Examples

Calculate
C l l t the
th drift
d ift mobility
bilit andd the
th mean scattering
tt i time
ti off conduction
d ti electrons
l t
in Cu at RT. Given that the conductivity of Cu is 5.9×105Ω-1cm-1, the density of
Cu is 8.96 g cm-3 and its atomic mass 63.5 g mol-1.

σ = enμd Needs to calculate n

1 valence electron/atom.
n=concentration of Cu atoms

d is density, Mat is atomic mass, NA is dN A

Avogadro’s constant (6.02×1023 mol-1) n=
M at
dN A 8.96 g / cm3 × 6.02 ×10 23 mol −1
n= = = 8.5 × 10 22 electrons / cm3
M at 63.5 g / mol
σ 5.9×105 ×102 Ω−1m−1
μd = = = × −4 2 −1 −1

(
−19
en 1.6×10 C 8.5×10 ×10 m
22
)( 6 −3
43.4 10
)
mV s

τ=
μd me
=
(43.4×10 −4
)(
m2V −1s−1 9.1×10−31kg )
= 2.5×10−14
s
−19
e 1.6×10 C 1
Examples

Given that
Gi th t the
th mean speedd off conduction
d ti electrons
l t i Cu
in C is 1 5 ×10
i 1.5 106 ms-11 andd the
th
frequency of vibration of Cu atoms at RT is about 4×1012 s-1, estimate the drift
velocity of the electrons and conductivity of Cu. The density of Cu is 8.96 g cm-3 and
its atomic mass 63.5 g mol-1.

S = π a2
eτ
μd =
me Only τ is unknown
l=uτ a
σ = en μ d
u
According to the definition of τ, there is only one
scattering event in the volume V=uτπa2. scattering
is due to the atom thermal vibration. Ns ×V=1

Electron
1
τ=
N sπa 2u

1 1
Ma 2ω 2 ≈ kT 2
4 2
 1 1 1
τ= Ma 2ω 2 ≈ kT
N sπa 2u 4 2

dN A 8.96 ×103 kgm3 × 6.02 ×10 23 / mol −3

Ns = = = 8 .5 × 10 28
m
M at 63.5 ×10 −3 kg / mol

M at 63.56 × 10 −3 kg mol -1 − 25
M= = = 1 . 06 × 10 kg
NA 6.02 ×10 mol
23 -1

ϖ = 2πf = 2π × 4 × 1012 rad / s

πa 2 =
2πkT
=
2π 1.38 × 10 (
−23
JK −1
(293K ) ) ≈ 3.9 ×10 − 22 m 2
Mϖ 2 1.06 × 10 − 25 kg 2π × 4 × 1012 rad / s ( )
2

1 1
τ= = = × −14

( )(
N sπa u 3.9 ×10 m 1.5 × 10 ms 8.5 × 10 m
2 − 22 2 6 −1 28 −3
2 .0 10
)( s
)
μd =
eτ
=
( )(
1 . 6 × 10 − 19 C 2 . 0 × 10 − 14 s
= × −3 )2 −1
s −1
me (− 31
9 . 1 × 10 kg
3 . 5
)10 m V
3
σ = en μ d = 4 . 8 × 10 Ω m7 −1 −1
Example: Explain the typical resistivity versus
temperature behavior shown in the
figure.
figure

eτ
ρ =
1
=
1
μd =
σ en μ d me

Impurity concentration increase cause the

decrease of separation of impurity atoms
and thus mean free time between collision
decrease.

Deformation results in more defects

in the metal. And annealing reduce
the defects.
defects
Typical temperature dependence of the
resistivity of annealed and cold-worked ρ = ρT + ρ R + ρ I
((deformed)) copper
pp containingg various amounts
of Ni in atomic percentage. ρI , ρR are temperature insensitive. With
Ni impurities and deformation, the4 curve
only shift up.
Example:

If the temperature coefficient of resistivity (TCR) of pure Cu is α0 at temperature

T0. Proof the TCR at T1 is :

α0
α1 =
1 + α 0 (T1 − T0 )

P f C
Proof: Consider
id the
h resistivity i terms off α0 , α1
i i i at temperature T in

ρ = ρ 0 [1 + α 0 (T − T0 )]; ρ = ρ1 [1 + α1 (T − T1 )]

T=T1 T=T0

ρ1 = ρ 0 [1 + α 0 (T1 − T0 )] ρ 0 = ρ1 [1 + α1 (T0 − T1 )]

