Aci 350.4R-04

ACI 350.4R-04 became effective February 27, 2004.
Copyright 2004, American Concrete Institute.

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ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
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designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This
document is intended for the use of individuals who are
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content and recommendations and who will accept
responsibility for the application of the material it contains.
The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all
responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not
be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by
the Architect/Engineer.
350.4R-1
It is the responsibility of the user of this document to
establish health and safety practices appropriate to the specific
circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any
representations with regard to health and safety issues and the
use of this document. The user must determine the
applicability of all regulatory limitations before applying the
document and must comply with all applicable laws and
regulations, including but not limited to, United States
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
health and safety standards.
Design Considerations for Environmental
Engineering Concrete Structures
ACI 350.4R-04
Environmental engineering concrete structures provide conveyance, storage,
and treatment of water, wastewater, and other materials. This report outlines
special design considerations such as loads, stability, joint details, and
special design conditions that are unique to these types of structures as
well as ancillary structures.
Keywords: buoyancy; clarifier; contraction; design; expansion; filler;
flood; flotation; forces; hazardous; ice; impact; joint; load; overturning;
reservoir; safety; sealant; sliding; stability; tank; tension; torque; vibration;
waterstop; weights.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1General, p. 350.4R-2
1.1Scope
1.2Related documents
Chapter 2Design loads, p. 350.4R-2
2.1Floor live loads
2.2Contained fluid and sludge loads
2.3External earth loads
2.4External fluid loads
2.5Environmental loads
2.6Other design loads
Chapter 3Stability considerations, p. 350.4R-6
3.1Flood considerations
3.2Sliding and overturning considerations
Chapter 4Special design conditions, p. 350.4R-9
4.1Load combinations
4.2Expansion and contraction conditions
4.3Foundation conditions
Reported by ACI Committee 350
James P. Archibald
*
William Irwin
Jerry Parnes
Jon B. Ardahl
Keith W. Jacobson Andrew R. Philip
John W. Baker Dov Kaminetzky Narayan M. Prachand

Walter N. Bennett
M. Reza Kianoush Satish K. Sachdev
Steven R. Close David G. Kittridge William C. Schnobrich

Anthony L. Felder Dennis C. Kohl John F. Seidensticker
Carl A. Gentry
Nicholas A. Legatos William C. Sherman
Clifford Gordon
||
Larry G. Mrazek Lawrence J. Valentine
Paul Hedli Javeed A. Munshi Miroslav Vejvoda
Jerry A. Holland Paul Zoltanetzky, Jr.
Charles S. Hanskat
Chair
Lawrence M. Tabat
Secretary
*
Committee Secretary while this document was being prepared.
Committee Chair while this document was being prepared.
Co-chair of subcommittee that prepared this document.
Members of subcommittee that prepared this document.

||
Deceased.
Copyright American Concrete Institute
Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Bechtel Corp Loc 1-19/9999056100
Not for Resale, 05/09/2013 07:27:57 MDT No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS
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350.4R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
4.4Design and detailing considerations
4.5Vibration conditions
4.6Hazardous design conditions
4.7Corrosive conditions
4.8Construction conditions
Chapter 5Joints in concrete, p. 350.4R-13
5.1General
5.2Construction joints
5.3Movement joints
5.4Waterstops
5.5Joint fillers
5.6 Joint sealants
Chapter 6References, p. 350.4R-15
6.1Referenced standards and reports
6.2Cited references
CHAPTER 1GENERAL
1.1Scope
This report outlines design considerations that are unique
to environmental engineering concrete structures and associated
buildings. Environmental engineering concrete structures are
defined in ACI 350 as concrete structures intended for
conveying, storing, or treating water, wastewater, or other
nonhazardous liquids, and for the secondary containment of
hazardous liquids. Applicable building codes and other
industry standards should be consulted for load and design
considerations not included herein. The engineer should
check with the local building department to confirm the
applicable building code for the project location and determine
if there are any local amendments.
The structural design recommendations given herein
should be regarded as common industry practice and are
recommended for general use. Any special structural
features, unusual loading conditions, or unusual exposure
conditions may require special design considerations to
achieve a higher level of performance than implied by these
minimum recommendations.
1.2Related documents
Environmental engineering concrete structures should be
designed and constructed in conformance with ACI 350/
350R, 350.1, 350.2R, and 350.3. References 1 through 3 may
also be useful in the design of liquid-containing structures.
CHAPTER 2DESIGN LOADS
2.1Floor live loads
Floor live loads in equipment and process areas generally take
into account fixed equipment weights, stored material loads, and
normal live loads due to personnel and transient loads. Floor live
loads should account for installation, operation, and maintenance
of equipment, and possible modifications or changes in use.
During installation or maintenance, portions of equipment
may be laid down at various locations on the floor. For example,
heavy electrical equipment may be temporarily placed near the
center span of a floor during installation or maintenance, even
though its final location may be near support locations.
Weights of concrete bases for equipment may also be
included in floor live loads, and consideration should be given
to weights of piping, valves, and other equipment accessories
that may be supported by the floor slab. Consequently,
conservative uniform live loads are recommended.
Information on estimated equipment weights and footprints
should be obtained so that design floor live loads can be verified.
The engineer may consider distribution of the equipment
loads over an area greater than the footprint dimensions
using engineering judgment. Because actual equipment
weights from various equipment suppliers may vary,
conservative estimates of equipment weights should be
used. A minimum floor live load of 150 lb/ft
2
(7.2 kPa) is
commonly used for slabs that support equipment. Heavier
live loads are common in electrical equipment rooms. Generally,
stairways and walkways should be designed for a minimum live
load of 100 lb/ft
2
(4.8 kPa). Where loads on catwalks are
expected to be limited, a minimum live load of 40 lb/ft
2
(1.9 kPa)
may be used in accordance with ASCE 7.
Large pieces of equipment may be assembled in their final
fixed location. While temporary laydown of individual pieces of
equipment should still be considered, it may be permissible to
consider the total weight of the equipment only in its fixed
location on the floor. Additionally, operational loads should be
considered with the equipment in its fixed location. Operational
loads may include thrusts, torques, contained fluids or sludge, or
impact. For example, supports for vertical turbine pumps should
include the weight of the vertical column of water in the riser,
and sludge press loads should include the weight of the sludge
being processed in the press.
In areas where chemicals or other materials are stored, the
maximum weight of stored material should be determined
based on the height and density or specific gravity of the
material and its container(s). The material densities listed in
Table 2.1(a) and (b) may be used for estimating applicable
loads. ASCE 7 may be referenced for other common material
densities and floor live loads. Chemicals can be delivered
and stored by a variety of methods and mediums, including
bags, barrels, bottles, cylinders, drums, kegs, pails, rail cars,
sacks, totes, or trucks. The engineer should confirm the
delivery method and storage method for design.
