Geometry Handbook

Copyright20102014,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.
AllRightsReserved
MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Geometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.51
October23,2014
GeometryHandbook
T bl fC
Page Description
Chapter1:Basics
6 Points Lines & Planes
TableofContents
6 Points,Lines&Planes
7 Segments,Rays&Lines
8 DistanceBetweenPoints(1Dimensional,2Dimensional)
9 DistanceFormulainn Dimensions
10 Angles
11 TypesofAngles
Chapter 2: Proofs Chapter2:Proofs
12 ConditionalStatements(Original,Converse,Inverse,Contrapositive)
13 BasicPropertiesofAlgebra(EqualityandCongruence,AdditionandMultiplication)
14 Inductivevs.DeductiveReasoning
15 AnApproachtoProofs
Chapter3:ParallelandPerpendicularLines
16 ParallelLinesandTransversals
17 MultipleSetsofParallelLines
18 ProvingLinesareParallel
19 ParallelandPerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
Chapter4:TrianglesBasic
20 TypesofTriangles(Scalene,Isosceles,Equilateral,Right) yp g ( , , q , g )
21 CongruentTriangles(SAS,SSS,ASA,AAS,CPCTC)
22 CentersofTriangles
23 LengthofHeight,MedianandAngleBisector
24 InequalitiesinTriangles
Chapter5:Polygons
25 Polygons Basic (Definitions Names of Common Polygons) 25 PolygonsBasic(Definitions,NamesofCommonPolygons)
26 PolygonsMoreDefinitions(Definitions,DiagonalsofaPolygon)
27 InteriorandExteriorAnglesofaPolygon
-2-
Version 2.51 October 23, 2014
GeometryHandbook
T bl fC TableofContents
Page Description
Chapter6:Quadrilaterals
28 Definitions of Quadrilaterals 28 DefinitionsofQuadrilaterals
29 FiguresofQuadrilaterals
30 CharacteristicsofParallelograms
31 ParallelogramProofs(SufficientConditions)
32 KitesandTrapezoids
Chapter7:Transformations
33 I t d ti t T f ti 33 IntroductiontoTransformation
35 Reflection
36 Rotation
37 Rotationby90aboutaPoint(x
0
,y
0
)
40 Translation
41 Compositions
Chapter8:Similarity
42 RatiosInvolvingUnits
43 SimilarPolygons
44 ScaleFactorofSimilarPolygons
45 DilationsofPolygons
46 MoreonDilation
47 Similar Triangles (SSS SAS AA) 47 SimilarTriangles(SSS,SAS,AA)
48 ProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
49 ThreeSimilarTriangles
Chapter9:RightTriangles
50 PythagoreanTheorem
51 PythagoreanTriples
52 S i l T i l (45 45 90 T i l 30 60 90 T i l ) 52 SpecialTriangles(454590Triangle,306090Triangle)
53 TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
54 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
55 GraphsofTrigonometricFunctions
56 Vectors
57 OperatingwithVectors
-3-
GeometryHandbook
Page Description
Chapter10:Circles
58 Parts of a Circle 58 PartsofaCircle
59 AnglesandCircles
Chapter11:PerimeterandArea
60 PerimeterandAreaofaTriangle
61 MoreontheAreaofaTriangle
62 PerimeterandAreaofQuadrilaterals
63 P i t d A f G l P l 63 PerimeterandAreaofGeneralPolygons
64 CircleLengthsandAreas
65 AreaofCompositeFigures
Chapter12:SurfaceAreaandVolume
66 Polyhedra
67 AHoleinEulersTheorem
68 PlatonicSolids
69 Prisms
70 Cylinders
71 SurfaceAreabyDecomposition
72 Pyramids
73 Cones
74 Spheres p
75 SimilarSolids
76 SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
77 SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
78 Index
-4-
GeometryHandbook
UsefulWebsites
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
http://www.mathleague.com/help/geometry/geometry.htm
MathLeagueSpecializesinmathcontests,books,andcomputersoftwareforstudentsfromthe4th
gradethroughhighschool.
California Standard Geometry Test A standardized Geometry test released by the state of California
http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/sr/documents/rtqgeom.pdf
SchaumsOutlines
CaliforniaStandardGeometryTestAstandardizedGeometrytestreleasedbythestateofCalifornia.
Agoodwaytotestyourknowledge.
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolmathstudentisa
SchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthe
varioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthe
studenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothe
studentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Geometry In particular I used Geometry by Ron Larson Laurie Boswell and Lee Stiff to
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Noble,Bordersand
otherbooksellers.
School Geometry. In particular, I used Geometry, by Ron Larson, Laurie Boswell, and Lee Stiff to
determine which subjects to include in this guide. Although a significant effort was made to make
the material in this study guide original, some material from Geometry was used in the preparation
of the study guide.
-5-
Geometry
Points,Lines&Planes
Anintersectionofgeometric
shapesisthesetofpointsthey
shareincommon.
landmintersectatpointE.
landnintersectatpointD.
mandnintersectinlineAB
Item Illustration Notation Definition

Point A Alocationinspace.
Segment
AB
Astraightpaththathastwoendpoints.
Ray
AB
Astraightpaththathasoneendpoint
andextendsinfinitelyinonedirection.
Line
lorAB
Astraightpaththatextendsinfinitelyin
bothdirections.
Plane
morAB
Aflatsurfacethatextendsinfinitelyin
twodimensions.
Collinearpointsarepointsthatlieonthesameline.
Coplanarpointsarepointsthatlieonthesameplane.
Inthefi gure atright:

A, B, C, D, F anu Farepoints.
lisaline
mandnareplanes.
Inaddit n : io ,notethat
Farecollinearpoints. C, D, F anu
arecoplanarpoints. A, B u F
A, B u Darecoplanarpoints.
an
an
RayFF
goesoffinasoutheastdirection.
RayFC
goesof anorthwestdirection. fin

Together,raysFF
andFC
makeuplinel.
Linelintersectsbothplanesmandn.
Note:Ingeometricfiguressuchastheoneabove,itis
importanttorememberthat,eventhoughplanesare
drawnwithedges,theyextendinfinitelyinthe2
dimensionsshown.
-6-
Geometry
Segments,Rays&Lines
SomeThoughtsAbout
LineSegments
Linesegmentsaregenerallynamedbytheirendpoints,sothe
segment ghtcouldbenamedeitherAB
orBA
. atri
SegmentAB
containsthetwoendpoints(AandB)andallpointsonlineAB
thatare
betweenthem.
Rays
Raysaregenerallynamedbytheirsingleendpoint,
calle ninitialpoint,andanotherpointontheray. da
RayAB
containsitsinitialpointAandallpointsonline
AB
in edirectionofthearrow. th
RaysAB
andBA
ar tthesameray. eno
IfpointOisonlineAB
andisbetweenpointsAandB,
thenraysOA
andOB
arecalledoppositerays.They
haveonlypointOincommon,andtogethertheymakeuplineAB
.
Lines
Linesaregenerallynamedbyeitherasinglescriptletter
(e.g.,l)orbytwopointsontheline(e.g.,.AB
).
ow Alineextendsinfinitelyinthedirectionssh nbyits
arrows.
Linesareparalleliftheyareinthesameplaneandthey
neverintersect.Linesfand g,atright,areparallel.
Linesareperpendiculariftheyintersectata90angle.A
pairofperpendicularlinesisalwaysinthesameplane.
Linesfand e,atright,areperpendicular.Linesgand e are
alsoperpendicular.
Linesareskewiftheyarenotinthesameplaneandthey
neverintersect.Lineskand l,atright,areskew.
(Rememberthisfigureis3dimensional.)
-7-
Geometry
DistanceBetweenPoints
Distancemeasureshowfaraparttwothingsare.Thedistancebetweentwopointscanbe
measuredinanynumberofdimensions,andisdefinedasthelengthofthelineconnectingthe
twopoints.Distanceisalwaysapositivenumber.
1DimensionalDistance
Inonedimensionthedistancebetweentwopointsisdeterminedsimplybysubtractingthe
coordinatesofthepoints.
Example:Inthissegment,thedistancebetween2and5iscalculatedas:S -(-2) = 7.
2DimensionalDistance
Intwodimensions,thedistancebetweentwopointscanbecalculatedbyconsideringtheline
betweenthemtobethehypotenuseofarighttriangle.Todeterminethelengthofthisline:
Calculatethedifferenceinthexcoordinatesofthepoints
Calculatethedifferenceintheycoordinatesofthepoints
UsethePythagoreanTheorem.
Thisprocessisillustratedbelow,usingthevariabled fordistance.
Example:Findthedistancebetween(1,1)and(2,5).Basedonthe
illustrationtotheleft:
xcoordinatedifference: S. 2 -(-1) =
ycoordinatedifference:S -1 = 4.
Then,thedistanceiscalculatedusingtheformula:
2
+4
2
) = (9 +16) = 2S J
2
= (S
So, d = 5
Ifwedefinetwopointsgenerallyas(x
1
,y
1
)and(x
2
,y
2
),thena2dimensionaldistanceformula
wouldbe:
d|xtance = (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2

-8-
ADVANCED
Geometry
DistanceFormulainnDimensions
Thedistancebetweentwopointscanbegeneralizedtondimensionsbysuccessiveuseofthe
PythagoreanTheoreminmultipledimensions.Tomovefromtwodimensionstothree
dimensions,westartwiththetwodimensionalformulaandapplythePythagoreanTheoremto
addthethirddimension.
3Dimensions
Considertwo3dimensionalpoints(x
1
,y
1
,z
1
)and(x
2
,y
2
,z
2
).Considerfirstthesituation
wherethetwozcoordinatesarethesame.Then,thedistancebetweenthepointsis2
dimensional,i.e.,J = (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2
.
Wethe thePythagoreanTheorem: naddathirddimensionusing
2
(z ) Jistoncc = J
2
+
2
-z
1
2
( ( Jistoncc
2
= ( x
2
-x
1
)
2
+ y
2
-y
1
)
2
)
2
(z
2
-
Jistoncc
2
= (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2
+(z
2
-z
1
)
2
+ z
1
)
2
And,finallythe3dimensionaldifferenceformula:
d|xtance = (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2
+(z
2
-z
1
)
2
nDimensions
Usingthesamemethodologyinndimensions,wegetthegeneralizedndimensional
difference e r n l, e sion): formula(wh retherea e termsbeneaththe radica oneforeachdim n
d|xtance = (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2
+(z
2
-z
1
)
2
++(w
2
-w
1
)
2
Or,inhigherlevelmathematicalnotation:
Thedistancebetween2pointsA=(a
1
,a
2
,,a
n
)andB=(b
1
,b
2
,,b
n
)is
d(A, B) = |A -B| = _(a

|
-h
|
)
2
n
|=1

-9-
Geometry
Angles
PartsofanAngle
Anangleconsistsoftworayswithacommon
endpoint(or,initialpoint).
Eachrayisasideoftheangle.
Thecommonendpointiscalledthevertexof
theangle.
NamingAngles
Anglescanbenamedinoneoftwoways:
Pointvertexpointmethod.Inthismethod,theangleisnamedfromapointonone
ray,thevertex,andapointontheotherray.Thisisthemostunambiguousmethodof
naminganangle,andisusefulindiagramswithmultipleanglessharingthesamevertex.
Intheabovefigure,theangleshowncouldbenamedzBAC oi zCAB.
Vertexmethod.Incaseswhereitisnotambiguous,ananglecanbenamedbasedsolely
onitsvertex.Intheabovefigure,theanglecouldbenamedzA.
MeasureofanAngle
Therearetwoconventionsformeasuringthesizeofanangle:
Indegrees.Thesymbolfordegreesis.Thereare360inafullcircle.Theangleabove
measuresapproximately45(oneeighthofacircle).
Inradians.Thereare2nradiansinacompletecircle.Theangleabovemeasures
approximately
1
4
aradians.
SomeTermsRelatingtoAngles
Angleinterioristheareabetweentherays.
Angleexterioristheareanotbetweentherays.
Adjacentanglesareanglesthatsharearayforaside.zBADand
zDACinthefigureatrightareadjacentangles.
Congruentanglesareaangleswiththesamemeasure.
Anglebisectorisaraythatdividestheangleintotwocongruent
angles.RayAD
bisectszBACinthefigureatright.
-10-
Geometry
TypesofAngles
SupplementaryAngles ComplementaryAngles
D
C
A B
Angles mplementary. CandDareco
mzC + mz = 9u
AnglesAandBaresupplementary.
Angles linearpair. AandBforma
mzA + mzB = 18u
VerticalAngles
E
F
G
H
Angleswhichareoppositeeachotherwhen
twolinescrossareverticalangles.
AnglesEandGareverticalangles.
Angles F andHareverticalangles.
mzE = mz0 onJ mzF = mzE
Inaddition,eachangleissupplementaryto
thetwoanglesadjacenttoit.Forexample:
AngleEissupplementarytoAnglesFandH.
Acute Obtuse
Right Straight
Anacuteangleisonethatislessthan90.In
theillustrationabove,anglesEandGare
acuteangles.
Arightangleisonethatisexactly90.
Anobtuseangleisonethatisgreaterthan
90.Intheillustrationabove,anglesFandH
areobtuseangles.
Astraightangleisonethatisexactly180.
-11-
Geometry
ConditionalStatements
Aconditionalstatementcontainsbothahypothesisandaconclusioninthefollowingform:
Ifhypothesis,thenconclusion.
Foranyconditionalstatement,itispossibletocreatethreerelated
conditionalstatements,asshownbelow.Inthetable,pisthehypothesis
oftheoriginalstatementandqistheconclusionoftheoriginalstatement.
TypeofConditionalStatement
Example
Statementis:
OriginalStatement: Ifp,thenq.(p -q)
Example:Ifanumberisdivisibleby6,thenitisdivisibleby3.
Theoriginalstatementmaybeeithertrueorfalse.
TRUE
ConverseStatement: Ifq,thenp.(q -p)

