=

B 2
Filtered output power density spectrum
o
(f)
+
0
B B
P
A
= kT
A
( )
2
h(t)
display
P
R
= kT
R
2
d o
d o
) f ( H ) f ( ) f (
) t ( h ) t ( v ) t ( v
=
=
AC+DC terms
Say:
h(t)
A
0
t

/2
Integrator impulse response
f
o
v
d
(t)

o
(f)
v
o
(t)
) f ( H
2 j
e

( )
1/
0
f
B5
f 2
delay 2
2
d o
d o
) f ( H ) f ( ) f (
) t ( h ) t ( v ) t ( v
=
=
AC+DC terms
Say:
h(t)
A
0
t

/2
Integrator impulse response
) 0 f ( =
=
=

=
A
dt e ) t ( h
t ) 0 f ( 2 j
2
) f ( H
f
0
1/
(Typically 1/<< B)
Filtered output power density spectrum
o
(f)
) f ( H
2 j
e

( )
1/
0
f
B6
H : Then

f 2
delay 2
( ) ( )
( )

=
= =
df ) f ( H B kT df ) f ( P
) f ( A B kT ) f (
2
2
eff o o
2 2
eff o
AC AC
DC
Note that if 1/<< B, only the value of
d
(f = 0) is important,
so this integral is trivial.
By Parsevals theorem:
= =

2 2
2
A dt ) t ( h df ) f ( H
2
) f ( H
f
0
1/
(Typically 1/<< B)
Filtered output power density spectrum
o
(f)
B7

power DC : Thus
Total-Power Radiometer Sensitivity T
rms
( )
[ ]
( )
[ ] ( )

=

=
B A kT
T BA kT
A B kT
K
T P
P
T
eff
A eff
2 2
eff
A DC
AC
rms
T
A
+ T
R
-
B
T T
T
R A
rms

+
=
B8
B kA
radiometer power total for
Effect of different integrator impulse response
2
d o
) f ( H ) f ( ) f ( =
Recall
We need to compute
= =

dt ) t ( h ) 0 f ( H
Then

=
kB
2 B kT
T
eff
rms
2 dt ) t ( h df ) f ( H
2
2
=

Suppose h(t)
0

t
1
t
e
Greater sensitivity, but at the expense of a longer memory
( )

+
=
T T
T
R A
rms
B9
=

=
B 2
Example: Radio telescope receiver
Example: Voice radio, AM
s 8
rms
R A
300 10 30 T
T
= =
= = +
R A
4 4 4 4
rms
R A
T T 10 10 10 T
sec 10 10kHz, T f
+ = = =
= = +

B10
100 for K K 003 . 0 sec 1 : then
MHz 100 B , K 30 T : Possible
4 -
K 10 : then
B , K 000 , 10 T : I =
Receiver sensitivity derivation: sampled signals
Sampling-Theorem approach for the total-power radiometer
Nyquist sampling: e.g.
T
t
Highest f (=B here) T = 1/2B
0 B
f
( )
2
0 T
t
h(t)

v
o
(t) T
A
T
R
i(t)
v
i
v
d
+
T < 1/2B pulse correlation
T > 1/2B lost information
0 T 2T
t
T = 1/2B is the
Nyquist rate
i(t)
Receivers-C1
Computation of T
rms
for a sampled system
Boxcar having /T = 2Bsamples
0
t
T
0
t
T 2T
1 T v
boxcar
d
>>

0 T

t
h(t)
1
T
v
v
T
A
o
o
rms
AC
rms
=

=
2
d o
=
#samples
variance of v
d
v
i
(t)
2Bsamples
v
d
(t)
(central limit theorem)
C2
2B if Gaussian
B 2
=
n) calibratio n/scale fluctuatio (output
B 2 v of Variance
T
v
v
T
A
o
o
rms
AC
rms
=

=
2
d o
=
#samples
variance of v
d
( ) ( )
2
2
i
2
i
2
d
d
2
d
v v v v =

(where v
i
= J GRVZM)
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
i
4
i
2
2
i
2
2
i
4
i
v v v v = + =
) x a T
2
eff
2
i
2
=
) 1 n ( 5
n n
= =
(where x = J GRVZM)
( )
N N
2 2
eff
2
1
2
3
4 2 2
eff
2
2
i
4
i
2
d
a x x a T v v =