Caution should be used in applying floor live load reductions
as permitted by building codes, due to the greater likelihood
of simultaneous distributed loading in some equipment and
chemical storage areas. Consider the potential change of use
of adjacent areas when setting the floor live load. It is preferable
to use the same design live load in adjacent areas where
practical. Floor live loads should be posted as indicated in
the applicable building code and should be identified on the
design drawings.
2.2Contained fluid and sludge loads
The principal applied loads on liquid-containment
structures are due to the fluid pressures on the walls and
slabs caused by the contained fluids. The following densities
are conservative values for calculating equivalent fluid pressures
of common environmental materials encountered that may
be used in structural design:
Raw sewage 63 lb/ft
3
(1000 kg/m
3
)
--``````,`,`````,`,,``,,,`,``,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CONCRETE STRUCTURES 350.4R-3
Grit excavated from grit chamber 110 lb/ft
3
(1800 kg/m
3
)
Digested sludge, aerobic 65 lb/ft
3
(1000 kg/m
3
)
Digested sludge, anaerobic 70 lb/ft
3
(1100 kg/m
3
)
Thickened or dewatered sludge 63 to 85 lb/ft
3
(1000 to 1400 kg/m
3
)
(depending on moisture content)
Fluid loads should be considered for both the normal fluid
levels and for the worst-case fluid level. One such worst-case
design condition is where the fluid is at the top of the
containment structure or at the level at which overflow
would occur elsewhere in the hydraulic system, such that
high fluid levels could not occur at the location being
evaluated. Many liquid-containment structures have
encountered such overflow conditions in the past. The
code-required load factors and environmental durability
factors apply to normal maximum fluid levels. Code-required
Table 2.1(a)Densities in inch-pound units of chemical for structural design (refer to Reference 4 for
listing of selected chemicals)
Chemical Density, lb/ft
3
Chemical Density, lb/ft
3
Acetic acid 65 (liquid) Fluosillicic acid 79 (liquid at 30%)
Activated carbon Powder 8 to 28; average 12 Hydrochloric acid 73 (liquid at 35%)
Activated silica Approximately 90 (liquid) Hydrofluoric acid 73 (liquid at 55%)
Alum, liquid 83 (liquid at 60 F) Hydrogen peroxide 75 (liquid at 50%)
Aluminum ammonia sulfate 70 (granular or powder) Methanol 98 (liquid)
Aluminum chloride solution 72 (liquid) Oxygen 71 (liquid)
Aluminum potassium sulfate 70 (granular or powder) Phosphoric acid 98 (liquid at 75%)
Aluminum sulfate
60 to 75 (granular,
powder); 84 (liquid at 50%)
Polyaluminum chloride 91 (liquid at 5%)
Ammonia, anhydrous 43 (liquid at 28 F) Polyelectrolyte or polymer Dry 88; liquid 62 to 92
Ammonia, aqua (ammonium hydroxide) 56 (liquid at 60 F) Polyphosphate (zinc orthophosphate) 80 to 100 (liquid)
Ammonia silicoflouride 80 (crystals) Potassium aluminum sulfate 67 (crystals)
Ammonium aluminum sulfate
(ammonium alum)
75 (crystals) Potassium permanganate
102 (powder);
64 (3% solution)
Ammonium sulfate 60 (damp); 49 to 64 (dry) (crystals) Sodium aluminate
High-purity 50; standard
60 (powder, crystals);
98 (45% solution)
Barium carbonate 52 to 78 (powder) Sodium bicarbonate 62 (granular, powder)
Bentonite
Powder 45 to 60;
granules 75
Sodium bisulfate 70 to 85 (powder, crystals)
Bromine 194 (liquid) Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
Dense 65;
medium 40; light 30
(granular, powder)
Calcium carbonate
Powder 35 to 60;
granules 115
Sodium chloride
Rock 60; crystal 78;
powder 66
Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) 20 to 50 (powder) Sodium chlorite 80 (25% solution)
Calcium hypochlorite Granules 80; powder 32 to 52 Sodium fluoride
Powder 65 to 100;
granules crystal 106
Calcium oxide (quick lime, pebble lime)
55 to 70; 60 typical
hopper load (pebbles)
Sodium fluorosilicate 72 (powder)
Carbonic acid (carbon dioxide solution) 62 (liquid)
Sodium hexametaphosphate
(sodium polysulfate)
Glass 64 to 100; powder and
granular 44 to 60
Chlorinated lime 50 (powder) Sodium hydroxide
Pellets 70; flakes 46 to 62; 95
(50% solution)
Chlorine 92 (liquid) Sodium hypochlorite 76 (liquid at 15%)
Citric acid 77 (liquid at 50%) Sodium silicate 88 (liquid)
Copper sulfate Crystal 90; powder 68 Sodium silicoflouride
Granular 85 to 105;
powder-granular 60 to 96
Diatomaceous earth
Natural 5 to 18; calcined 6 to 13;
flux-calcined 10 to 25
(fibrous material)
Sodium sulfate
70 to 100
(crystals, powder)
Disodium phosphate
Crystal hydrate 90;
anhydrous 64
Sodium sulfite
Powder 80; granular 107;
liquid 82 (at 12.5%)
Dolomitic hydrated lime 30 to 50 (powder) Sodium thiosulfate 60 (granules, crystals)
Dolomitic lime
Pebble 65;
ground or lump 50 to 65;
powder 37 to 65; average 60
Sulfur dioxide 89.6 at 32 F (liquid)
Ferric chloride
93 (liquid); crystal 64;
anhydrous 45 to 60
Sulfuric acid 115 (liquid)
Ferric sulfate 72 (granular) Tetrasodium pyrophosphate
Crystal 50 to 70;
powder 46 to 68
Ferrous chloride 86 (liquid at 35%) Trisodium phosphate
Crystal 60; monohydrate 65;
anhydrous 70
Ferrous sulfate 66 (granular, powder)
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factors intended to improve durability may not be applicable
to worst-case load conditions.
For enclosed liquid-containment structures, consideration
should also be given to internal positive or negative air pressures
caused by rapid filling or emptying of the containment structure.
Positive and negative air pressures can also be caused by
induced ventilation, such as for odor control. The worst-case
design for negative pressure may be due to pipe rupture and
rapid drawdown of the tank contents, and the maximum positive
pressure is related to the maximum fill rate of the equipment.