Example:Ifanumberisdivisibleby3,thenitisdivisibleby6.
Theconversestatementmaybeeithertrueorfalse,andthisdoesnot
dependonwhethertheoriginalstatementistrueorfalse.
FALSE
InverseStatement: Ifnotp,thennotq.(~p -~q)
Example:Ifanumberisnotdivisibleby6,thenitisnotdivisibleby3.
Theinversestatementisalwaystruewhentheconverseistrueand
falsewhentheconverseisfalse.
FALSE
ContrapositiveStatement: Ifnotq,thennotp.(~q -~p)
Example:Ifanumberisnotdivisibleby3,thenitisnotdivisibleby6.
TheContrapositivestatementisalwaystruewhentheoriginal
statementistrueandfalsewhentheoriginalstatementisfalse.
TRUE
Notealsothat:
Whentwostatementsmustbeeitherbothtrueorbothfalse,theyarecalledequivalent
statements.
o Theoriginalstatementandthecontrapositiveareequivalentstatements.
o Theconverseandtheinverseareequivalentstatements.
Ifboththeoriginalstatementandtheconversearetrue,thephraseifandonlyif
(abbreviatediff)maybeused.Forexample,Anumberisdivisibleby3iffthesumof
itsdigitsisdivisibleby3.
Statementslinked
belowbyredarrows
mustbeeitherboth
trueorbothfalse.
-12-
Geometry
BasicPropertiesofAlgebra
PropertiesofEqualityandCongruence.
Property
DefinitionforEquality DefinitionforCongruence
Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
Foranygeometricelementsa,bandc.
(e.g.,segment,angle,triangle)
ReflexiveProperty o = o o o
SymmetricProperty I o = b, tbcn b = o I o b, tbcn b o
TransitiveProperty I o = b onJ b = c, tbcn o = c I o b onJ b c, tbcn o c
SubstitutionProperty
If o = b, then eithei can be
substituteu foi the othei in any
equation (oi inequality).
If o b, then eithei can be
substituteu foi the othei in any
congiuence expiession.
MorePropertiesofEquality.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
Property DefinitionforEquality
AdditionProperty I o = b, tbcn o +c = b +c
SubtractionProperty I o = b, tbcn o -c = b -c
MultiplicationProperty I o = b, tbcn o c = b c
DivisionProperty I o = b onJ c = u, tbcn o c = b c
PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
Property DefinitionforAddition DefinitionforMultiplication

CommutativeProperty o +b = b +o o b = b o
AssociativeProperty (o +b) +c = o +(b +c) (o b) c = o (b c)
DistributiveProperty o (b +c) = (o b) +(o c)
-13-
Geometry
Inductivevs.DeductiveReasoning
InductiveReasoning
Inductivereasoningusesobservationtoformahypothesisorconjecture.Thehypothesiscan
thenbetestedtoseeifitistrue.Thetestmustbeperformedinordertoconfirmthe
hypothesis.
Example:Observethatthesumofthenumbers1to4is(4 S2)andthatthesumofthe
numbers1to5is(S 62).Hypothesis:thesumofthefirstnnumbersis(n - (n +1)2).
Testingthishypothesisconfirmsthatitistrue.
DeductiveReasoning
Deductivereasoningarguesthatifsomethingistrueaboutabroadcategoryofthings,itistrue
ofaniteminthecategory.
Example:Allbirdshavebeaks.Apigeonisabird;therefore,ithasabeak.
Therearetwokeytypesofdeductivereasoningofwhichthestudentshouldbeaware:
LawofDetachment.Giventhatp -q,ifpistruethenqistrue.Inwords,ifone
thingimpliesanother,thenwheneverthefirstthingistrue,thesecondmustalsobe
true.
Example:Startwiththestatement:Ifalivingcreatureishuman,thenithasabrain.
Thenbecauseyouarehuman,wecanconcludethatyouhaveabrain.
Syllogism.Giventhatp -qandq -r,wecanconcludethatp -r.Thisisakindof
transitivepropertyoflogic.Inwords,ifonethingimpliesasecondandthatsecond
thingimpliesathird,thenthefirstthingimpliesthethird.
Example:Startwiththestatements:Ifmypencilbreaks,Iwillnotbeabletowrite,
andifIamnotabletowrite,Iwillnotpassmytest.ThenIcanconcludethatIfmy
pencilbreaks,Iwillnotpassmytest.

-14-
Geometry
AnApproachtoProofs
Learningtodevelopasuccessfulproofisoneofthekeyskillsstudentsdevelopingeometry.
Theprocessisdifferentfromanythingstudentshaveencounteredinpreviousmathclasses,and
mayseemdifficultatfirst.Diligenceandpracticeinsolvingproofswillhelpstudentsdevelop
reasoningskillsthatwillservethemwellfortherestoftheirlives.
RequirementsinPerformingProofs
Eachproofstartswithasetofgivens,statementsthatyouaresuppliedandfrom
whichyoumustderiveaconclusion.Yourmissionistostartwiththegivensandto
proceedlogicallytotheconclusion,providingreasonsforeachstepalongtheway.
Eachstepinaproofbuildsonwhathasbeendevelopedbefore.Initially,youlookat
whatyoucanconcludefromthegivens.Thenasyouproceedthroughthestepsinthe
proof,youareabletouseadditionalthingsyouhaveconcludedbasedonearliersteps.
Eachstepinaproofmusthaveavalidreasonassociatedwithit.So,eachstatementin
theproofmustbefurnishedwithananswertothequestion:Whyisthisstepvalid?
TipsforSuccessfulProofDevelopment
Ateachstep,thinkaboutwhatyouknowandwhatyoucanconcludefromthat
information.Dothisinitiallywithoutregardtowhatyouarebeingaskedtoprove.Then
lookateachthingyoucanconcludeandseewhichonesmoveyouclosertowhatyou
aretryingtoprove.
Goasfarasyoucanintotheprooffromthebeginning.Ifyougetstuck,
Workbackwardsfromtheendoftheproof.Askyourselfwhatthelaststepintheproof
islikelytobe.Forexample,ifyouareaskedtoprovethattwotrianglesarecongruent,
trytoseewhichoftheseveraltheoremsaboutthisismostlikelytobeusefulbasedon
whatyouweregivenandwhatyouhavebeenabletoprovesofar.
Continueworkingbackwardsuntilyouseestepsthatcanbeaddedtothefrontendof
theproof.Youmayfindyourselfalternatingbetweenthefrontendandthebackend
untilyoufinallybridgethegapbetweenthetwosectionsoftheproof.
Dontskipanysteps.Somethingsappearobvious,butactuallyhaveamathematical
reasonforbeingtrue.Forexample,o = omightseemobvious,butobviousisnota
validreasoninageometryproof.Thereasonforo = oisapropertyofalgebracalled
thereflexivepropertyofequality.Usemathematicalreasonsforallyoursteps.
-15-
Geometry
ParallelLinesandTransversals
CorrespondingAngles
CorrespondingAnglesareanglesinthesamelocationrelativetotheparallellinesandthe
transversal.Forexample,theanglesontopoftheparallellinesandleftofthetransversal(i.e.,
topleft)arecorrespondingangles.
AnglesAandE(topleft)areCorrespondingAngles.SoareanglepairsBandF(topright),C
andG(bottomleft),andDandH(bottomright).Correspondinganglesarecongruent.
AlternateInteriorAngles
AnglesDandEareAlternateInteriorAngles.AnglesCandFarealsoalternateinteriorangles.
Alternateinterioranglesarecongruent.
AlternateExteriorAngles
AnglesAandHareAlternateExteriorAngles.AnglesBandGarealsoalternateexterior
angles.Alternateexterioranglesarecongruent.
ConsecutiveInteriorAngles
AnglesCandEareConsecutiveInteriorAngles.AnglesDandFarealsoconsecutiveinterior
angles.Consecutiveinterioranglesaresupplementary.
NotethatanglesA,D,E,andHarecongruent,andanglesB,C,F,andGarecongruent.In
addition,eachoftheanglesinthefirstgrouparesupplementarytoeachoftheanglesinthe
secondgroup.
Transversal
H
G
F
E
C
D
B
A
Alternate:referstoanglesthatareon
oppositesidesofthetransversal.
Consecutive:referstoanglesthatare
onthesamesideofthetransversal.
Interior:referstoanglesthatare
betweentheparallellines.
Exterior:referstoanglesthatare
outsidetheparallellines.
ParallelLines
-16-
Geometry
MultipleSetsofParallelLines
TwoTransversals
Sometimes,thestudentispresentedtwosetsofintersectingparallellines,asshownabove.
Notethateachpairofparallellinesisasetoftransversalstotheothersetofparallellines.
G
E
F
H P
O
M
N
K
I
J
L D
C
B
A
Inthiscase,thefollowinggroupsofanglesarecongruent:
Group1:AnglesA,D,E,H,I,L,MandPareallcongruent.
Group2:AnglesB,C,F,G,J,K,N,andOareallcongruent.
EachangleintheGroup1issupplementarytoeachangleinGroup2.
-17-
Geometry
ProvingLinesareParallel
Thepropertiesofparallellinescutbyatransversalcanbeusedtoprovetwolinesareparallel.
CorrespondingAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentcorrespondingangles,
thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare4setsofcorresponding
angles.
AlternateInteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentalternateinteriorangles
congruent,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
alternateinteriorangles.
AlternateExteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentalternateexterior
angles,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
alternateexteriorangles.
ConsecutiveInteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavesupplementaryconsecutive
interiorangles,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
consecutiveinteriorangles.

-18-
Geometry
ParallelandPerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
ParallelLines
Twolines iftheirslopesareequal. areparallel
Iny = mx +bform,ifthevaluesofmare
thesame.
Example: y = 2x -S anu
y = 2x +1
InStandardForm,ifthecoefficientsofxand
yareproportiona tweentheequations. lbe
Example:Sx anu -2y = S
6x -4y = -7
Also,ifthelinesarebothvertical(i.e.,their
slopesareundefin d e ).
Example: anu x = -S
x = 2
PerpendicularLines
Twolinesareperpendiculariftheproductoftheir
slopesis-1.Thatis,iftheslopeshavedifferent
signsand tiveinverses. aremultiplica
Iny = mx +bform,thevaluesofm
multiplytoget-1..
Example: anu y = 6x +S
y = -
1
6
x -S
InStandardForm,ifyouaddtheproductof
thexcoefficientstotheproductofthey
coefficientsandgetzero.
Example: anu 4x +6y = 4
Sx -2y = S because(4 S) +(6 (-2)) = u
Also,ifonelineis misundefined)andonelineishorizontal(i.e.,m = u). vertical(i.e.,
Example: anu x = 6
y = S
-19-
Geometry
TypesofTriangles
Scalene Isosceles
Equilateral Right