Eliminate ρ0 and ρ1

α0
α1 =
1 + α 0 (T1 − T0 ) 5
Example:
The mean speedd off conduction
Th d ti electrons
l t in
i copper is i about 1 5 106 ms-11. Its
b t 1.5×10 It room
temperature resistivity is 17 nΩ m and the atomic concentration in crystal is 8.5×1022cm-3.,
the Nordheim coefficient C of Au in Cu is 5500 nΩ m. Suppose we add 1 at.% Au to form
a solid solution. What is the resistivityy of the alloy,
y, the effective mean free ppath and mean
free path due to the collision with Au atoms only?

cco d g too ρ= ρ mtrix+ C

According CX(1-X)
( ) thee overall
ove resistivity
es s v y iss

ρ= 17 nΩ m + (5500 nΩ m) (0.01)(1-0.01)=71.45 nΩ m

Suppose that l is the overall or effective mean free path and τ is the effective mean
free time between collision . ( including both scattering from lattice vibration and
impurities)

l = uτ
eτ
μd = 1 m mu meu
l= 2
me ρ= = 2 e = 2e
enμ d e nτ e nll e nρ
1
ρ= 6
enμ d
 meu ρ= 17 nΩ m
l=
e 2 nρ C = 37 nm
lCu

ρ= 71.45 nΩ m

leff = 8.8nm

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
τ effff τ Cu
C τI leffff lCu
C lI

leff = 8.8nm lCu = 37nm

l I = 11.5nm

7
Examples
Consider
C id an alloy
ll maded from
f sintering
i t i 90% at.% t % Cu
C andd 10 at.
t % Zn
Z powder.
d The
Th
component contains dispersed air pores at 15 vol.% . The Nordheim coefficient of Zn in
Cu is 300 nΩ m, under very dilution conditions. The Cu room temperature of resistivity is
17 nΩ m. Calculate the effective resistivityy of this brass component.
p If experimental
p value
of CuZn alloy without pores is 40 nΩ m. what is your comments?

The resistivityy of CuZn alloyy without ppores:

According to Nordheim’s rule:

ρ alloy = ρ copper + CX (1 − X ) = 17nΩm + 300nΩm(0.1)(1 − 0.1) = 44nΩm

CuZn alloy is the continuous material and the

CuZn alloy with pores
di
dispersed
d particles
i l are the
h pores (air)
( i)

The resistivity of pores (air) is infinite ρ pore >> ρ CuZn

1 1
(1 + χ d ) (1 + × 0.15)
ρ eff = ρc 2 ρ eff = 44nΩm 2 = 55.6nΩm 8
(1 − χ d ) (1 − 0.15)
Experimental value of CuZn alloy with Zn 10at % is 40 nΩm which is smaller than the
calculated one (44 nΩm).

When the valency of solute atom is different, Nordheim’s rule is valid only if the
concentration of solution is low.

When the concentration of solute

atom-X is higher (normally X>1% ).

Adj
Adjustment off the
h calculated
l l d resistivity
i i i is i required
i d

Effective electron concentration is increased by (1+X), the resistivity of the

alloy
ll willill be
b decreased
d d by
b (1+X) , ((valency
l i 2)
is

In this case, the resistivity should be decreased by (1+10%) which is

44/(1+10%)=40 nΩm

1
(1 + × 0.15)
ρ eff = 40nΩm 2 = 50.6nΩm
(1 − 0.15)
9
Examples
35 300
(a) (b) As deposited
Annealed at 100 C
30
100 Annealed at 150 C

25 50

20
ρbulk = 16.7 n m
15 10
5 10 50 100 500
0 0.05 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Film thickness (nm)
1/d (1/micron)
(a) ρfilm of Cu polycrystalline films (b) ρfilm of Cu polycrystalline films
versus reciprocal mean grain size. Film versus film thickness. Annealing the
thi k
thickness D=250-900nm
D 250 900 ddoes nott affect
ff t fil tto reduce
film d th
the polycrystalline
l t lli does
d
the resistivity. not affect the resistivity since ρfilm is
controlled by surface scattering.
Interception with Y axis and slope can deduce the
single crystal resistivity and mean free path of
single crystal
 If the probability of the elastic scattering in
grain boundaries is 0.39
0 39

What is the mean free path of Cu?

ρ film λ⎛ R ⎞
595 (nΩ m)(nm) = 1 + 1.33 ⎜ ⎟;
ρ crystal d ⎝1− R ⎠

17.8
7. nΩ m
⎡ λ ⎛ R ⎞⎤
ρ film = ρ crystal + ⎢1.33 ⎜ ⎟ ρ crystal ;
⎣ d 1− R ⎥
⎝ ⎠⎦

⎡ ⎛ R ⎞⎤
Intercept = ρcrystal ; slope = ⎢1.33λ ⎜ ⎟⎥ ρ crystal ;
⎣ ⎝ 1 − R ⎠⎦

R=0.39

λ 40
λ=40nm

11