Generally, suitably sized gooseneck vents should be
provided at top slabs to alleviate significant variations in
Table 2.1(b)Densities in metric units of chemicals for structural design (refer to Reference 4 for listing of
selected chemicals)
Chemical Density, kg/m
3
Chemical Density, kg/m
3
Acetic acid 1000 (liquid) Fluosillicic acid 1300 (liquid at 30%)
Activated carbon
Powder 100 to 450;
average 190
Hydrochloric acid 1200 (liquid at 35%)
Activated silica Approximately 1400 (liquid) Hydrofluoric acid 1200 (liquid at 55%)
Alum, liquid 1300 (liquid at 16 C) Hydrogen peroxide 1200 (liquid at 50%)
Aluminum ammonia sulfate 1100 (granular or powder) Methanol 1600 (liquid)
Aluminum chloride solution 1200 (liquid) Oxygen 1100 (liquid)
Aluminum potassium sulfate 1100 (granular or powder) Phosphoric acid 1600 (liquid at 75%)
Aluminum sulfate
960 to 1200 (granular,
powder); 1300 (liquid at 50%)
Polyaluminum chloride 1500 (liquid at 51%)
Ammonia, anhydrous 690 (liquid at 33 C) Polyelectrolyte or polymer Dry 1400; liquid 990 to 1500
Ammonia, aqua (ammonium hydroxide) 900 (liquid at 16 C)
Polyphosphate
(zinc orthophosphate)
1300 to 1600 (liquid)
Ammonia silicoflouride 1300 (crystals) Potassium aluminum sulfate 1100 (crystals)
Ammonium aluminum sulfate
(ammonium alum)
1200 (crystals) Potassium permanganate
1600 (powder);
1000 (3% solution)
Ammonium sulfate
960 (damp);
780 to 1000 (dry) (crystals)
Sodium aluminate
High-purity 800; standard 960
(powder, crystals);
1570 (45% solution)
Barium carbonate 830 to 1200 (powder) Sodium bicarbonate 990 (granular, powder)
Bentonite Powder 720 to 960; granules 1200 Sodium bisulfate
1100 to 1400
(powder, crystals)
Bromine 3100 (liquid) Sodium carbonate (soda ash)
Dense 1000;
medium 640; light 480
(granular, powder)
Calcium carbonate Powder 560 to 960; granules 1800 Sodium chloride
Rock 960; crystal 1200;
powder 1100
Calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime) 320 to 800 (powder) Sodium chlorite 1280 (25% solution)
Calcium hypochlorite
Granules 1300; powder 510
to 830 (pebbles)
Sodium fluoride
Powder 1100 to 1600;
granules crystal 1700
Calcium oxide (quick lime, pebble lime)
880 to 1100; 960 typical
hopper load (pebbles)
Sodium fluorosilicate 1200 (powder)
Carbonic acid
(carbon dioxide solution)
990 (liquid)
Sodium hexametaphosphate
(sodium polysulfate)
Glass 1000 to 1600;
powder and granular
700 to 960
Chlorinated lime 800 (powder) Sodium hydroxide
Pellets 1100; flakes 740 to 990;
1520 (50% solution)
Chlorine 1500 (liquid) Sodium hypochlorite 1200 (liquid at 15%)
Citric acid 1200 (liquid at 50%) Sodium silicate 1400 (liquid)
Copper sulfate Crystal 1400; powder 1100 Sodium silicoflouride
Granular 1400 to 1700;
powder-granular
960 to 1500
Diatomaceous earth
Natural 80 to 290; calcined 100 to
210; flux-calcined 160 to 400
(fibrous material)
Sodium sulfate 1100 to 1600 (crystals, powder)
Disodium phosphate
Crystal hydrate 1400;
anhydrous 1000
Sodium sulfite
Powder 1300; granular 1700;
liquid 1300 (at 12.5%)
Dolomitic hydrated lime 480 to 800 (powder) Sodium thiosulfate 960 (granules, crystals)
Dolomitic lime
Pebble 1000; ground or lump 800
to 1000; powder 590 to 1000;
average 960
Sulfur dioxide 1400 at 0 C (liquid)
Ferric chloride
1500 (liquid); crystal 1000;
anhydrous 720 to 960
Sulfuric acid 1800 (liquid)
Ferric sulfate 1200 (granular) Tetrasodium pyrophosphate
Crystal 480 to 1100;
powder 740 to 1100
Ferrous chloride 1400 (liquid at 35%) Trisodium phosphate
Crystal 960; monohydrate 1000;
anhydrous 1100
Ferrous sulfate 1100 (granular, powder)
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internal air pressures. Where pressure or vacuum relief
valves are provided to limit such pressures, structural
design should account for minimum and maximum
settings of such valves. Vents and relief valves should be
designed such that they do not plug, freeze, or become
inoperable due to corrosion.
At filter basins, walls may be subject to full hydrostatic
pressure during backwashing, even though pressures may be
less during the normal filtering mode. Where internal walls
of liquid-containment structures will not be exposed to
unbalanced static fluid loads due to flow arrangement,
such walls should be designed for a minimum 6 in. head
differential unless hydraulic analysis indicates a higher
differential. Larger differential heads might occur during
filling or draining operations than during normal flow
conditions. Trashracks (bar racks) and other screening
devices should be designed considering differential water
pressure due to clogging. Such screening devices are
often designed assuming a fully clogged condition with
full hydrostatic head.
2.3External earth loads
Walls subject to earth pressure should be carefully evaluated
for structure-soil interaction. This evaluation should include
determinations as to whether the wall is able to deflect
sufficiently to reduce lateral earth pressures from at-rest soil
pressures to active soil pressures and whether pressure diagrams
due to backfilling are more trapezoidal than triangular.
Because of conservative criteria used for design of liquid-
containment structures, such walls are typically stiffer than
common retaining walls. At-rest earth pressures should be
assumed unless calculated deflections justify lower lateral
earth pressures. Equivalent fluid pressures representing
at-rest pressures resulting from equivalent fluid density
values of 60 lb/ft
3
(960 kg/m
3
) above the ground water table
and 95 lb/ft
3
(1500 kg/m
3
) below the ground water table are
commonly assumed for preliminary design, but should be
confirmed for final design.
Fully developed passive earth pressures may be associated
with relatively large movements and, therefore, should be
used with caution. The deformation required to mobilize 1/2
of the passive pressure is significantly smaller than that
required for full mobilization.
5
Where the soil can be relied
on to resist lateral loads and the resulting movement can be
tolerated, passive pressures may be used. If passive pressure is
used to resist lateral loads, pipes and other utilities connected to
the structure should be designed for the expected movement.
Design pressures on the structure should be based on the
passive pressures developed to resist the lateral loads. For
overturning and bearing-capacity analyses, resisting pressures
used in design should not exceed 1/2 the maximum passive
pressure.
5
Where the effects of lateral soil resistance are
included in the design of retaining walls for some loading
conditions, consideration should also be given to construction
loading conditions. For construction loading conditions, the
resisting soil may not be in place.
Where structures are buried, the roof loads should include
the weight of the earth cover and applied loading due to vehicles
or equipment used for placing the earth fill or accessing the
interior of the structure. Pattern loading effects can be
critical for buried roofs, and consideration should be
given to some spans subjected to full earth and equipment
loads with adjacent spans unloaded. These effects are
particularly significant in flat slab roof systems and
similar continuous span systems. Construction documents
should indicate any restrictions on the placement, type, or
weight of equipment to be used, and on the sequence or
lift thicknesses for the earth cover. For the completed
structure, surface live loads should be included to account
for the proposed use. Loading limits should be posted to
avoid overloading the structure during operation.