60
60 60
AScaleneTrianglehas3sidesofdifferent
lengths.Becausethesidesareof
differentlengths,theanglesmustalsobe
ofdifferentmeasures.
ARightTriangle isonethatcontainsa90
angle.Itmaybescaleneorisosceles,but
cannotbeequilateral.Righttriangles
havesidesthatmeettherequirementsof
thePythagoreanTheorem.
AnEquilateralTrianglehasall3sidesthe
samelength(i.e.,congruent).Becauseall
3sidesarecongruent,all3anglesmust
alsobecongruent.Thisrequireseach
angletobe60.
AnIsoscelesTrianglehas2sidesthesame
length(i.e.,congruent).Becausetwo
sidesarecongruent,twoanglesmustalso
becongruent.
-20-
Geometry
CongruentTriangles
Thefollowingtheoremspresentconditionsunderwhichtrianglesarecongruent.
SideAngleSide(SAS)Congruence
SAScongruence requiresthecongruenceof
twosidesandtheanglebetweenthosesides.
NotethatthereisnosuchthingasSSA
congruence;thecongruentanglemustbe
betweenthetwocongruentsides.
SideSideSide(SSS)Congruence
SSScongruence requiresthecongruenceofall
threesides.Ifallofthesidesarecongruent
thenalloftheanglesmustbecongruent.The
converseisnottrue;thereisnosuchthingas
AAAcongruence.
AngleSideAngle(ASA)Congruence
ASAcongruence requiresthecongruenceof
twoanglesandthesidebetweenthoseangles.
Note:ASAandAAScombinetoprovide
congruenceoftwotriangleswhenever
anytwoanglesandanyonesideofthe
trianglesarecongruent.
AngleAngleSide(AAS)Congruence
AAScongruence requiresthecongruenceof
twoanglesandasidewhichisnotbetween
thoseangles.
CPCTC
CPCTCmeanscorrespondingpartsofcongruenttrianglesarecongruent.Itisavery
powerfultoolingeometryproofsandisoftenusedshortlyafterastepintheproofwhereapair
oftrianglesisprovedtobecongruent.
-21-
Geometry
CentersofTriangles
Thefollowingareallpointswhichcanbeconsideredthecenterofatriangle.
Centroid(Medians)
Thecentroidistheintersectionofthethreemediansofatriangle.Amedianisa
linesegmentdrawnfromavertextothemidpointofthelineoppositethe
vertex.
Thecentroidislocated2/3ofthewayfromavertextotheoppositeside.Thatis,thedistancefroma
vertextothecentroidisdoublethelengthfromthecentroidtothemidpointoftheoppositeline.
Themediansofatrianglecreate6innertrianglesofequalarea.
Orthocenter(Altitudes)
Theorthocenteristheintersectionofthethreealtitudesofatriangle.An
altitudeisalinesegmentdrawnfromavertextoapointontheoppositeside
(extended,ifnecessary)thatisperpendiculartothatside.
Inanacutetriangle,theorthocenterisinsidethetriangle.
Inarighttriangle,theorthocenteristherightanglevertex.
Inanobtusetriangle,theorthocenterisoutsidethetriangle.
Circumcenter(PerpendicularBisectors)
Thecircumcenteristheintersectionofthe
perpendicularbisectorsofthethreesidesofthe
triangle.Aperpendicularbisectorisalinewhich
bothbisectsthesideandisperpendiculartothe
side.Thecircumcenterisalsothecenterofthe
circlecircumscribedaboutthetriangle.
EulerLine:Interestingly,
thecentroid,orthocenter
andcircumcenterofa
trianglearecollinear(i.e.,
lieonthesameline,
whichiscalledtheEuler
Line).
Inanacutetriangle,thecircumcenterisinsidethetriangle.
Inarighttriangle,thecircumcenteristhemidpointofthehypotenuse.
Inanobtusetriangle,thecircumcenterisoutsidethetriangle.
Incenter(AngleBisectors)
Theincenteristheintersectionoftheanglebisectorsofthethreeanglesof
thetriangle.Ananglebisectorcutsanangleintotwocongruentangles,each
ofwhichishalfthemeasureoftheoriginalangle.Theincenterisalsothe
centerofthecircleinscribedinthetriangle.
-22-
Geometry
LengthofHeight,MedianandAngleBisector
Height
Theformulaforthelengthofaheightofatriangleisderived
fromHeronsformulafortheareaofatriangle:
h =
2 x (x-a) (x-h) (x-c)
c

where, x =
1
2
(a +h +c),and
a, h, carethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Median
Theformulaforthelengthofamedianofatriangleis:
m =
1
2
2a
2
+2h
2
-c
where,a, h, carethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
AngleBisector
Theformulaforthelengthofananglebisectorofatriangleis:
t = _ah[1 -
c
2
(a+h)
2
where,a, h, carethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

-23-
Geometry
InequalitiesinTriangles
Anglesandtheiroppositesidesintrianglesarerelated.Infact,thisisoftenreflectedinthe
labelingofanglesandsidesintriangleillustrations.
Anglesandtheiroppositesidesareoften
labeledwiththesameletter.Anuppercase
letterisusedfortheangleandalowercase
letterisusedfortheside.
Therelationshipbetweenanglesandtheiroppositesidestranslatesintothefollowingtriangle
inequalities:
If mzC < mzB < mzA, then c < b < o
If mzC mzB mzA, then c h a
Thatis,inanytriangle,
Thelargestsideisoppositethelargestangle.
Themediumsideisoppositethemediumangle.
Thesmallestsideisoppositethesmallestangle.
OtherInequalitiesinTriangles
TriangleInequality:Thesumofthelengthsofanytwosidesofatriangle
isgreaterthanthelengthofthethirdside.Thisisacrucialelementin
decidingwh s r l . ether egmentsofany3lengthscanformat iang e
a +h > c and h +c > a and c +a > h
ExteriorAngleInequality:Themeasureofanexternalangleisgreaterthanthemeasureof
eitherofthetwononadj ow: acentinteriorangles.Thatis,inthefigurebel
mzDAB > mzB and mzDAB > mzC
Note:theExteriorAngleInequalityismuchlessrelevantthantheExteriorAngleEquality.
ExteriorAngleEquality:Themeasureofanexternalangleisequaltothesumofthemeasures
ofthetwonon interior hatis,inthefigurebelow: adjacent angles.T
mzDAB = mzB +mzC
-24-
Geometry
PolygonsBasics
BasicDefinitions
Polygon:aclosedpathofthreeormorelinesegments,where:
notwosideswithacommonendpointarecollinear,and
eachsegmentisconnectedatitsendpointstoexactlytwoothersegments.
Side:asegmentthatisconnectedtoothersegments(whicharealsosides)toformapolygon.
Vertex:apointattheintersectionoftwosidesofthepolygon.(pluralform:vertices)
Diagonal:asegment,fromonevertextoanother,whichisnotaside.
Concave:Apolygoninwhichitispossibletodrawadiagonaloutsidethe
polygon.(Noticetheorangediagonaldrawnoutsidethepolygonat
right.)Concavepolygonsactuallylookliketheyhaveacaveinthem.
Convex:Apolygoninwhichitisnotpossibletodrawadiagonaloutsidethe
polygon.(Noticethatalloftheorangediagonalsareinsidethepolygon
atright.)Convexpolygonsappearmoreroundedanddonotcontain
caves.
NamesofSomeCommonPolygons
Number
ofSides
NameofPolygon
Number
ofSides
NameofPolygon
3 Triangle 9 Nonagon
4 Quadrilateral 10 Decagon
5 Pentagon 11 Undecagon
6 Hexagon 12 Dodecagon
7 Heptagon 20 Icosagon
8 Octagon n ngon
Diagonal
Namesofpolygons
aregenerallyformed
fromtheGreek
language;however,
somehybridformsof
LatinandGreek(e.g.,
undecagon)have
creptintocommon
usage.
Vertex
Side
-25-
Geometry
PolygonsMoreDefinitions
Definitions
Equilateral:apolygoninwhichallofthesidesareequalinlength.
Equiangular:apolygoninwhichalloftheangleshavethesame
measure.
Regular:apolygonwhichisbothequilateralandequiangular.That
is,aregularpolygonisoneinwhichallofthesideshavethesame
lengthandalloftheangleshavethesamemeasure.
InteriorAngle:Anangleformedbytwosidesofapolygon.The
angleisinsidethepolygon.
ExteriorAngle:Anangleformedbyonesideofapolygonandthe
linecontaininganadjacentsideofthepolygon.Theangleisoutside
thepolygon.
Interior
Angle
Exterior
Angle
AdvancedDefinitions:
SimplePolygon:a
polygonwhosesidesdo
notintersectatany
locationotherthanits
endpoints.Simple
polygonsalwaysdividea
planeintotworegions
oneinsidethepolygonand
oneoutsidethepolygon.
ComplexPolygon:a
polygonwithsidesthat
intersectsomeplaceother
thantheirendpoints(i.e.,
notasimplepolygon).
Complexpolygonsdonot
alwayshavewelldefined
insidesandoutsides.
SkewPolygon:apolygon
forwhichnotallofits
verticeslieonthesame
plane.
HowManyDiagonalsDoesaConvexPolygonHave?
Believeitornot,thisisacommonquestionwithasimplesolution.Considerapolygonwithn
sidesand,therefore,nvertices.
Eachofthenverticesofthepolygoncanbeconnectedto(n -3)otherverticeswith
diagonals.Thatis,itcanbeconnectedtoallotherverticesexceptitselfandthetwoto
whichitisconnectedbysides.So,thereare| n (n -3)]linestobedrawnasdiagonals.
However,whenwedothis,wedraweachdiagonaltwicebecausewedrawitoncefrom
eachofitstwoendpoints.So,thenumberofdiagonalsisactuallyhalfofthenumberwe
calculatedabove.
Therefore,thenumberofdiagonalsin polygonis: annsided
n (n -3)
2

-26-
Geometry
InteriorandExteriorAnglesofaPolygon
InteriorAngles
Thesumofthe sidedpolygonis: interioranglesinan n

=(n -2) 18
InteriorAngles
Sides
Sumof
Interior
Angles
Each
Interior
Angle
3 180 60
4 360 90
5 540 108
6 720 120
7 900 129
8 1,080 135
9 1,260 140
10 1,440 144
Ifthepolygonisregular,youcancalculatethemeasureof
eachinteriorangleas:

(n-2) 18
n

ExteriorAngles
ExteriorAngles
Sides
Sumof
Exterior
Angles
Each
Exterior
Angle
3 360 120
4 360 90
5 360 72
6 360 60
7 360 51
8 360 45
9 360 40
10 360 36
Nomatterhowmanysidesthereareinapolygon,thesum
oftheexterioranglesis:
=3
Ifthepolygonisregular,youcancalculatethemeasureof
eachexteriora s: nglea

3
n
Notation:TheGreekletterisequivalent
totheEnglishletterSandismathshorthand
forasummation(i.e.,addition)ofthings.
-27-
Geometry
DefinitionsofQuadrilaterals
Name Definition
Quadrilateral Apolygonwith4sides.
Kite
Aquadrilateralwithtwoconsecutivepairsofcongruentsides,but
withoppositesidesnotcongruent.
Trapezoid Aquadrilateralwithexactlyonepairofparallelsides.
IsoscelesTrapezoid Atrapezoidwithcongruentlegs.
Parallelogram Aquadrilateralwithbothpairsofoppositesidesparallel.
Rectangle Aparallelogramwithallanglescongruent(i.e.,rightangles).
Rhombus Aparallelogramwithallsidescongruent.
Square Aquadrilateralwithallsidescongruentandallanglescongruent.
QuadrilateralTree:
Quadrilateral
Kite Parallelogram Trapezoid
Rectangle Rhombus Isosceles

Trapezoid
Square

-28-
Geometry
FiguresofQuadrilaterals
IsoscelesTrapezoid
1pairofparallelsides
Congruentlegs
2pairofcongruentbase
angles
Diagonalscongruent
Kite
2consecutivepairsof
congruentsides
1pairofcongruent
oppositeangles
Diagonalsperpendicular
Trapezoid
(calledbases)
Anglesonthesame
sideofthebasesare
supplementary
Parallelogram
Bothpairsofoppositesidesparallel
Bothpairsofoppositesidescongruent
Bothpairsofoppositeanglescongruent
Consecutiveanglessupplementary
Diagonalsbisecteachother
Rectangle
Parallelogramwithallangles
congruent(i.e.,rightangles)
Diagonalscongruent
Rhombus
Parallelogramwithallsidescongruent
Diagonalsperpendicular
Eachdiagonalbisectsapairof
oppositeangles
Square
BothaRhombusandaRectangle
Allanglescongruent(i.e.,rightangles)
Allsidescongruent
-29-
Geometry
CharacteristicsofParallelograms
Characteristic Square Rhombus Rectangle Parallelogram


Oppositesidesarecongruent

Oppositeanglesarecongruent

Consecutiveanglesaresupplementary

Diagonalsbisecteachother

All4anglesarecongruent(i.e.,rightangles)

Diagonalsarecongruent

All4sidesarecongruent

Diagonalsareperpendicular

Eachdiagonalbisectsapairofoppositeangles

Notes:Redmarksareconditionssufficienttoprovethequadrilateralisofthetypespecified.
Greenmarksareconditionssufficienttoprovethequadrilateralisofthetypespecifiedifthequadrilateralisa
parallelogram.
-30-
Geometry
ParallelogramProofs
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaParallelogram
Toproveaquadrilateralisaparallelogram,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. Bothpairsofoppositesidesareparallel.(note:thisisthedefinitionofaparallelogram)
2. Bothpairsofoppositesidesarecongruent.
3. Bothpairsofoppositeanglesarecongruent.
4. Aninteriorangleissupplementarytobothofitsconsecutiveangles.
5. Itsdiagonalsbisecteachother.
6. Apairofoppositesidesisbothparallelandcongruent.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaRectangle
Toproveaquadrilateralisarectangle,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. All4anglesarecongruent.
2. Itisaparallelogramanditsdiagonalsarecongruent.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaRhombus
Toproveaquadrilateralisarhombus,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. All4sidesarecongruent.
2. ItisaparallelogramandItsdiagonalsareperpendicular.
3. Itisaparallelogramandeachdiagonalbisectsapairofoppositeangles.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaSquare
Toproveaquadrilateralisasquare,prove:
1. ItisbothaRhombusandaRectangle.