= =
2 2
eff
o
a =
C3
n) calibratio n/scale fluctuatio (output
B 2 v of Variance
v 2
a" " defines equation (this v and here 1 x : Let
odd n if , 0 x even; if , 3 1 x : Recall
T 2 : Thus
T 2 B 2 v of variance the and
2 2
eff
o
a =
a T
T v
T
a T v v
eff
A
o
o
rms
eff
2
i
o

=

=
= =
= B T T
eff rms
as before
Note: #samples = 2B , B 1 variance
Computation of T
rms
for a sampled system
C4
T 2 B 2 v of variance
a B 2
B 4
v of variance
B 2 B 2
Gain fluctuations in total-power radiometers
( )
2
eff
2
eff
2 2
thermal rms
m
B
1
T T T +

= +
(Note: 0.1% gain fluct. @ T
eff
= 2000K 2K!)
1 ( m 1 ) t ( g << +
T
eff
g(t) = (T
A
+ T
R
)g(t)
2
eff
2
rms =
0
t
Receivers-E1
T m
m ), t
T m
One solution to gain variations: Synchronous detection
Dicke radiometer
receiver

T
A
T
CAL
Z
o
T
R
v
o
(t)
+
-
v
SD
(t) T
A
- T
CAL
v
o
(t)
0
t
integrated by upper integrator
integrated by lower integrator
=
rms
SD
v unchanged (looking at same signal all the time)
but =
eff SD
T v
B T
eff rms
Dicke
=
former value (we view T
A
half the time)
2
1
~V
SD
Note: gain is irrelevant
when T
A
= T
C
(T
R
+ T
A
)
(T
R
+ T
C
)
E2
only) null (at T 2
Asymmetric Dicke radiometer
Integration times
A
and
c
should be shorter than the fluctuation
times of the desired signal and system gain, respectively.
Want:
A
<< desired-signal fluctuation time constant

c
>
A
(typically
c

A
)
v
o
(t)
T
R
+ T
A
T
R
+ T
C
RCVR

C
+
-
V
SD
v
o
(t)
t
0

E3
Filtered Dicke radiometer
receiver
Narrowband
filter at
Dicke frequency
v
o
(t)
v
o
(t)

+
-
T
CAL
Z
o
T
A
v
o
(t)
o
(t)
t
t

= B T
2
T
eff rms
narrowband Dicke 2 =
v
SD
E4
v
22 . 2
Correlation radiometer
Uses:
Correlator power density spectrum, pre-integrator:
[ ] ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t ( ) (
b a b a m
=
Typical circuit:
0
t
h(t)

+
B 0
f
+
B
0
f
S(t)
T
A
K
T
R
T
R
n
a
(t)
n
b
(t)
v
b
(t)
v
a
(t)
power/2
v
m
(t)
volts
2
) t ( S
v
o
(t)
E5
1) To reduce radiometric gain modulation effects
(similar to Dicke receiver)
2) As a correlator
v E
Correlator power density spectrum, pre-integrator
[ ] ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t ( ) (
b a b a m
=

+ =
2 2 1 1
b
2
a
2
b
1
a
1
n
2
S
n
2
S
n
2
S
n
2
S
E
)
2 2 1 1

BC AD BD AC CD AB + + =
N
2 2 2
m s s s n n
n n
S n
1 1
( ) (0) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4 2

= +

n n n s s s
2
s m
) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f (
2
1
) f ( ) 0 (
4
1
) f (

+ =
E6
v E
- n(t n ), - S(t S n(t), n S(t), S Where
ABCD : so J GRVZM, All
S S terms
+ +

n n n S
S S
+ +


n n n s s s
2
s m
) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f ( ) f (
2
1
) f ( ) 0 (
4
1
) f (

+ =
Sensitivity of correlation radiometer
) f ( ) 0 (
4
1
P
ac
2
s dc

=

=
B
T
T P
P
T
eff
A dc
ac
rms
2
R R A
2
A
2
eff
T + + =
R
A R
A A R
2T
T i (T T )
B
T T B i (T T )

E7


n n n S
S S
+ +
terms other the from P and , from follows
T 2 T T 2 T where
rms
rms
for the weak-s gnal case
for the strong-s gnal case
< <
> >
Summary radiometer sensitivity
Radiometer type T
rms
T
eff
2
Relative sensitivity
to small fluctuations
Total power
B T
eff
( )
2
R A
T T + 1
Dicke
Correlation
B T
eff
B T 2
eff
( )
2
R
2
R A
T T T + +
( ) null at T T
2
R A
+
2 at null
2
Dicke narrowband
post detector

B T
2
eff
( )
2
R A
T T +
2.22
E8