Where vehicles have access adjacent to walls, a surcharge
equal to 2 ft (600 mm) of soil is commonly used in accordance
with AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
2.4External fluid loads
External fluid pressures should be considered in addition
to external earth pressures. Hydrostatic pressures outside
of structures may occur due to high ground water conditions
and floods. Elevated ground water conditions may occur
due to leakage from adjacent liquid-containing structures
and pipes or due to inadequate drainage around a structure.
External fluid loads increase the effective lateral loads on
the walls and may also cause flotation of the structure. All
liquid-containing structures or individual cells of structures
should be evaluated for the empty condition. Refer to
Section 3.1 for additional discussion relating to floods
and flotation.
2.5Environmental loads
Environmental structures should also be designed for
common environmental design loads such as wind, snow,
thermal effects, and earthquakes. Such loads are typically
defined in building codes and other industry standards. An
appropriate importance factor should be selected from the
building code unless a higher factor is requested by the client
for improved reliability. Ice loads may also be significant for
some structures.
6
Analysis and design should be in conformance
with the ACI 350 code.
Seismic design for liquid-containment structures should
be in accordance with ACI 350.3 where applicable. Interior
walls and baffle walls that are designed for minimum static
pressure should be designed for differential pressures due to
fluid sloshing loads. Effects of lateral loads on equipment
design and on equipment anchorages, including dynamic
fluid loads, should also be considered. Fluid sloshing may
induce additional loads on equipment appurtenances, such as
for clarifiers and for paddle mixers. The center column
supports for clarifiers should be designed to accommodate
such additional forces.
Lateral earth pressures may be increased or decreased due
to horizontal ground acceleration caused by earthquakes.
The Mononobe-Okabe pseudostatic approach is commonly
used to evaluate such load effects.
7-9
The seismic component
of the lateral soil pressure is commonly assumed to be
located at the upper third point of the soil height.
5
Vertical
--``````,`,`````,`,,``,,,`,``,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
accelerations due to earthquakes may also increase or decrease
effective fluid pressures and effective weights of materials.
2.6Other design loads
2.6.1 Impact loadsImpact loads should be included
where appropriate, such as from cranes and monorails, vehicles,
elevators, lifting hooks, transient pressures in pipes, and due to
equipment operation. An appropriate impact allowance as a
percentage of the equipment weight may be used in accordance
with recommendations of standard codes and specifications.
Alternatively, a detailed transient load, dynamic analysis
may be performed.
2.6.2 Loads at pipe penetrationsPressure thrust loads at
pipe penetrations through walls should be considered in wall
design. The transfer of thrust from the pipe to the wall
depends on restraint of the pipe within the wall and on
restraint of the pipe joints on each side of the wall penetration. A
fully restrained pipe may be able to carry thrust forces
internally within the pipe material without transmitting
external thrust to the wall of the structure. Each case
should be examined for balancing the internal pipe thrust
forces at bends and at joints. The design thrust force
should be based on maximum test pressure or on transient
pressure conditions, as applicable.
Horizontal pipe sections on the exterior side of walls may
induce loads into the wall due to settlement of soil below the pipe
section. Design and detailing should account for such conditions.
2.6.3 Forces at gatesAt sluice gates and slide gates, gate
hoists may induce significant loads into the structure, including
eccentric loading on walls where brackets or corbels are
provided for support of floor stands. Gates are often
forced open or closed when sticking occurs or when
obstructions are encountered, and concrete support
members have often cracked due to the large upward or
downward forces that develop.
AWWA C 560 and AWWA C 513 specify required design
forces in stems for cast-iron sluice gates and fabricated-
metal slide gates. Based on these requirements, concrete
corbels and metal brackets used to support gate operators
should be designed for the following forces:
A minimum of 2-1/2 times the output thrust of the gate
operator based on a 40 lb (180 N) effort applied at the
crank for all gates with cranks; and
The output thrust of the operator based on the stalled
motor torque for electric motor operators or the cylinder
capacity at maximum working pressure for hydraulic and
pneumatic operators.
These forces may act in either direction. Both the
supporting wall and corbel or bracket need to be designed to
resist these forces.
2.6.4 Forces at clarifiersMechanisms in circular clarifiers
generally are supported on a center column. This center
column should resist large torques due to sludge loads on the
long radial scrapers. As a minimum, the center column
should be designed to resist the stalling torque of the scraper
mechanism or the torque corresponding to the setting of the
mechanism limit switch. This force can be considerableas
much as 5000 ft-kip (7000 kN-m) on a center column in a
500 ft (150 m) diameter clarifier.
The center column foundation should also be designed to
resist this torque. The resisting moment arms of the soil friction
and the earth pressure on the center foundation are relatively
small, and it is possible for the center column foundation to slip
and rotate. One solution for resisting this torque is to connect the
center column foundation to the clarifier base slab. The torsional
resistance of the foundation can also be increased by the use of
batter piles at the perimeter of the foundation. Increasing the
friction by increasing the foundation weight or increasing the
area of the foundation to give a bigger lever arm, or both, will
also provide greater torsional resistance.
Refer also to Section 2.5 regarding seismic forces at clarifiers.
2.6.5 Internal pressure and vacuumSome environmental
engineering concrete structures are designed for positive or
negative gas pressures relative to atmospheric pressure. For
example, anaerobic digesters typically operate at a low gas
pressure of a few inches of water column. Air handling
equipment for odor control will typically cause a slight negative
gas pressure. Structures should be designed for the
maximum anticipated internal pressures.
For safety, pressure and vacuum relief valves, or functionally
equivalent systems, are installed on digesters to prevent the
buildup of excessive gas pressure or vacuum. The pressure and
vacuum relief valves are typically set to relieve at a few
inches of water column. The digester should be designed for
the maximum pressure and vacuum.
CHAPTER 3STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS
3.1Flood considerations
3.1.1 Determination of flood designSpecial considerations
are required for the design and construction of reinforced
concrete structures that are subjected to forces caused by
external flooding. Such flooding could be due to surface
water, rising ground water, or a combination of both.
Environmental structures, particularly wastewater treatment
plants, are frequently sited in areas subject to stream
flooding and high ground water tables, where hydrostatic
uplift pressures can significantly reduce the overall stability
of the structure. Flood hazard maps, as produced by the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), may be
available for sites in the vicinity of streams and rivers.
Information and FEMA flood maps are available on the web
at http://www.hazardmaps.gov/atlas.php. Most projects are
designed for a 100-year flood event, unless higher flood
levels such as the probable maximum flood, are appropriate
for critical structures. The term probable maximum flood
refers to the flood that would result from the critical combination
of precipitation, ground saturation, and runoff factors
considered reasonably possible in a particular drainage
basin. Because of increased costs involved in protecting
against the probable maximum flood and its extremely small
chance of occurrence, its application is normally limited to
design of spillways for dams, the sudden failure of which
would result in extraordinary hazards to human life or in
disastrous property damage.
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Where flood maps are not available, meteorological
records may be available for evaluation of elevations and
frequency of flooding for a given location. A qualified
individual should review the available records to determine
the project design flood.