-31-
Geometry
KitesandTrapezoids
FactsaboutaKite
Toproveaquadrilateralisakite,prove:
Ithastwopairofcongruentsides.
Oppositesidesarenotcongruent.
Also,ifaquadrilateralisakite,then:
Itsdiagonalsareperpendicular
Ithasexactlyonepairofcongruentoppositeangles.
PartsofaTrapezoid
Base
Leg
Leg
Midsegment
TrapezoidABCDhasthefollowingparts:
A
andBC
arebases.
AB
and
arelegs.
EF
isth idsegment. em
AC
andB
arediagonals.
Base
Diagonals
AnglesAandDformapairofbaseangles.
AnglesBandCformapairofbaseangles.
TrapezoidMidsegmentTheorem
Themidsegmentofatrapezoidisparalleltoeachofitsbasesand:EF =
1
2
(A +BC).
ProvingaQuadrilateralisanIsoscelesTrapezoid
Toproveaquadrilateralisanisoscelestrapezoid,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. Itisatrapezoidandhasapairofcongruentlegs.(definitionofisoscelestrapezoid)
2. Itisatrapezoidandhasapairofcongruentbaseangles.
3. Itisatrapezoidanditsdiagonalsarecongruent.
-32-
Geometry
IntroductiontoTransformation
ATransformationisamappingofthepreimageofageometricfigureontoanimagethat
retainskeycharacteristicsofthepreimage.
Definitions
ThePreImageisthegeometricfigurebeforeithasbeentransformed.
TheImageisthegeometricfigureafterithasbeentransformed.
Amappingisanassociationbetweenobjects.Transformationsaretypesofmappings.Inthe
figuresbelow,wesayABCDismappedontoABCD,orABC

--- ABC.Theorderofthe
verticesiscriticaltoaproperlynamedmapping.
AnIsometryisaonetoonemappingthatpreserveslengths.Transformationsthatare
isometries(i.e.,preservelength)arecalledrigidtransformations.
IsometricTransformations
Rotationisturninga
figurearoundapoint.
Rotatedfiguresretain
theirsizeandshape,but
nottheirorientation.
Reflectionisflippinga
figureacrossalinecalled
amirror.Thefigure
retainsitssizeandshape,
butappearsbackwards
afterthereflection.
Translationisslidinga
figureintheplanesothat
itchangeslocationbut
retainsitsshape,sizeand
orientation.
TableofCharacteristicsofIsometricTransformations
Transformation Reflection Rotation Translation
Isometry(RetainsLengths)? Yes Yes Yes
RetainsAngles? Yes Yes Yes
RetainsOrientationtoAxes? No No Yes
-33-
Geometry
IntroductiontoTransformation(contd)
TransformationofaPoint
Apointistheeasiestobjecttotransform.Simplyreflect,rotateortranslateitfollowingthe
rulesforthetransformationselected.Bytransformingkeypointsfirst,anytransformation
becomesmucheasier.
TransformationofaGeometricFigure
Totransformanygeometricfigure,itisonlynecessarytotransformtheitemsthatdefinethe
figure,andthenreformit.Forexample:
Totransformalinesegment,transformitstwoendpoints,andthenconnectthe
resultingimageswithalinesegment.
Totransformaray,transformtheinitialpointandanyotherpointontheray,andthen
constructarayusingtheresultingimages.
Totransformaline,transformanytwopointsontheline,andthenfitalinethroughthe
resultingimages.
Totransformapolygon,transformeachofitsvertices,andthenconnecttheresulting
imageswithlinesegments.
Totransformacircle,transformitscenterand,ifnecessary,itsradius.Fromthe
resultingimages,constructtheimagecircle.
Totransformotherconicsections(parabolas,ellipsesandhyperbolas),transformthe
foci,verticesand/ordirectrix.Fromtheresultingimages,constructtheimageconic
section.
Example:ReflectQuadrilateralABCD

-34-
Geometry
Reflection
Definitions
Reflectionisflippingafigureacrossamirror.
TheLineofReflectionisthemirrorthroughwhichthe
reflectiontakesplace.
Notethat:
Thelinesegmentconnectingcorrespondingpointsin
theimageandpreimageisbisectedbythemirror.
Thelinesegmentconnectingcorrespondingpointsin
theimageandpreimageisperpendiculartothemirror.
ReflectionthroughanAxisortheLiney = x
Reflectionofthepoint(a,b)throughthexoryaxisortheliney = xgivesthefollowing
results:
PreImage
Point
Mirror
Line
Image
Point
(a, b) xaxis (a, b)
(a, b) yaxis (a, b)
(a, b) the line: y = x (a, b)
Ifyouforgettheabo le,startwith ( onasetof ateaxes.Reflect
thepointthroughtheselectedlineandseewhichsetofa,bcoordinatesworks.
vetab thepoint S, 2) coordin
LineofSymmetry
ALineofSymmetryisanylinethroughwhichafigurecanbemappedontoitself.Thethinblack
linesinthefollowingfiguresshowtheiraxesofsymmetry:

-35-
Geometry
Rotation
Definitions
Rotationisturningafigurebyanangleaboutafixedpoint.
TheCenterofRotationisthepointaboutwhichthefigureis
rotated.PointP,atright,isthecenterofrotation.
TheAngleofRotationdeterminestheextentoftherotation.
Theangleisformedbytheraysthatconnectthecenterof
rotationtothepreimageandtheimageoftherotation.Angle
P,atright,istheangleofrotation.Thoughshownonlyfor
PointA,theangleisthesameforanyofthefigures4vertices.
Note:Inperformingrotations,itisimportanttoindicatethedirectionoftherotation
clockwiseorcounterclockwise.
RotationabouttheOrigin
Rotationofthepoint(a,b)abouttheorigin(0,0)givesthefollowingresults:
PreImage
Point
Clockwise
Rotation
Counterclockwise
Rotation
Image
Point
(a, b) 9u 27u (b, a)
(a, b) 18u 18u (a, b)
(a, b) 27u 9u (b, a)
(a, b) S6u S6u (a, b)
Ifyouforg abovetable,star thepoint(S, 2) on tofcoordinatea otatethe
pointbytheselectedangleandseewhichsetofa,bcoordinatesworks.
etthe twith ase xes.R
RotationalSymmetry
AfigureinaplanehasRotationalSymmetryifitcanbemappedontoitselfbyarotationof
180orless.Anyregularpolygonhasrotationalsymmetry,asdoesacircle.Herearesome
examplesoffigureswithrotationalsymmetry:

-36-
ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(x
0
,y
0
)
Rotatinganobjectby90aboutapointinvolvesrotatingeachpointoftheobjectby90about
thatpoint.Forapolygon,thisisaccomplishedbyrotatingeachvertexandthenconnecting
themtoeachother,soyoumainlyhavetoworryaboutthevertices,whicharepoints.The
mathematicsbehindtheprocessofrotatingapointby90isdescribedbelow:
Letsdefinethefollowingpoints:
Thepointaboutwhichtherotationwilltakeplace:(x
0
,y
0
)
Theinitialpoint(beforerotation):(x
1
,y
1
)
Thefinalpoint(afterrotation):(x
2
,y
2
)
Theproblemistodetermine(x
2
,y
2
)ifwearegiven(x
0
,y
0
)and(x
1
,y
1
).Itinvolves3steps:
1. Converttheproblemtooneofrotatingapointabouttheorigin(amucheasier
problem).
2. Performtherotation.
3. Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.
Wellconsidereachstepseparatelyandprovideanexample:
Problem:Rotateapointby90aboutanotherpoint.
Step1:Converttheproblemtooneofrotatingapointabouttheorigin:
First,weaskhowthepoint(x
1
,y
1
)relatestothepointaboutwhichitwillberotated(x
0
,
y
0
)andcreateanew(translated)point.Thisisessentiallyanaxistranslation,which
wewillreverseinStep3.
GeneralSituation Example
PointsintheProblem
RotationCenter:(x
0
,y
0
)
Initialpoint:(x
1
,y
1
)
Finalpoint:(x
2
,y
2
)
PointsintheProblem
RotationCenter:(2,3)
Initialpoint:(2,1)
Finalpoint:tobedetermined
Calculateanewpointthatrepresentshow
(x
1
,y
1
)relatesto(x
0
,y
0
).Thatpointis:
(x
1
x
0
,y
1
y
0
)
Calculateanewpointthatrepresentshow
(2,1)relatesto(2,3).Thatpointis:
(4,2)
Thenextstepsdependonwhetherwearemakingaclockwiseorcounterclockwiserotation.

-37-
ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(contd)
ClockwiseRotation:
Step2:Performtherotationabouttheorigin:
Rotatingby90clockwiseabouttheorigin(0,0)issimplyaprocessofswitchingthex
andyvaluesofapointandnegatingthenewyterm.Thatis(x,y)becomes(y,x)after
rotationby90.
Prerotatedpoint(fromStep1):
(x
1
x
0
,y
1
y
0
)
Pointafterrotation:
(y
1
y
0
,x
1
+x
0
)
(4,2)
Pointafterrotation:
(2,4)
Step3:Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.
Todothis,simplyaddbackthepointofrotation(whichwassubtractedoutinStep1.
Pointafterrotation:
(y
1
y
0
,x
1
+x
0
)
Addbackthepointofrotation(x
0
,y
0
):
(y
1
y
0
+x
0
,x
1+
x
0
+y
0
)
whichgivesusthevaluesof(x
2
,y
2
)
Pointafterrotation:
(2,4)
Addbackthepointofrotation(2,3):
(0,7)
Finally,lookattheformulasforx
2
andy
2:
Clockwise Rotation
x
2
= y
1
- y
0
+ x
0

y
2
= -x
1
+ x
0
+ y
0

Noticethattheformulasfor
clockwiseandcounter
clockwiserotationby90are
thesameexceptthetermsin
bluearenegatedbetweenthe
formulas.
Interestingnote:Ifyouareaskedtofindthepointaboutwhichtherotationoccurred,you
simplysubstituteinthevaluesforthestartingpoint(x
1
,y
1
)andtheendingpoint(x
2
,y
2
)and
solvetheresultingpairofsimultaneousequationsforx
0
andy
0
.

-38-
ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(contd)
CounterClockwiseRotation:
Step2:Performtherotationabouttheorigin:
Rotatingby90counterclockwiseabouttheorigin(0,0)issimplyaprocessofswitching
thexandyvaluesofapointandnegatingthenewxterm.Thatis(x,y)becomes(y,x)
afterrotationby90.
(x
1
x
0
,y
1
y
0
)
Pointafterrotation:
(y
1
+y
0
,x
1
x
0
)
(4,2)
Pointafterrotation:
(2,4)
Step3:Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.
Todothis,simplyaddbackthepointofrotation(whichwassubtractedoutinStep1.
Pointafterrotation:
(y
1
+y
0
,x
1
x
0
)
Addbackthepointofrotation(x
0
,y
0
):
(y
1
+y
0
+x
0
,x
1
x
0
+y
0
)
whichgivesusthevaluesof(x
2
,y
2
)
Pointafterrotation:
(2,4)
Addbackthepointofrotation(2,3):
(4,1)
Finally,lookattheformulasforx
2
andy
2:
Noticethattheformulasfor
clockwiseandcounter
clockwiserotationby90are
thesameexceptthetermsin
bluearenegatedbetweenthe
formulas.
Counter-Clockwise Rotation
x
2
= -y
1
+ y
0
+ x
0

y
2
= x
1
- x
0 +
y
0

Interestingnote:Thepointhalfwaybetweentheclockwiseandcounterclockwiserotationsof
90isthecenterofrotationitself,(x
0
,y
0
).Intheexample,(2,3)ishalfwaybetween(0,7)and
(4,1).

-39-
Geometry
Translation
Definitions
WhenTwoReflections= OneTranslation
Translationisslidingafigureintheplane.Each
pointinthefigureismovedthesamedistancein
thesamedirection.Theresultisanimagethat
looksthesameasthepreimageineveryway,
exceptithasbeenmovedtoadifferentlocation
intheplane.
Eachofthefourorangelinesegmentsinthe
figureatrighthasthesamelengthanddirection.
Iftwomirrorsareparallel,thenreflectionthrough
oneofthem,followedbyareflectionthroughthe
secondisatranslation.
Inthefigureatright,theblacklinesshowthepaths
ofthetworeflections;thisisalsothepathofthe
resultingtranslation.Notethefollowing:
Thedistanceoftheresultingtranslation
(e.g.,fromAtoA)isdoublethedistance
betweenthemirrors.
Theblacklinesofmovementareperpendiculartobothmirrors.
DefiningTranslationsintheCoordinatePlane(UsingVectors)
Atranslationmoveseachpointbythesamedistanceinthesamedirection.Inthecoordinate
plane,thisisequivalenttomovingeachpointthesameamountinthexdirectionandthesame
amountintheydirection.Thiscombinationofxandydirectionmovementisdescribedbya
mathematicalconceptcalledavector.
Intheabovefigure,translationfromAtoA''moves10inthexdirectionandthe3inthey
direction.Invectornotation,thisis:AA''
= (1, -3).Noticethehalfraysymboloverthe
twopointsandthefunnylookingbracketsaroundthemovementvalues.
So,thetranslationresultingfromthetworeflectionsintheabovefiguremoveseachpointof
thepreimagebythevectorAA''
.Everytranslationcanbedefinedbythevectorrepresenting
itsmovementinthecoordinateplane.
-40-
Geometry
Compositions
Whenmultipletransformationsarecombined,theresultiscalledaCompositionofthe
Transformations.Twoexamplesofthisare:
Combiningtworeflectionsthroughparallelmirrorstogenerateatranslation(seethe
previouspage).
Combiningatranslationandareflectiontogeneratewhatiscalledaglidereflection.
Theglidepartofthenamereferstotranslation,whichisakindofglidingofafigureon
theplane.
Note:Inaglidereflection,ifthelineofreflectionisparalleltothedirectionofthe
translation,itdoesnotmatterwhetherthereflectionorthetranslationisperformedfirst.
Figure2:ReflectionfollowedbyTranslation. Figure1:TranslationfollowedbyReflection.
CompositionTheorem
ThecompositionofmultipleisometriesisasIsometry.Putmoresimply,iftransformationsthat
preservelengtharecombined,thecompositionwillpreservelength.Thisisalsotrueof
compositionsoftransformationsthatpreserveanglemeasure.
OrderofComposition
Ordermattersinmostcompositionsthatinvolvemorethanoneclassoftransformation.Ifyou
applymultipletransformationsofthesamekind(e.g.,reflection,rotation,ortranslation),order
generallydoesnotmatter;however,applyingtransformationsinmorethanoneclassmay
producedifferentfinalimagesiftheorderisswitched.
-41-
Example:
Note:theunitinchescancelout,so
theansweris
1
4
,not
1
4
incb.
S incbcs
12 incbcs
=
1
4
Example:
S incbcs
2 cct
=
S incbcs
(2 cct) (12 incbcs oot )
=
S incbcs
24 incbcs
=
1
8
Geometry
RatiosInvolvingUnits
RatiosInvolvingUnits
Whensimplifyingratioscontainingthesameunits:
Simplifythefraction.
Notice that the units disappear. They behave
just like factors; if the units exist in the
numeratoranddenominator,thecancelandare
notintheanswer.
Whensimplifyingratioscontainingdifferentunits:
Adjusttheratiosothatthenumeratoranddenominatorhavethesameunits.
Simplifythefraction.
Noticethattheunitsdisappear.
DealingwithUnits
Noticeintheaboveexamplethatunitscanbetreatedthesameasfactors;theycanbeusedin
fractions and they cancel when they divide. This fact can be used to figure out whether
multiplicationordivisionisneededinaproblem.Considerthefollowing:
Example:Howlongdidittakeforacartravelingat48milesperhourtogo32miles?
Considertheunitsofeachitem: S2 milcs 48
mIcs
hou
Ifyoumultiply,youget:(S2 milcs) [48

mIcs
hou
= 1,SS6
mIcs
2
hou
.Thisisclearlywrong!
If you divide, you get: (S2 milcs) [48
mIcs
hou
=
32
48
milcs [
hou
mIcs
=
2
3
bour. Now,
thislooksreasonable.Noticehowthe"milcs"unitcanceloutinthefinalanswer.
Now you could have solved this problem by remembering that Jistoncc = rotc timc, or
J = rt. However, paying close attention to the units also generates the correct answer. In
addition,theunitstechniquealwaysworks,nomatterwhattheproblem!
-42-
Geometry
SimilarPolygons
Insimilarpolygons,
Correspondinganglesarecongruent,and
Correspondingsidesareproportional.
Bothoftheseconditionsarenecessaryfortwo
polygonstobesimilar.Conversely,whentwo
polygonsaresimilar,allofthecorresponding
anglesarecongruentandallofthesidesareproportional.
NamingSimilarPolygons
Similarpolygonsshouldbenamedsuchthatcorrespondinganglesareinthesamelocationin
thename,andtheorderofthepointsinthenameshouldfollowthepolygonaround.
Example:Thepolygonsabove llowingnames: couldbeshownsimilarwiththefo
ABCEF0EI ~ SIuIwXZ
Itwouldalsobeacceptabletoshowthesimilarityas:
EF0EIABC ~ IwXZSIu
Anynamesthatpreservetheorderofthepointsandkeepscorrespondinganglesin
correspondinglocationsinthenameswouldbeacceptable.
Proportions
Onecommonproblemrelatingtosimilarpolygonsistopresentthreesidelengths,wheretwo
ofthesidescorrespond,andtoaskforthe g the side gth. len thof correspondingtothethirdlen
Example:Intheabovesimilarpolygons,ifBC = 2u, EF = 12, onJ wX = 6, wbot is Iu.
Thisproblemissolvablewithproportions.Todosoproperly,itisimportanttorelate
correspondingitems hep portion: int ro
BC
Iu
=
EF
wX

---
2u
Iu
=
12
6

--- Iu = 1u
olygonisrepresentedonthe ofbothproportions Noticethattheleftp top andthattheleft
mostsegmentsofthetwopolygonsareintheleftfraction.
-43-
Geometry
ScaleFactorsofSimilarPolygons
Fromthesimilarpolygonsbelow, following he thsofthesides: the isknownaboutt leng
AB
SI
=
BC
Iu
=
C
uI
=
E
Iw
=
EF
wX
=
F0
X
=
0E
Z
=
EA
ZA
= k
Thatis,theratiosofcorrespondingsidesinthe
twopolygonsarethesameandtheyequal
someconstant k,calledthescalefactorofthe
twopolygons.Thevalueofk,then,isallyou
needtoknowtorelatecorrespondingsidesin
thetwopolygons.
FindingtheMissingLength
Anytimethestudentisaskedtofindthemissinglengthinsimilarpolygons:
Lookfortwocorrespondingsidesforwhichthevaluesareknown.
Calculatethevalueofk.
Usethevalueofktosolveforthemissinglength.
kisameasureoftherelativesizeofthetwopolygons.Usingthisknowledge,itispossibleto
putintowordsaneasilyunderstandablerelationshipbetweenthepolygons.
LetPolygon1betheonewhosesidesareinthenumeratorsofthefractions.
LetPolygon2betheonewhosesides einthedenominatorsofthefractions. ar
Then,itcanbesaidthatPolygon1isk timesthesizeofthePolygon2.
Example:In eabo polygons,ifBC = 2u, EF = 12, onJ wX = 6, wbot is Iu. th vesimilar
SeeingthatEFandwXrelate,calculate:
EF
w
=
12
6
= 2 = k
X
ThensolveforIubased thevalueofk: on
BC
Iu
= k -
2u
Iu
= 2 - Iu = 1u
o everysideinth Also,sincek = 2,thelength f ebluepolygonisdoublethelengthofits
correspondingsideintheorangepolygon.
-44-
Geometry
DilationofPolygons
Adilationisaspecialcaseoftransformationinvolvingsimilarpolygons.Itcanbethoughtofas
atransformationthatcreatesapolygonofthesameshapebutadifferentsizefromtheoriginal.
Keyelementsofadilationare:
ScaleFactorThescalefactorofsimilarpolygonsistheconstantkwhichrepresentsthe
relativesizesofthepolygons.
Ce sthepointfromwhichthedilationtakesplace. nterThecenteri
Notethat anu k = 1inordertogenerateasecondpolygon.Then, k > u
If thedilationiscalledanenlargement. k > 1,
Ifk < 1,thedilationiscalledareduction.
DilationswithCenter(0,0)
Incoordinategeometry,dilationsareoftenperformedwiththecenterbeingtheorigin(u, u).
Inthatcase,toobtainthedilationofapolygon:
Multiplythecoordinatesofeachvertexbythescalefactork,and
Connecttheverticesofthedilationwithlinesegments(i.e.,connectthedots).
Examples:
Inthefollowingexamples:
Thegreenpolygonistheoriginal.
Thebluepolygonisthedilation.
Thedashedorangelinesshowthemovementawayfrom
(enlargement)ortoward(reduction)thecenter,whichis
theorigininall3examples.
N : oticethat,ineachexample
_
d|xtance rum center
tu a uertex u the
d||ated pu|ygun
_ = k _
d|xtance rum center
tu a uertex u the
ur|g|na| pu|ygun
_
Thisfactcanbeusedtoconstructdilationswhencoordinateaxes
arenotavailable.Alternatively,thestudentcoulddrawasetof
coordinateaxesasanaidtoperformingthedilation.

-45-
ADVANCED
Geometry
MoreonDilation
DilationsofNonPolygons
Anygeometricfigurecanbedilated.Inthedilationofthe
greencircleatright,noticethat:
Thedilationfactoris2.
Theoriginalcirclehascenter ndradius= (7, S)a S.
Thedilatedcirclehascenter(14, 6)andradius= 1u.
So,thecenterandradiusarebothincreasedbyafactorofk = 2.Thisistrueofanyfigureina
dilationwiththecenterattheorigin.Allofthekeyelementsthatdefinethefigureare
increasedbythescalefactork.
DilationswithCenter(a, h)
Inthefiguresbelow,thegreenquadrilateralsaredilatedtotheblueoneswithascalefactorof
k = 2.Noticethefollowing:
Inthefiguretotheleft,thedilationhascenter
(u, u),whereasinthefiguretotheright,the
dilationhascenter(-4, -S).Thesizeofthe
resultingfigureisthesameinbothcases
(becausek = 2inbothfigures),butthe
locationisdifferent.
Graphically,theseriesoftransformationsthatisequivalenttoadilationfromapoint(o, b)
otherthantheoriginisshownbelow.Compar lresulttothefigureabove(right). ethefina
Step1:Translatetheoriginalfigureby(-o, -b)toresetthecenterattheorigin.
Step2:Performthedilation.
Step3:Translatethedilatedfigureby(o, b).Thesestepsareillustratedbelow.
Step1 Step3 Step2
-46-
Geometry
SimilarTriangles
Thefollowingtheoremspresentconditionsunderwhichtrianglesaresimilar.
SideAngleSide(SAS)Similarity
SASsimilarity requirestheproportionality of
twosidesandthecongruenceoftheangle
betweenthosesides.Notethatthereisnosuch
thingasSSAsimilarity;thecongruentanglemust
bebetweenthetwoproportionalsides.
SideSideSide(SSS)Similarity
SSSsimilarity requirestheproportionalityofall
threesides.Ifallofthesidesareproportional,
thenalloftheanglesmustbecongruent.
AngleAngle(AA)Similarity
AAsimilarity requiresthecongruenceoftwo
anglesandthesidebetweenthoseangles.
SimilarTriangleParts
Insimilartriangles,
Correspondingsidesareproportional.
Correspondinganglesarecongruent.
Establishingthepropernamesforsimilartrianglesiscrucialtolineupcorrespondingvertices.
Inthepictureabove,wecansay:
oi ABC~EF oi BCA~EF oi CAB~FE
ACB~FE oi BAC~EF oi CBA~FE
Allofthesearecorrectbecausetheymatchcorrespondingpartsinthenaming.Eachofthese
similaritiesimpliesthe b t riangles: followingrelationships e weenpartsofthetwot
zA z anu z u zC zF zB E an
AB
L
=
BC
LP
=
CA
P
-47-
Geometry
ProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
SettingUpaTableofProportions
Itisoftenusefultosetupatabletoidentifytheproperproportions
inasimilarity.Considerthefiguretotheright.Thetablemightlook
somethinglikethis:
Triangle LeftSide RightSide BottomSide
Top AB BC CA
Bottom DE EF FD
Thepurposeofatablelikethisistoorganizetheinformationyouhaveaboutthesimilar
trianglessothatyoucanreadilydeveloptheproportionsyouneed.
DevelopingtheProportions
Todevelopproportionsfromthetable:
Extractthecolumnsneededfromthetable:
AB BC
DE EF Alsofromtheabove
table,
AB
E
=
CA
F
BC
EF
=
CA
F
Eliminatethetablelines.
Replacethehorizontallineswithdivisionlines.
Putanequalsig hetworesultingfractions: nbetweent
AB
L
=
BC
LP
Solvingfortheunknownlengthofaside:
Youcanextractanytwocolumnsyoulikefromthetable.Usually,youwillhaveinformationon
lengthsofthreeofthesidesandwillbeaskedtocalculateafourth.
Lookinthetableforthecolumnsthatcontainthe4sidesinquestion,andthensetupyour
proportion.Substituteknownvaluesintotheproportion,andsolvefortheremainingvariable.