11
The reliability of flood-frequency
estimates is limited by the length and quality of hydrologic
records available for the project drainage basin, the records
accuracy with respect to long-period characteristics, the
probability of changes in factors that influence flood
characteristics, the adequacy of analytical methods used,
and other considerations. Experience and analysis have
shown that estimates of flood data are usually subject to a
relatively large margin of error and that extrapolations to
events substantially less frequent are of questionable value in
selecting design-flood criteria for a particular project. These
factors should be considered in the selection of an appropriate
project design flood and applicable factors of safety.
3.1.2 Flotation safety factorsThe safety factor against
flotation is usually computed as the total dead weight of the
structure divided by the total hydrostatic uplift force. Weight of
soil directly above structural components may also be considered
in the dead weight. In some cases, frictional resistance due to soil
embedment or a soil failure wedge may be considered to increase
resistance against flotation. The hydrostatic uplift force may be
determined either by calculating the displaced volume and
multiplying that volume by the density of water or by calculating
uplift forces due to hydrostatic pressures at the base of the
structure. Eccentricities between the centroid of the dead weight
and the centroid of the applied uplift should be considered.
The flotation safety factor should reflect the risk associated
with the hydrostatic loading condition. Commonly used
safety factors are 1.10 for worst-case conditions, such as
flood to the top of structure and using dead weight resistance
only, or 1.25 for well-defined design flood conditions (such as
from a FEMA flood map) below the top of structure. A
minimum safety factor of 1.25 is also recommended
where high ground water conditions exist. Where
maximum ground water or flood levels are not well
defined, or where soil friction is included in flotation
resistance, higher safety factors should be used. In any
case, the maximum design condition need not exceed the
condition of water to the top of structure, as the structure
would either flood or become submerged under higher
flood levels. Factors of safety against flotation apply to
overall structure stability; individual structure components
should be designed in accordance with ACI 350 for the
design flood and ground water conditions.
3.1.3 Design for flotation resistanceStructures that
extend below the design flood level or the maximum ground
water level should resist flotation. If the dead weight of the
structure does not provide an adequate factor of safety
against flotation, then the following options should be
considered, individually or in combination:
Increase the base slab thickness, roof slab thickness,
wall thicknesses, or soil cover to increase flotation
resistance. When increasing the base slab thickness, be
sure to account for increased uplift forces if the structure
depth is increased.
Extend the base slab beyond the walls of the structure
to engage soil overburden loads to increase flotation
resistance. Hydrostatic uplift at such slab extensions
should be accounted for in the analysis.
Depending on foundation conditions, tension piles,
drilled piers, or drilled soil or rock anchors may be used
resist uplift pressures. Overall flotation stability,
including the buoyant weight of the engaged soil or rock
mass, should be considered in addition to design of
individual piles or anchors. Also note that where softer
soils overlie stiffer soils or rock, compressive loads from
the structure and settlement should also be considered
when using these foundation systems.
Where ground water can be drained away from the
structure by gravity, a well-designed drainage system may
be relied on to lower ground water. Perforated pipes
embedded in free-draining material and provided with pipe
cleanouts provide improved reliability. It may be difficult
or impractical to provide reliable ground drainage systems
that are subject to flooding conditions.
The above methods of improving flotation resistance are
considered to be passive systems, as they do not rely on
human intervention or on a mechanical system becoming or
remaining active. Where such passive systems are not practical,
the following active systems may be considered:
In some cases, uplift pressures can be reduced by using
foundation drainage systems in combination with pumps.
Where drainage systems rely on pumping to maintain low
ground water conditions at the location of a structure,
backup pumps and emergency power should be provided
to ensure reliability, or there should be specific plant-
operating procedures to address precautions to be taken
before dewatering a basin or tank.
In some cases, uplift pressures can be limited by the use
of pressure-relief systems in the base slab or sidewalls.
Flap valves in sidewalls are generally considered to
be more reliable than pop-up valves in base slabs.
Pressure-relief systems can become clogged and non-
functional, especially when used where sludge may collect
in the vicinity of the relief valve. Also, open valves may
interfere with mechanisms such as clarifier scrapers.
Where relief valves are used, ground water should be
assumed to be at least 1 ft (300 mm) above the elevation of
the relief valve due to the pressure required to open the
valve and the possible head buildup in the surrounding
soil. The engineer should consider a drainage layer
below the entire base slab to be hydraulically connected
to the relief valves. This will reduce the possibility
of pressure buildup between drained areas and will
improve reliability. The rapid drainage of a tank or
basin might not allow sufficient time for relief valves to
lower ground water. Relief valves, which permit external
water to enter and mix with the contained water, are not
permitted to be used in potable water applications, such
as in finished water tanks.
Slab blowout panels may be provided where allowance
can be made for repair time, if needed. The blowout
panel should be designed to fail and allow water intrusion
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before damage occurs to the remainder of the structure.
Significant downtime may result if failure of the blowout
panel occurs. Thus, such blowout panels are often used
as a backup to other active systems.
When none of these methods are practical, and when
approved by the owner, an alarm system may be
considered. The alarm system should alert the operator
when a dangerous ground water elevation is reached so that
the operator can start filling the containment structure to
balance the uplift. There should be at least two independent
alarm systems that are tested at regular intervals. Plant-
operating manuals should include procedures to be
followed when alarms indicate required action.
Higher safety factors are recommended for active systems
than for passive systems because they may not be as reliable
in an emergency event. Monitoring wells may also be advisable
for monitoring ground water levels when using the above
active systems for flotation resistance.
3.2Sliding and overturning considerations
Sliding and overturning can occur to environmental structures
and to individual components of environmental structures due
to unbalanced soil conditions, unbalanced liquid levels, or
wind or earthquake effects. The required factor of safety
against sliding may be adjusted based on risk and probability of
loading conditions, similarly to adjustments in load
factors for such conditions. The sliding safety factor also
accounts for the uncertainty that exists in determining in-place
soil properties. The bearing capacity and minimum base
area in compression, which also provide overturning
resistance, may also be adjusted according to the design
loading condition.
The minimum recommended safety factor against sliding,
the minimum recommended base area to remain in
compression, and the recommended bearing capacity safety
factor are included in Table 3.1 for various loading conditions.
The usual condition includes loading conditions that are
expected to occur during normal operation of the plant. The
earthquake condition refers to load conditions that include
seismic forces. The unusual condition includes temporary
construction conditions and worst-case fluid levels. Special
consideration should be given to stability at corners of liquid-
containment structures and to effects of joint discontinuities,
such as at expansion joints, on structural stability.
The sliding safety factor is determined by dividing the
calculated sliding resistance along an assumed sliding plane
by the applied shear forces acting along that plane. Sliding
resistance should be based on soil friction, cohesion, or both,
as applicable. Applied shear forces may be reduced by
resisting earth or fluid pressures, as applicable. When
designing a structure to satisfy a given factor of safety
against sliding, the engineer should confirm that a realistic
coefficient of friction is being used to calculate the factor of
safety provided. The use of an excessively low coefficient of
friction in design may result in a greater degree of conservatism
than is intended. If a key is used to prevent sliding, the earth
pressure on both sides of the key should be considered in the
analysis. If passive earth pressure is being generated on one
side of the key, generally, active pressure is occurring on the
other side of the key. The resistance to sliding provided by
the passive earth pressure is reduced somewhat by the
opposing active earth pressure. Where hydrostatic uplift
exists for a given loading condition, the uplift force
should be included in the total forces on the sliding plane
(that is, the sliding resistance may need to be reduced due
to the buoyant effect.)