-48-
Geometry
ThreeSimilarTriangles
Acommonproblemingeometryistofindthemissingvalueinproportionsbasedonasetof
threesimilartriangles,twoofwhichareinsidethethird.Thediagramoftenlookslikethis:
c
PythagoreanRelationships
Insidetriangleontheleft: d
2
+a
2
= h
2
Insidetriangleontheright: h
2
+e
2
= h
2
Outside(large)triangle: a
2
+h
2
= c
2
SimilarTriangleRelationships
Becauseallthreetrianglesaresimilar,wehavetherelationshipsinthetablebelow.These
relationshipsarenotobviousfromthepicture,butareveryusefulinsolvingproblemsbasedon
theabovediagram.Usingsimilaritiesbetweenthetriangles,2atatime,weget:
Fromthetwoinsidetriangles
Fromtheinsidetriangleon
theleftandtheoutside
triangle
Fromtheinsidetriangleon
therightandtheoutside
triangle
h
d
=
e
h
a
d
=
c
a
h
e
=
c
h
or or or
h
2
= d e a
2
= d c h
2
= e c
Theheightsquared
=theproductof:
thetwopartsofthebase
Theleftsidesquared
=theproductof:
thepartofthebasebelowit
andtheentirebase
Therightsidesquared
=theproductof:
thepartofthebasebelowit
andtheentirebase
-49-
Geometry
PythagoreanTheorem
where,
a and b are the lengths of the legs of a right
triangle,and
cisthelengthofthehypotenuse.
Inarighttriangle,thePythagorean heoremsays: T
a
2
+h
2
= c
2
Right,Acute,orObtuseTriangle?
Inadditiontoallowingthesolutionofrighttriangles,thePythagoreanFormulacanbeusedto
determinewhetheratriangleisarighttriangle,anacutetriangle,oranobtusetriangle.
Todeterminewhetheratriangleisobtuse,right,oracute:
Arrangeth esidesfromlowtohigh;callthema,b,andc,inincreasingorder elengthsofth
Calculate: , b o
2 2
, anu c
2
.
Compare:o
2
+b
2
vs. c
2
Usetheillustrationsbelowtodeterminewhichtypeoftriangleyouhave.
a
2
+h
2
< c
2
ObtuseTriangle
a
2
+h
2
= c
2
RightTriangle
a
2
+h
2
> c
2
AcuteTriangle
S
2
+8
2
:s. 9
2
2S + 64 > 81

- Acute Tr|ang|e
Example:
Trianglewithsides:5,8,9

7
2
+ 9
2
:s. 12
2
49 +81 < 144

- Ohtuxe Tr|ang|e
Example:
6
2
+ 8
2
:s. 1u
2
S6 + 64 = 1uu
- R|ght Tr|ang|e

Example:
-50-
Geometry
PythagoreanTriples
PythagoreanTheorem: a
2
+h
2
= c
2

Pythagoreantriplesaresetsof3positiveintegersthatmeettherequirementsofthe
PythagoreanTheorem.Becausethesesetsofintegersprovideprettysolutionstogeometry
problems,theyareafavoriteofgeometrybooksandteachers.Knowingwhattriplesexistcan
helpthestudentquicklyidentifysolutionstoproblemsthatmightotherwisetakeconsiderable
timetosolve.
345TriangleFamily 72425TriangleFamily
3
2
+4
2
= 5
2
7
2
+24
2
= 25
2
9 +16 = 2S 49 +S76 = 62S
51213TriangleFamily 81517TriangleFamily
5
2
+12
2
= 13
2
8
2
+15
2
= 17
2
2S +144 = 169 64 +22S = 289

Sample
Triples
51213
102426
153639
...
50120130
Sample
Triples
345
6810
91215
121620
304050
Sample
Triples
72425
144850
217275
...
70240250
Sample
Triples
81517
163034
244551
...
80150170
-51-
Geometry
SpecialTriangles
Therelationshipamongthelengthsofthesidesofatriangleisdependentonthemeasuresof
theanglesinthetriangle.Forarighttriangle(i.e.,onethatcontainsa90angle),twospecial
casesareofparticularinterest.Theseareshownbelow:
454590Triangle
306090Triangle

Inarighttriangle,weneedtoknowthelengthsoftwosidestodeterminethelengthofthe
third.Thepoweroftherelationshipsinthespecialtrianglesliesinthefactthatweneedonly
knowthelengthofonesideofthetriangletodeterminethelengthsoftheothertwosides.
ExampleSideLengths
Ina454590triangle,thecongruenceoftwo
anglesguaranteesthecongruenceofthetwo
legsofthetriangle.Theproportionsofthethree
sidesare: .Thatis,thetwolegshave
thesamelengthandthehypotenuseistimes
aslongaseitherleg.
Ina306090triangle,theproportionsofthe
threesidesare: .Thatis,thelongleg
istimesaslongastheshortleg,andthe
hypotenuseistimesaslongastheshortleg.
454590Triangle

306090Triangle

-52-
Geometry
TrigFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions

SpecialAngles
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
Radians Degrees stn0 us 0 tan0
0 0
u
2
= u
4
2
= 1
u
4
= u
n
6
,
30
1
2
=
1
2
S
2

1
S
=
S
S

n
4
,
45
2
2

2
2

2
2
=1
n
S
,
60
S
2

1
2
=
1
2
S
1
= S
n
2
,
90
4
2
= 1
u
2
= u
undefined
SOHCAHTOA
sin =
oppostc
hpotcncusc
sinA =
u
c
sinB =
b
c
cos =
ud]uccnt
hpotcncusc
cos A =
b
c
cos B =
u
c
tan =
oppostc
ud]uccnt
tan A =
u
b
tanB =
b
u
-53-
Geometry
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthe
followingmanner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureoftheanglefromthex
axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna+or-signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin.
Examples:

inQuadrantIICalculate:(18u - mz0)
For0 = 12u,baseyourworkon18u - 12u = 6u
sin 6u =
3
2
,so:stn12 =
3
2
inQuadrantIIICalculate:(mz0 - 18u)
For0 = 21u,baseyourworkon21u - 18u = Su
cos Su =
3
2
,so:us 21 = -
3
2

inQuadrantIVCalculate:(S6u - mz0)
For0 = S1S,baseyourworkonS6u - S1S = 4S
tan 4S =1,so:tan315 = -1
-54-
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsareinverses.So:
sin
1
csc
and csc
1
sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsareinverses.So:
cos
1
sec
and sec
1
cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsareinverses.So:
tan
1
cot
and cot
1
tan
Geometry
GraphsofTrigonometricFunctions

-55-
Geometry
Vectors
Definitions
Avectorisageometricobjectthathasboth
magnitude(length)anddirection.
TheTailofthevectoristheendoppositethearrow.
Itrepresentswherethevectorismovingfrom.
v = AB
TheHeadofthevectoristheendwiththearrow.It
representswherethevectorismovingto.
TheZeroVectorisdenoted0.Ithaszerolengthand
allthepropertiesofzero.
Twovectorsareequalistheyhaveboththesamemagnitudeandthesamedirection.
Twovectorsareparalleliftheyhavethesameoroppositedirections.Thatis,iftheangles
ofthevectorsarethesameor180different.
Twovectorsareperpendicularifthedifferenceoftheanglesofthevectorsis90or270.
MagnitudeofaVector
Thedistanceformulagivesthemagnitudeofavector.Iftheheadandtailofvectorvarethe
pointsA = (x
1
, y
1
)andB = ( a e is x
2
, y
2
),thenthem gnitud ofv :
|v|= |AB
| = (x
2
-x
1
)
2
+(y
2
-y
1
)
2
Notethat|AB
| = |BA
|.Thedirectionsofthetwovectorsareopposite,buttheirmagnitudes
arethesame.
DirectionofaVector
Thedirectionofavectorisdeterminedbytheangleitmakes
withahorizontalline.Inthefigureatright,thedirectionisthe
angle6.Thevalueof6canbecalculatedbasedonthelengths
ofthesidesofthetriang thevectorforms. le
tan0 =
3
4
oi 0 = tan
-1
_
3
4
]
wherethefunctiontan
1
istheinversetangentfunction.Thesecondequationinthelineabove
reads0istheanglewhosetangentis
3
4
.
-56-
Geometry
OperationswithVectors
Itispossibletooperatewithvectorsinsomeofthesamewaysweoperatewithnumbers.In
particular:
AddingVectors
Vectorscanbe in tangularformbyseparatelyaddingtheirxandycomponents.In
general,
added rec
u = (u
1
, u
2
)
v = (:
1
, :
2
)
u +v = (u
1
, u
2
) +(:
1
, :
2
) = (u
1
+:
1
, u
2
+ :
2
)
Example:Inthe figureatright,
u = (4, S)
-6 v = (2, )
w = u +v = (4, S) +(2, -6) = (6, -S)
V a ectorAlgebr
= u +v = v +u u +(-u) a (u +v) = (a u) +(a v)
+w +( (u +v) = u +(w+v) u = (a +b) u = (a u) b u)
u + = u 1 u = u (ab) u = a (b u) = b (a u)
ScalarMultiplication
Scalarmultiplic sthemagnitudeofavector,butnotthedirection.Ingeneral, ationchange
u = (u
1
, u
2
)
k u = (k u
1
, k u
2
)
Inthefigureatright,
u = (4, S)
2 u = 2 (4, S) = (8, 6)
-57-
Centerthemiddleofthecircle.Allpointsonthecircle
arethesamedistancefromthecenter.
Radiusalinesegmentwithoneendpointatthecenter
andtheotherendpointonthecircle.Thetermradiusis
alsousedtorefertothedistancefromthecentertothe
pointsonthecircle.
Diameteralinesegmentwithendpointsonthecircle
thatpassesthroughthecenter.
Arcapathalongacircle.
MinorArcapathalongthecirclethatislessthan180.
MajorArcapathalongthecirclethatisgreaterthan
180.
Semicircleapathalongacirclethatequals180.
Sectoraregioninsideacirclethatisboundedbytwo
radiiandanarc.
Geometry
PartsofCircles

SecantLinealinethatintersectsthecirclein
exactlytwopoints.
TangentLinealinethatintersectsthecircle
inexactlyonepoint.
Chordalinesegmentwithendpointsonthe
circlethatdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.
-58-
Geometry
AnglesandCircles
CentralAngle InscribedAngle
mzA = m RS
mzA =
1
2
m RS
Vertexinsidethecircle Vertexoutsidethecircle
mzA =
1
2
(m RS
+m MN
) mzA =
1
2
(m RS
-m M
R = AN AS
N)
RA AN = SA AM AM A
Tangentononeside Tangentsontwosides
mzA =
1
2
(m RS
- zA =
1
2
m RN
) m (m
AR
2
= AN AS AR = AS
RTS
-m RLS
-59-
Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofaTriangle
PerimeterofaTriangle
Theperimeterofatriangleissimplythesumofthemeasuresofthethreesidesofthetriangle.
P = a +h + c
AreaofaTriangle
Therearetwoformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformationaboutthe
triangleisavailable.
Formula1:Theformulamostfamiliartothestudentcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightof
thetriangleareeitherknownorcanbedetermined.
A =
1
2
hh
where, bisthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
bistheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthemeasureofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or or
Formula2:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhen
thelengthsofallofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,
thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
A = x(x -a)(x -h)(x -c)
where, x =
1
2
P =
1
2
(a +h +c). Note: sissometimescalledthesemiperimeterofthetriangle.
a, h, carethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
-60-
ADVANCED
Geometry
MoreontheAreaofaTriangle
TrigonometricFormulas
Thefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecomefromtrigonometry.Whichoneisused
dependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandaside:
A =
1
2
a
2
stnB stnC
stnA
=
1
2
h
2
stnA stnC
stnB
=
1
2
c
2
stnA stnB
stnC

Twosidesandanangle:
A =
1
2
ah stnC =
1
2
ac stnB =
1
2
hc stnA
CoordinateGeometry
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letthethreepointsinthecoordinateplanebe:(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
3
).Then,theareaof
thetriangleisonehalfoftheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantbelow:
A =
1
2
_ _
x
1
y
1
1
x
2
y
2
1
x
3
y
3
1
_ _
Example:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
A =
1
2
_ _
2 4 1
-3 2 1
3 -1 1
_ _
=
1
2
[2
2 1
-1 1
-4
-3 1
3 1
+
-3 2
3 -1
=
1
2
27 =
27
2

-61-
Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofQuadrilaterals
Name Illustration Perimeter Area
Kite
P = 2b + 2c
A =
1
2
(J
1
J
2
)
Trapezoid
P = b
1
+ b
2
+ c + J
A =
1
2
(b
1
+ b
2
)b
Parallelogram
P = 2b + 2c A = bb
Rectangle
P = 2b + 2c A = bb
Rhombus
P = 4s
A = bb =
1
2
(J
1
J
2
)
Square
P = 4s
A = s
2
=
1
2
(J
2
)
-62-
Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofRegularPolygons
DefinitionsRegularPolygons
Thecenterofapolygonisthecenterofitscircumscribed
circle.PointOisthecenterofthehexagonatright.
Theradiusofthepolygonistheradiusofits
circumscribedcircle.OA
andOB
arebothradiiofthe
hexagonatright.
Theapothemofapolygonisthedistancefromthecenter
tothemidpointofanyofitssides.aistheapothemof
thehexagonatright.
Thecentralangleofapolygonisananglewhosevertexisthecenterofthecircleandwhose
sidespassthroughconsecutiveverticesofthepolygon.Inthefigureabove,zAOBisa
centralangleofthehexagon.
AreaofaReg P on ular olyg
A =
1
2
aP where, istheapothemofthepolygon o
Pistheperimeterofthepolygon
PerimeterandAreaofSimilarFigures
LetkbethescalefactorrelatingtwosimilargeometricfiguresF
1
andF
2
suchthatF
2
= h F
1
.
Then,
Pertmeter uI F
2