When the resultant falls within the middle 1/3 of the base,
assuming a rigid rectangular foundation, the maximum and
minimum pressure may generally be calculated using the
following equations for a unit width, uniform strip.
5
(3-1)
(3-2)
where
B = width of the base;
e = eccentricity of P relative to the centerline of the base;
P = total applied force normal to the foundation plane;
q
max
= maximum foundation bearing pressure; and
q
min
= minimum foundation bearing pressure.
When the resultant falls outside of the middle 1/3 of the
base, assuming a rigid rectangular foundation, the maximum
base pressure may generally be calculated using the
following equation for a unit width, uniform strip
12
(3-3)
The base width remaining in compression may generally
be calculated using the following equation
q
max
P
B
---

1
6e
B
------ +

=
q
min
P
B
---

1
6e
B
------

=
q
4P
3
-------

B 2e
--------------- =
Table 3.1
*
Safety factors for stability
5
Loading condition
Minimum
safety factor
against sliding
Minimum base
area in
compression
Minimum
foundation bearing
capacity safety factor
Usual 1.5 100% 3.0

Unusual 1.33 75% 2.0
Earthquake
1.10
Resultant
within the base
1.0
*
Table is not intended to apply to retaining structures that rely on anchorage devices, such
as rock or soil anchors, for stability. Loads used to calculate safety factors should
be service loads.
Bearing-capacity safety factors may be adjusted based on recommendations of

geotechnical engineer considering site-specific geotechnical conditions.
Low safety factor was established based on short-term nature of load, the ability of
soil to resist higher short-term loads, and the rarity of sliding and overturning failures
in earthquakes.
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(3-4)
where B
c
= base width remaining in compression.
CHAPTER 4SPECIAL DESIGN CONDITIONS
4.1Load combinations
4.1.1 Loading combinations for wallsWalls of liquid-
containing structures are commonly subjected both to liquid
pressure from the inside and earth pressure from the
outside. Such walls and their supports should be designed
for each of these loads acting independently. External
earth pressure generally should not be relied on to resist
liquid pressure because:
Wall backfill may not be in place when the tank is filled
initially for leakage testing;
Earth pressures may be removed due to excavating for
an addition, modification, or repair adjacent to the
structure; and
The resulting change in earth pressures due to the
outward wall movements are difficult to predict.
For multicell fluid-containment structures, the effects of
combinations of empty and full cells should be considered in
the design.
4.1.2 Tension loadsContinuous walls and slabs between
ends of rectangular liquid-containing structures should be
designed to transfer tension forces between endwalls to
balance the lateral forces due to the contained liquid. This
direct tension force should be considered in the reinforcement
design at corners, wall-to-slab connections, and along the
entire length of the wall or slab. Where the cross section is
fully in tension, the required tensile reinforcement should be
distributed proportionately to each face. If significant flexural
loads are present, the required area of tension reinforcement
may either be conservatively added directly to the required
area of flexural tension reinforcement, or the combined
flexure and tension may be evaluated in accordance with
ACI 340R (SP-17).
4.2Expansion and contraction conditions
Roofs over environmental engineering concrete structures
often cover large areas and they may be exposed to significant
thermal movements. Stresses can occur in the walls and roof
due to difference in thermal movement between the walls and
roof. The stresses can be reduced by providing movement joints
between the walls and the roof and within the wall and roof
elements. Low-friction bearings or suitable flexible bearing
pads should be incorporated into the design of the movement
joints to prevent spalling and other damage due to direct tension.
Stresses can also occur in the walls and roof due to the
difference in temperature and moisture through the thickness
of the wall and roof section. These stresses should be considered
in the design where applicable.
Large-diameter tanks expand and contract appreciably due
to thermal changes, shrinkage, creep, and elastic deformations
as they are filled and drained. The connection between the
wall and footing of such tanks should be detailed to permit
these movements to occur freely or design them strong
B
c
3 B 2e ( )
2
----------------------- =
enough to resist the movements without cracking. Similarly,
the roof-to-wall connection should account for such movements.
Refer to Chapter 5 for additional discussion of design of
joints in concrete structures.
4.3Foundation conditions
Foundation design is critical to control cracking and
maintenance of liquid tightness in liquid-containing
structures. Differential movements can cause cracking in
structures, failure of joints, failure of rigid pipe connections,
or damage to operating equipment. Thus, variations in
foundation stiffness should be avoided; for example,
soil-supported elements should not be combined with
elements supported on deep piles or drilled piers unless
differential vertical movements are taken into consideration.
Similarly, where a portion of a structure is much shallower
than an adjacent portion of the structure, the shallower
portion may be prone to differential settlement due to the
relative depth of fill materials below it. In some cases, the
shallower portion of the structure may need to be supported
on a deep foundation.
Typically, sliding resistance between the bottom of the
structure and the soil is neglected when the structure is
supported on piles or drilled piers.
4.4Design and detailing considerations
Proper consolidation of concrete is essential in a liquid-
tight structure. Thin, cast-in-place, reinforced concrete walls
make placement and consolidation of concrete more
difficult. The minimum thickness for walls that are greater
than or equal to 10 ft (3 m) in height is 12 in. (300 mm)
(ACI 350-01, Section 14.6.2). For lower walls, 10 in.
(250 mm) is the practical minimum thickness for walls with
reinforcement in each face. If 8 in. (200 mm) walls are
used, a single mat of reinforcement placed 2 in. (50 mm)
from one face is preferred to allow space for placing and
consolidating the concrete. Greater thicknesses are desirable
where waterstops are used, due to the limited space available
for both reinforcement and waterstop placement with
adequate concrete cover. For walls greater than 10 ft (3 m)
in height, a reasonable rule of thumb is to use a minimum
wall thickness equal to 1/12 the wall height for cantilever
walls and 1/16 the height for propped cantilever walls.
The minimum thickness of footings and mat foundations
should generally be 12 in. (300 mm).
Liquid-containment walls may be designed as cantilever
walls, propped cantilever walls, pinned endwalls, or two-
way plates with various edge conditions, depending on
support conditions. For propped cantilever walls and two-
way plate walls, the assumption of full fixity at the base may
not be entirely accurate, especially if supported on soil. A
fixed-base assumption is normally conservative for design of
the reinforcement at the base of the wall, but it may not be
conservative for midspan reinforcement. Thus, consideration
should be given to assuming partial fixity at the base. A
conservative approach is to bracket the design by
detailing wall reinforcement for both the fixed-base and
pinned-base design conditions.