Pertmeter uI F
1
= h
Area uI F
2

Area uI F
1
= h
2
and

-63-
Geometry
CircleLengthsandAreas
Circum Area ferenceand
r C = 2a
A = ar
2
istheareaofthecircle.
isthecircumference(i.e.,theperimeter)ofthecircle.
where:ristheradiusofthecircle.
LengthofanArconaCircle
Acommonprobleminthegeometryofcirclesistomeasurethelengthofanarconacircle.
Definitio thecircumferenceofacircle. n:Anarcisasegmentalong
arc |ength =
mAB
3
C
where:mzAB
isthemeasure(indegrees)ofthearc.Notethat
thisisalsothemeasureofthecentralanglezA0B.
Cisthecircumferenceofthecircle.
AreaofaSectorofaCircle
Anothercommonprobleminthegeometryofcirclesistomeasuretheareaofasectoracircle.
Definitio a lethatisboundedbytworadiiandanarcofthecircle. n:Asectorisaregion in circ
xectur area =
mAB
3
A
where: mzAB
isthemeasure(indegrees)ofthearc.Notethat
thisisalsothemeasureofthecentralanglezA0B.
Aistheareaofthecircle.
-64-
Geometry
AreaofCompositeFigures
Tocalculatetheareaofafigurethatisacompositeofshapes,considereachshapeseparately.
Example1:
Calculatetheareaoftheblueregioninthefiguretotheright.
Tosolvethis:
Recognizethatthefigureisthecompositeofa
rectangleandtwotriangles.
Disassemblethecompositefigureintoitscomponents.
Calculatetheareaofthecomponents.
Subtracttogettheareaofthecompositefigure.
Area u Reg|un = (4 ) -2_

1
2
4 3] = 24 -12 = 12
Example2:
Calculatetheareaoftheblueregioninthefiguretotheright.
Tosolvethis:
Recognizethatthefigureisthecompositeofasquareanda
circle.
Disassemblethecompositefigureintoitscomponents.
Calculatetheareaofthecomponents.
Subtracttogettheareaofthecompositefigure.
Area u Reg|un = 8
2
-4(a 2
2
) = 4 -1a ~ 13. 73
-65-
Geometry
Polyhedra
Definitions
Faces
APolyhedronisa3dimensionalsolidboundedbyaseries
ofpolygons.
Facesarethepolygonsthatboundthepolyhedron.
AnEdgeisthelinesegmentattheintersectionoftwofaces.
AVertexisapointattheintersectionoftwoedges.
ARegularpolyhedronisoneinwhichallofthefacesarethe
sameregularpolygon.
Vertices
AConvexPolyhedronisoneinwhichalldiagonalsarecontainedwithintheinteriorofthe
polyhedron.AConcavepolyhedronisonethatisnotconvex.
ACrossSectionistheintersectionofaplanewiththepolyhedron.
Eulers orem The
Let: numberoffacesofapolyhedron. F =the
henumberofverticesofapolyhedron. I =t
E =thenumberofedgesofapolyhedron.
Then,foranypolyhedronthatdoesnotintersectitself,
CalculatingtheNumberofEdges
Edges
+ 8 = 12 +2
EulersTheoremExample:
Thecubeabovehas
6faces
8vertices
12edges
F +F = F +2
Thenumberofedgesofapolyhedronisonehalfthenumberofsidesinthepolygonsit
comprises.Eachsidethatiscountedinthiswayissharedbytwopolygons;simplyaddingall
thesidesofthepolygons,therefore,doublecountsthenumberofedgesonthepolyhedron.
Example:Considerasoccerball.Itispolyhedronmadeupof20
hexagonsand12pentagons.Thenthenumberofedgesis:
F =
1
2
|(2 ) +(12 5)] = 9
-66-
Example:
Thecubewithatunnelinithas
I = 16
E = S2
F = 16
so, F -F + F =
ADVANCED
Geometry
AHoleinEulersTheorem
Topologyisabranchofmathematicsthatstudiesthepropertiesofobjectsthatarepreserved
throughmanipulationthatdoesnotincludetearing.Anobjectmaybestretched,twistedand
otherwisedeformed,butnottorn.Inthisbranchofmathematics,adonutisequivalenttoa
coffeecupbecausebothhaveonehole;youcandeformeitherthecuporthedonutandcreate
theother,likeyouareplayingwithclay.
Alloftheusualpolyhedrahavenoholesinthem,soEulersEquationholds.Whathappensif
weallowthepolyhedratohaveholesinthem?Thatis,whatifweconsidertopologicalshapes
differentfromtheoneswenormallyconsider?
EulersCharacteristic
WhenEulersEquationisrewrittenasF - F +F = 2,thelefthandsideoftheequationis
calledtheEulerCharacteristic.
GeneralizedEulersTheorem
Let: F =thenumberoffacesofapolyhedron.
I =thenumberofverticesofapolyhedron.
E =thenumberofedgesofapolyhedron.
g =thenumberofholesinthepolyhedron.gis
calledthegenusoftheshape.
Then,foranypolyhedronthatdoesnotintersectitself,
NotethatthevalueofEulersCharacteristiccanbe
negativeiftheshapehasmorethanoneholeinit(i.e.,if
g 2)!
F -F +F = 2 -2g
TheEulerCharacteristicofashapeis:F -F +F
-67-
Geometry
PlatonicSolids
APlatonicSolidisaconvexregularpolyhedronwithfacescomposedofcongruentconvex
regularpolygons.Therefiveofthem:
KeyPropertiesofPlatonicSolids
Itisinterestingtolookatthekeypropertiesoftheseregularpolyhedra.
Name Faces Vertices Edges TypeofFace
Tetrahedron 4 4 6 Triangle
Cube 6 8 12 Square
Octahedron 8 6 12 Triangle
Dodecahedron 12 20 30 Pentagon
Icosahedron 20 12 30 Triangle
Noticethefollowingpatternsinthetable:
Allofthenumbersoffacesareeven.Onlythecubehasanumberoffacesthatisnota
multipleof4.
Allofthenumbersofverticesareeven.Onlytheoctahedronhasanumberoffacesthat
isnotamultipleof4.
Thenumberoffacesandverticesseemtoalternate(e.g.,cube68vs.octahedron86).
Allofthenumbersofedgesaremultiplesof6.
Thereareonlythreepossibilitiesforthenumbersofedges6,12and30.
Thefacesareoneof:regulartriangles,squaresorregularpentagons.

-68-
Geometry
Prisms
Definitions
APrismisapolyhedronwithtwocongruentpolygonalfaces
thatlieinparallelplanes.
TheBasesaretheparallelpolygonalfaces.
TheLateralFacesarethefacesthatarenotbases.
TheLateralEdgesaretheedgesbetweenthelateralfaces.
TheSlantHeightisthelengthofalateraledge.Notethat
alllateraledgesarethesamelength.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebases.
ARightPrismisoneinwhichtheanglesbetweenthebasesandthe
lateraledgesarerightangles.Notethatinarightprism,theheightand
theslantheightarethesame.
AnObliquePrismisonethatisnotarightprism.
RightHexagonal
Prism
TheSurfaceAreaofaprismisthesumoftheareasofallitsfaces.
TheLateralAreaofaprismisthesumoftheareasofitslateralfaces.
SurfaceAreaandVolume htPrism
where, sc P = tbc pcrimctcr o tbc
b = tbc bcigbt o tbc pris
B = tbc orco o tbc bosc
bo
m
of aRig
SurfaceArea: +2B SA = Ph
LateralSA: SA = Ph
Volume: F = Bh
CavalierisPrinciple
Iftwosolidshavethesameheightandthesamecrosssectionalareaateverylevel,thenthey
havethesamevolume.Thisprincipleallowsustoderiveaformulaforthevolumeofan
obliqueprismfromtheformulaforthevolumeofarightprism.
SurfaceAreaandVolume bliquePrism
where, P = tbc pcrimctcr o tbc bo
c p
m
sc
rism s = tbc slont bcigbt o tb
b = tbc bcigbt o tbc pris
ofanO
SurfaceArea: +2B SA = Px
LateralSA: SA = Px
Volume: F = Bh
-69-
Geometry
Cylinders
Definitions
ACylinderisafigurewithtwocongruentcircularbasesinparallelplanes.
AcylinderhasonlyoneLateralSurface.Whendeconstructed,thelateralsurfaceofa
cylinderisarectanglewithlengthequaltothecircumferenceofthebase.
TherearenoLateralEdgesinacylinder.
TheSlantHeightisthelengthofthelateralsidebetweenthebases.Note
thatalllateraldistancesarethesamelength.Theslantheighthas
applicabilityonlyifthecylinderisoblique.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebases.
ARightCylinderisoneinwhichtheanglesbetweenthebasesandthelateralsideareright
angles.Notethatinarightcylinder,theheightandtheslantheightarethesame.
AnObliqueCylinderisonethatisnotarightcylinder.
TheSurfaceAreaofacylinderisthesumoftheareasofitsbasesanditslateralsurface.
TheLateralAreaofacylinderistheareasofitslateralsurface.
SurfaceAreaandVolume htCylinder of aRig
SurfaceArea: SA = Ch +2B
= 2
2
where, bosc C = tbc circumcrcncc o
tbc
Jcr b = tbc bcigbt o tbc cylin
r = tbc roJius o tbc bosc
arh +2ar
LateralSA: h SA = Ch = 2ar
Volume: F = Bh = ar
2
h
SurfaceAreaandVolume bliquePrism ofanO
SurfaceArea: SA = Cx +2B
= 2 r
2
where, C = tbc circumcrcncc o tbc

= tbc c cyl
Jcr
bosc
inJcr s slont bcigbt o tb
o
b = tbc bcigbt tbc cylin

a x +2ar
LateralSA: SA = Cx= 2arx
Volume: F = Bh = ar
2
h
-70-
Geometry
SurfaceAreabyDecomposition
Sometimesthestudentisaskedtocalculatethesurfaceareofaprismthatdoesnotquitefit
intooneofthecategoriesforwhichaneasyformulaexists.Inthiscase,theanswermaybeto
decomposetheprismintoitscomponentshapes,andthencalculatetheareasofthe
components.Note:thisprocessalsoworkswithcylindersandpyramids.
DecompositionofaPrism
Tocalculatethesurfaceareaofaprism,decomposeitandlookateachoftheprismsfaces
individually.
Example:Calculatethesurfaceareaofthetriangularprismatright.
Todothis,firstnoticethatweneedthevalueofthehypotenuseofthe
base.UsethePythagoreanTheoremorPythagoreanTriplesto
determinethemissingvalueis10.Then,decomposethefigureintoits
variousfaces:
Thesurfacearea,then,iscalculatedas:
SA = (2 Boscs) +(Front) +(Bock) +(SiJc)
SA = 2 _
1
2
6 8] +(1u 7) +(8 7) +(6 7) = 216
DecompositionofaCylinder
Thesurfacearea,then,iscalculatedas:
SA = (2 tops) +(lotcrol occ)
SA = 2 (n S
2
) +(6n S) = 48n ~ 1Su.8u
Thecylinderatrightis
decomposedintotwocircles(the
bases)andarectangle(thelateral
face).
-71-
Geometry
Pyramids
Pyramids
APyramidisapolyhedroninwhichthebaseisapolygonand
thelateralsidesaretriangleswithacommonvertex.
TheBaseisapolygonofanysizeorshape.
TheLateralFacesarethefacesthatarenotthebase.
TheLateralEdgesaretheedgesbetweenthelateralfaces.
TheApexofthepyramidistheintersectionofthelateral
edges.Itisthepointatthetopofthepyramid.
TheSlantHeightofaregularpyramidisthealtitudeofoneof
thelateralfaces.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebaseandtheapex.
ARegularPyramidisoneinwhichthelateralfacesarecongruenttriangles.Theheightofa
regularpyramidintersectsthebaseatitscenter.
AnObliquePyramidisonethatisnotarightpyramid.Thatis,the
apexisnotaligneddirectlyabovethecenterofthebase.
TheSurfaceAreaofapyramidisthesumoftheareasofallits
faces.
TheLateralAreaofapyramidisthesumoftheareasofitslateral
faces.
SurfaceAreaandVolume gularPyramid ofaRe
SurfaceArea:
1
SA =
2
Px
LateralSA:
+B
SA =
1
2
Px
Volume: F =
1
3
Bh
SurfaceAreaandVolume bliquePyramid ofan O

SurfaceArea: +B SA = LSA
Volume: F =
1
3
Bh

where, P = tbc pcrimctcr o tbc bosc
= tbc s c pyr
= omiJ
omiJ s lont bcigbt o tb
b tbc bcigbt o tbc pyr
where, ISA = tbc lotcrol suroc
b tbc bcigbt o tbc pyr
c orco
= omiJ
Thelateralsurfaceareaofanobliquepyramidisthesumof
theareasofthefaces,whichmustbecalculatedindividually.
-72-
Geometry
Cones
Definitions
ACircularConeisa3dimensionalgeometricfigurewithacircularbasewhichtapers
smoothlytoavertex(orapex).Theapexandbaseareindifferentplanes.Note:thereis
alsoanellipticalconethathasanellipseasabase,butthatwillnotbeconsideredhere.
TheBaseisacircle.
TheLateralSurfaceisareaofthefigurebetweenthebaseandtheapex.
TherearenoLateralEdgesinacone.
TheApexoftheconeisthepointatthetopofthecone.
TheSlantHeightofaconeisthelengthalongthelateralsurfacefromtheapextothebase.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebaseandtheapex.
ARightConeisoneinwhichtheheightoftheconeintersectsthebaseat
itscenter.
AnObliqueConeisonethatisnotarightcone.Thatis,theapexisnot
aligneddirectlyabovethecenterofthebase.
TheSurfaceAreaofaconeisthesumoftheareaofitslateralsurface
anditsbase.
TheLateralAreaofaconeistheareaofitslateralsurface.
SurfaceAreaandVolume tCone ofaRigh
SurfaceArea: +ar
2
SA = arx
LateralSA: SA = arx
Volume: F =
1
3
Bh =
1
3
ar
2
h
SurfaceAreaandVolume iqueCone ofan Obl
SurfaceArea: SA = LSA +ar
2
Volume: F =
1
3
Bh =
1
3
ar
2
h

where, r = tbc roJius o tbc bosc
= tbc s c
c
conc s lont bcigbt o tb

b = tbc bcigbt o tbc con
where, orco ISA = tbc lotcrol surocc
b = tbc bcigbt o tbc conc
Thereisnoeasyformulaforthelateralsurfaceareaofan
obliquecone.
-73-
Geometry
Spheres
Definitions
ASphereisa3dimensionalgeometricfigureinwhichall
pointsareafixeddistancefromapoint.Agoodexampleof
asphereisaball.
Centerthemiddleofthesphere.Allpointsonthesphere
arethesamedistancefromthecenter.
Radiusalinesegmentwithoneendpointatthecenterand
theotherendpointonthesphere.Thetermradiusisalso
usedtorefertothedistancefromthecentertothepoints
onthesphere.
Diameteralinesegmentwithendpointsonthesphere
GreatCircletheintersectionofaplaneandasphere
Hemispherehalfofasphere.Agreatcircleseparatesa
planeintotwohemispheres.
SecantLinealinethatintersectsthesphereinexactly
twopoints.
TangentLinealinethatintersectsthesphereinexactly
onepoint.
Chordalinesegmentwithendpointsonthespherethatdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaSphere
SurfaceArea: SA = 4ar
2
Volume: F =
4
3
ar
3
where, r = tbc roJius o tbc spbcrc

-74-
Geometry
SimilarSolids
SimilarSolidshaveequalratiosofcorrespondinglinearmeasurements(e.g.,edges,radii).So,
alloftheirkeydimensionsareproportional.
Edges,SurfaceAreaandVolumeofSimilarFigures
LetkbethescalefactorrelatingtwosimilargeometricsolidsF
1
andF
2
suchthatF
2
= h F
1
.
Then,forcorrespondingpartsofF
1
andF
2
,
Edge uI F
2

Edge uI F
1
= h
and
SurIae Area uI F
2

SurIae Area uI F
1
= h
2
And

Vulume uI F
2

Vulume uI F
1
= h
3
Theseformulasholdtrueforanycorrespondingportionofthe
figures.So,forexample:

TotaI Edgc Lcngth oI F
2

TotaI Edgc Lcngth oI F
1
= k
Arca oI a Facc oI F
2

Arca oIa Facc oI F
1
= k
2

-75-
Geometry
SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
Shape Figure Perimeter Area
Kite
P = 2h +2c
b, c = siJcs
A =
1
2
(d
1
d
2
)
J
1
, J
2
= Jiogonols
Trapezoid
P = h
1
+h
2
+c +d
b
1
, b
2
= boscs
c, J = siJcs
A =
1
2
(b
1
+b
2
)h
b
1
, b
2
= bases
h = height
Parallelogram
P = 2h +2c
b, c = siJcs
A = bh
b = bosc
b = bcigbt
Rectangle
P = 2h +2c
b, c = siJcs
A = bh
b = bosc
b = bcigbt
Rhombus
P = 4x
s = siJc
A = hh =
1
2
(d
1
d
2
)
J
1
, J
2
= Jiogonols
Square
P = 4x
s = siJc
A = x
2
=
1
2
(d
1
d
2
)
J
1
, J
2
= Jiogonols
RegularPolygon
P = nx
n = numbcr o siJcs
s = siJc
A =
1
2
a P
o = opotbcm
P = pcrimctcr
Circle
C = 2ar = ad
r = roJius
J = Jiomctcr
A = ar
2
r = roJius
Ellipse
P = 2a _
1
2
(r
1
2
+r
2
2
)
r
1
= mo]or oxis roJius
r
2
= minor oxis roJius
A = ar
1
r
2
r
1
= mo]or oxis roJius
r
2
= minor oxis roJius
-76-
Geometry
SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
Shape Figure SurfaceArea Volume
Sphere
SA = 4ar
2

r = roJius
F =
4
3
ar
3
r = roJius
Right
Cylinder
SA = 2arh +2ar
2
b = bcigbt
r = roJius o bosc
F = ar
2
h
b = bcigbt
r = roJius o bosc
Cone
SA = ar| +ar
2
l = slont bcigbt
r = roJius o bosc
F =
1
3
ar
2
h
b = bcigbt
r = roJius o bosc
Square
Pyramid
SA = 2x| +x
2
s = bosc siJc lcngtb

l = slont bcigbt
F =
1
3
x
2
h
s = bosc siJc lcngtb
b = bcigbt
Rectangular
Prism
SA = 2 (|w+|h +wh)
l = lcngtb
w = wiJtb
b = bcigbt
F = |wh
l = lcngtb
w = wiJtb
b = bcigbt
Cube
SA = x
2
s = siJc lcngtb (oll siJcs)

F = x
3
s = siJc lcngtb (oll siJcs)

General
RightPrism
SA = Ph +2B
P = Pcrimctcr o Bosc
b = bcigbt (or lcngtb)
B = orco o Bosc
F = Bh
B = orco o Bosc
b = bcigbt
-77-
Page Subject
16 AlternateExteriorAngles
16 AlternateInteriorAngles
23 AngleBisectorLengthinaTriangle
Angles
10 AnglesBasic
11 AnglesTypes
Area
65 AreaCompositeFigures
63 AreaPolygons
62 AreaQuadrilaterals
64 AreaRegionofaCircle
60,61 AreaTriangle
76 AreaFormulasSummaryfor2DShapes
69 Cavalieri'sPrinciple
CentersofTriangles
22 Centroid
22 Circumcenter
22 Incenter
22 Orthocenter
22 Centroid
Circles
64 CirclesArcLengths
58 CirclesDefinitionsofParts
64 CirclesRegionAreas
59 CirclesRelatedAngles
59 CirclesRelatedSegments
22 CirclesandTriangles
22 Circumcenter
12 ConditionalStatements(Original,Converse,Inverse,Contrapositive)
Cones
73 ConesDefinitions
73 ConesSurfaceAreaandVolume
21 CongruentTriangles
12 ContrapositiveofaStatement
12 ConverseofaStatement
16 CorrespondingAngles
55 CosecantFunction
Geometry Handbook
Index
-78-
Page Subject
Geometry Handbook
Index
5355 CosineFunction
55 CotangentFunction
68 Cube(Hexahedron)
Cylinders
70 CylindersDefinitions
70 CylindersSurfaceAreaandVolume
DistanceFormula
8 DistanceFormula1Dimensionaland2Dimensional)
9 DistanceFormulainn Dimensions
68 Dodecahedron
20 EquilateralTriangle
66,67 EulersTheorem
23 HeightLengthinaTriangle
60 Heron'sFormulaAreaofaTriangle
68 Icosahedron
22 Incenter
12 InverseofaStatement
20 IsoscelesTriangle
32 Kites
6,7 Line
Logic
12 ContrapositiveofaStatement
12 ConverseofaStatement
12 InverseofaStatement
23 MedianLengthinaTriangle
68 Octahedron
22 Orthocenter
ParallelLines
16,17 ParallelLinesandTransversals
19 ParallelLinesintheCoordinatePlane
Parallelograms
30 ParallelogramsCharacteristics
31 ParallelogramsProofs(SufficientConditions)
Perimeter
64 PerimeterArcLengthofaCircle
63 PerimeterPolygons
62 PerimeterQuadrilaterals
-79-
Page Subject
Geometry Handbook
Index
60 PerimeterTriangle
76 PerimeterFormulasSummaryfor2DShapes
19 PerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
6 Plane
68 PlatonicSolids
6 Points
Polygons
25,26 PolygonsDefinitions
45,46 PolygonsDilation
45,46 PolygonsDilationsofPolygons
27 PolygonsExteriorAngles
27 PolygonsInteriorAngles
25 PolygonsNames
26 PolygonsNumberofDiagonalsinaPolygon
63 PolygonsPerimeterandArea
44 PolygonsScaleFactorofSimilarPolygons
43 PolygonsSimilarity
Polyhedra
66 PolyhedraDefinitions
66,67 PolyhedraEuler'sTheorem
66 PolyhedraNumberofEdges
Prisms
69 PrismsDefinitions
69 PrismsSurfaceAreaandVolume
Proofs
18 ProofsParallelLines
31 ProofsParallelograms
15 ProofsRequirements
15 ProofsTipsforSuccess
Properties
13 PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication
13 PropertiesofAlgebra
13 PropertiesofEqualityandCongruence
Pyramids
72 PyramidsDefinitions
72 PyramidsSurfaceAreaandVolume
50 PythagoreanTheorem
-80-
Page Subject
Geometry Handbook
Index
51 PythagoreanTriples
Quadrilaterals
29 QuadrilateralsCharacteristics
28 QuadrilateralsDefinitions
29 QuadrilateralsFigures
62 QuadrilateralsPerimeterandArea
42 RatiosDealingwithUnits
6,7 Ray
14 ReasoningInductivevs.Deductive
20 RightTriangle
20 ScaleneTriangle
55 SecantFunction
6,7 Segment
Similarity
4346 SimilarPolygons
4749 SimilarTriangles
75 SimilaritySolids
5355 SineFunction
75 SolidsSimilarity
Sphere
74 SpheresDefinitions
74 SpheresSurfaceAreaandVolume
SurfaceArea
73 SurfaceAreaCones
70 SurfaceAreaCylinders
69 SurfaceAreaPrisms
72 SurfaceAreaPyramids
74 SurfaceAreaSpheres
71 SurfaceAreaUsingDecomposition
77 SurfaceAreaFormulasSummaryfor3DShapes
5355 TangentFunction
68 Tetrahedron
Transformation
41 TransformationComposition
33 TransformationDefinitions
33 TransformationIsometric
35 TransformationReflection
-81-
Page Subject
Geometry Handbook
Index
36 TransformationRotation
37 TransformationRotationby90aboutaPoint(x
0
,y
0
)
40 TransformationTranslation
32 Trapezoids
Triangles
22 CentersofTriangles
21 TriangleCongruence(SAS,SSS,ASA,AAS,CPCTC)
24 TriangleInequalities
47 TriangleSimilarity(SSS,SAS,AA)
20 TrianglesGeneral
60,61 TrianglesPerimeterandArea
48 TrianglesProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
52 TrianglesSpecial(454590Triangle,306090Triangle)
49 TrianglesThreeSimilarTriangles
TrigonometricFunctions
55 CosecantFunction
5355 CosineFunction
55 CotangentFunction
55 SecantFunction
5355 SineFunction
5355 TangentFunction
53 TrigonometricFunctionsDefinition
55 TrigonometricFunctionsGraphs
53 TrigonometricFunctionsSpecialAngles
54 TrigonometricFunctionsValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
Vectors
56 VectorsDefinitions
56 VectorsDirection
56 VectorsMagnitude
57 VectorsOperations
Volume
73 VolumeCones
70 VolumeCylinders
69 VolumePrisms
72 VolumePyramids
74 VolumeSpheres
77 VolumeFormulasSummaryfor3DShapes
-82-

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Copyright20102014,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.

Item Illustration Notation Definition

Inthefi gure atright:

goesof anorthwestdirection. fin

Wethe thePythagoreanTheorem: naddathirddimensionusing

d(A, B) = |A -B| = _(a

ConverseStatement: Ifq,thenp.(q -p)

Property DefinitionforAddition DefinitionforMultiplication

Thesumofthe sidedpolygonis: interioranglesinan n

Kite Parallelogram Trapezoid

Rectangle Rhombus Isosceles

Characteristic Square Rhombus Rectangle Parallelogram

Ifyoumultiply,youget:(S2 milcs) [48

49 +81 < 144

9 +16 = 2S 49 +S76 = 62S

2S +144 = 169 64 +22S = 289

Area u Reg|un = (4 ) -2_

where, bosc C = tbc circumcrcncc o

where, C = tbc circumcrcncc o tbc

b = tbc bcigbt tbc cylin

SurfaceAreaandVolume bliquePyramid ofan O

conc s lont bcigbt o tb

where, r = tbc roJius o tbc spbcrc

s = bosc siJc lcngtb

s = siJc lcngtb (oll siJcs)

s = siJc lcngtb (oll siJcs)

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