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Except near corners and intersecting walls, long walls may
be designed as one-way vertical spans. Near corners and
intersecting walls, two-way plate action should be considered. A
reasonable approximation of corner moments is to use two-
way plate design tables based on a wall with the maximum
tabulated aspect ratio.
Where two-way plate tables are used for wall design, the
actual fluid depth may be somewhat less than the full wall
height, as shown in the design tables. An approximate design
method is to calculate the total lateral force on a unit length
of wall due to the actual fluid depth and then redistribute this
total lateral force over the full height of the wall.
The minimum required area of flexural tension reinforcement
for structural slabs and footings of uniform thickness can be
reduced to that permitted for minimum shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement per ACI 350. Where one-way
slabs and walls are uniformly loaded by liquid or earth loads
and are intended to be liquid-tight, consideration should be
given to the use of the minimum recommended flexural
reinforcement as required for beams where an overload
condition could result in a sudden or brittle failure.
Reinforcement in each face of structural members should
be extended for the full length of the member for improved
crack control and structural ductility. For crack control,
smaller bars at closer spacing are preferred over larger bars
at a wider spacing.
4.5Vibration conditions
4.5.1 GeneralMost types of process equipment associated
with treatment plants, such as clarifiers, scrapers, and paddle
mixers, are relatively slow moving and will not cause structural
vibrations. For such equipment, a separate design for dynamic
loading is unnecessary. Other commonly used equipment, such
as centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, centrifuges,
and generator engines, however, can have much higher
operational frequencies and will require special consideration in
the design of their support structures and foundations. Usually,
the value of such equipment and its reliability is much greater
than the cost of the foundation, so that it is imprudent to
economize on foundation costs and run the risk of shortened
machine life, increased maintenance costs, and breakdowns.
In treatment plants, machines that most often cause vibration
problems are large forced-draft fans (blowers), as used for
aeration tanks, and centrifuges, as used for dewatering of
sludge. These are very sensitive machines and require carefully
designed foundations to prevent resonant vibration. Chemical
mixers may also produce of significant dynamic loads that
should be considered in the design of their supports.
4.5.2 Design for vibrationThe key to successful
dynamic design is to ensure that the natural frequency of the
equipment support structure is significantly different from
the frequency of the disturbing force caused by the equipment.
If the two frequencies approach each other, resonant vibrations
will occur in the support structure. Resonant vibrations in the
support structure that result in large amplitude oscillations
can cause damage to the structure, to the equipment, or both.
To minimize resonant vibrations, the ratio of the natural
frequency of the structure to the frequency of the disturbing
force should be outside of the range of 0.5 to 1.5. It is difficult to
obtain an accurate determination of the natural frequency of
concrete members due to variations in concrete strength,
modulus of elasticity, and cracked or uncracked sections.
Theoretically, the structure can be designed to have a
natural frequency that is lower than the operating frequency
of the equipment. This practice is commonly referred to as
low tuning and is intended to avoid resonant vibration. This
method is generally not recommended, but sometimes cannot
be avoided. Low-tuned structures tend to be relatively flexible
and have higher deflections. Low tuning is most practical for
equipment that has an operating frequency that is much
higher than the natural frequency that can be practically
achieved for the supporting structure. A disadvantage of low
tuning is that the machine would pass through the resonant
frequency of the supporting structure at startup and shut-
down. If the resonant condition is transient, it is unlikely that
it would cause damage to the machine, but it is generally
preferable to keep operational deflections low. Many types
of equipment come up to full operating speed in a few
seconds. For this equipment, the short period when a resonant
condition exists would not be long enough to allow excessive
amplitude to build. The resonant condition can be more of
a concern for equipment that takes a long time to reach full
operating speed. Of special concern is equipment where the
operating speed can be adjusted over a range that includes the
resonant frequency of the supporting structure. If the equipment
was set to operate at the resonant frequency of the supporting
structure, excessive amplitude may occur, possibly causing
damage to the supporting structure and the equipment.
Furthermore, if the supporting structure is stiffer than
estimated, its natural frequency may be higher than calculated.
Some causes of the supporting structure being stiffer than
calculated would include the concrete being stronger than the
design strength, a cracked section being assumed for calculations
and the concrete cracks less than assumed, construction
tolerances resulting in larger members than used in design, and
the length of members used in calculations not taking into
account the member thickness at joints. Simplified analysis
methods that overestimate structure deflections may also
result in the structures actual natural frequency being higher
than calculated. Therefore, it is preferred to use a stiff structural
support system with a natural frequency at least 1-1/2 times
the equipment frequency (also known as high tuning). With
high tuning, any underestimation of the support structure
natural frequency will not create a risk of resonant vibration.
If the equipment is not supported directly on a solid
foundation but is supported on columns and beams, the
natural frequency of the support members is of primary
importance. The supporting members should have both
sufficient stiffness and strength to eliminate the risk of
resonant vibrations. It may be desirable to use vibration
isolators, especially on elevated structures, to reduce the
magnitude of vibrations transferred to the structure. This
should not be used as an alternate to considering dynamic
effects because all isolators transmit some vibration. The
amount of equipment vibration transmitted through the
vibration isolators will vary with the operating frequency of
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the equipment and the design of the vibration isolators.
Detailed information on transmissibility can be obtained
from the isolator vendor.
The natural frequencies of a structure should be calculated for
the vertical direction and for the two principal horizontal
directions. In some cases, torsional frequency may also need to
be examined. To combine the effects of several masses, the
combined natural frequency can be estimated using the Raleigh
Method. Where masses are not closely coupled dynamically
(that is, natural frequencies are not too close to one another), the
following Southwell-Dunkerley
12
formula may be used
(4-1)
where
F
n
= combined natural frequency;
F
1
= natural frequency due to mass 1;
F
2
= natural frequency due to mass 2;
F
3
= natural frequency due to mass 3; and
F
4
= natural frequency due to mass 4.
Drilled-in expansion anchors that rely solely on friction
for pullout resistance should not be used to anchor vibrating
equipment, as they can work loose. Cast-in-place anchor
bolts are preferred. Alternately, epoxy-grouted anchor bolts
may be considered where drilled-in anchors are necessary.
4.5.3 Calculating natural frequencyReadily available
commercial software programs can be used to calculate the
natural frequency of structures and members of structures.
Formulas are also available in technical books on vibration
for calculating the natural frequency of beams.
A method of estimating the natural frequency of a structure is
to apply gravity to the masses being considered, with gravity
applied in the direction being considered (that is, apply
gravity horizontally instead of vertically for horizontal
natural frequency). Then calculate the deflection due to this
loading assumption and calculate the fundamental natural
frequency (due to the first mode of vibration) from the
following formula for a single degree of freedom system
(4-2)
where
D = calculated deflection;
F
n
= fundamental natural frequency; and
g = acceleration due to gravity.
This formula is derived from the general equation for natural
frequency of a single degree of freedom system as follows
1
F
2
n
--------
1
F
2
1
--------
1
F
2
2
--------
1
F
2
3
--------
1
F
2
4
-------- ... + + + + =
F
n
1
2
------
g
D
---- =
(4-3)
where
F
n
= fundamental natural frequency;
k = W/D = spring constant (force per unit deflection);
M = W/g = mass; and
W = weight of considered mass.
The masses multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity
(equivalent to the weight of the masses under consideration)
are applied to obtain the effective spring constant of the
structure, which is directly related to the stiffness of the
structure as calculated by its deflection. Thus, the deflection
calculation for determining natural frequency should not
include any live loads or dynamic operational loads. The
deflection calculations should only include the weights
associated with the masses that contribute to the
frequency of the system (for example, the equipment
mass, the mass of any contained fluids, and the
supporting structure mass).
Natural frequency of beams in cycles per second can be
calculated using the expressions given in Table 4.1. These
equations provide a simple method of calculating the
approximate natural frequency of a beam from its static
deflection; D is the immediate elastic deflection at the noted
location due to the uniform or concentrated weight applied in the
direction under consideration to a beam with the noted end
F
n
1
2
------
k
M
----- =
Table 4.1Natural frequency of beams
End condition
End 1-End 2 Load
Position of
deflection D
Natural
frequency
(cycles per s)
Fixed-Free Uniform End 2
Pin-Pin or
Fixed- Fixed
Uniform Midspan
Fixed-Fixed or
Fixed-Free or
Pin-Pin
Concentrated
(any position)
Under load
Notes: D = deflection in inches (mm); g = 386 in./s
2
(9804 mm/s
2
).
Multiply natural frequency by 60 to calculate RPM.
0.20
g
D
----
0.18
g
D
----
0.16
g
D
----
Table 4.2Recommended maximum static
deflections of beams supporting
vibratory equipment
Operating frequency
of equipment,
cycles per min
Minimum natural
frequency of
structure, cycles
per min
Maximum static deflection
due to dead load and
equipment load,
in. (mm)
400 600 0.10 (2.5)
600 900 0.044 (1.1)
800 1200 0.025 (0.64)
1000 1500 0.016 (0.41)
1200 1800 0.011 (0.28)
2000 3000 0.004 (0.10)
2400 3600 0.0027 (0.069)
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conditions. Instead of a comprehensive deflection analysis, D
can be estimated using the methods outlined in ACI 318.
Table 4.2 shows the minimum recommended natural
frequency of the structure to be at least 1-1/2 times the operating
speed of the equipment. Table 4.2 also shows the maximum
static deflection permissible for the supporting structure, as
calculated using the equation for a concentrated mass on a beam.
The effect of the mass of the beam can be approximated as a
concentrated load at the center of the beam, or a more refined
analysis accounting for uniform loads can be developed. This
approximation will result in a larger deflection and in a lower
calculated natural frequency. The resulting natural frequency
should be evaluated in comparison with the equipment operating
frequency and checked for susceptibility for resonance. The
small deflections (or stiffer structures) required for high-
frequency equipment (that is, greater than 1200 cycles per
minute) may not be practical to achieve, and low tuning may be
required. Motors used to drive pumps and other equipment often
operate at high rotational speeds, but electrical motors are
generally well balanced and do not tend to cause significant
vibrational problems. Consequently, motor supports are
generally not designed for vibrational effects due to the usually
high motor speed, but such supports should be relatively stiff to
avoid vibrational problems. Vibration isolators may be desirable
at the motor support points.
4.5.4 Foundations at gradeWhere dynamic equipment
loads are to be supported using spread foundations, the safe
design bearing load is often assumed as 1/2 of the allowable
foundation bearing load for a statically loaded foundation at
the same location.
13,14
Some sources recommend minimum
foundation-to-equipment mass ratios, generally in the range
of 2 to 5.
9
Adherence to this rule has not always proven
satisfactory,
15
and to ensure that critical equipment will not
be in resonance with the foundation, the natural frequency of the
foundation system should be calculated. For natural
frequency calculations, follow the methods recommended
in Reference 13. For pile-supported foundations, follow the
recommendations found in References 16 through 18. Often
the equipment foundation is intentionally isolated from the
floors or other parts of the structure to minimize the transmission
of vibrations to other parts of the structure.
Block foundations should typically be at least 24 in. (600 mm)
in thickness and have a width greater than the vertical distance
from the top of foundation to the center of gravity of the
equipment. Preferably, the center of gravity of the foundation in
plan should match the center of gravity of the equipment.
12
More detailed information on dynamic analysis methods
and the dynamic design of foundations can be found in
References 19 through 23. Additional information may be
available for the design of equipment foundations from ACI
Committee 351, Foundations for Equipment and Machinery.
4.6Hazardous design conditions
Superstructures of environmental engineering concrete
structures are frequently similar to conventional structures.
In some facilities, the gases generated within the structure,
adjacent to it, or below it may be toxic or may present an
explosion hazard. Where buildings or equipment rooms are
located over or adjacent to tanks or digesters, the tanks may
require gas-proofing by means of liners, installation of gas-
detection equipment, or both.
At least one access point should be provided into each
enclosed cell for inspection and maintenance. Where practical,
two access points should be provided at opposite ends of
enclosed structures for improved safety.
Confined space entry (CSE) requirements, as defined by
OSHA, should be considered in the design of all below-grade or
unventilated structures. Provisions for adequate ventilation
and safe exit passage may eliminate CSE limitations for
operating personnel.
4.7Corrosive conditions
Special consideration should also be given to the possible
hazardous and corrosive effects of gases such as chlorine,
oxygen, ozone, hydrogen sulfide, and methane gases in
closed tanks. Corrosion-resistant linings may be required
to protect the concrete, especially where hydrogen
sulfide gases occur above the water surface in closed
structures. Corrosive effects on metal embedments are
also very important. Furthermore, consideration should
be given to corrosive effects of stored or applied chemi-
cals in the treatment process. Where hazardous chemicals
are stored, containment basins should be provided to contain the
chemicals in case of leakage. Corrosion-resistant linings in the
containment basins may be necessary to protect the concrete
in the event of a spill or leakage. Refer to ACI 350-01 for
a listing of chemicals commonly associated with environmental
structures and their relative effects on concrete.
4.8Construction conditions
Low-permeability concrete is obtained by using a water-
cementitious material ratio (w/cm) as low as possible and
consistent with satisfactory workability and good consolidation.
The use of a water-reducing admixture will generally permit the
use of a lower w/cm. Air entrainment increases workability
and reduces segregation and bleeding, thus, the use of an air-
entraining admixture generally permits the use of a lower w/cm.
Pozzolans also improve workability and reduce permeability.
Permeability is reduced with extended moist curing and with
the use of smooth forms or troweling. The filling and
patching of tie holes is also essential to long-term durability.
Form ties with waterstop collars should be used in walls
intended to be liquid-tight.
Liquid-containment structures are generally tested for
liquid-tightness before backfilling around the structure. Such
testing should be performed in accordance with the
recommendations of ACI 350.1.
The contractor is normally responsible for construction
loading conditions. The engineer, however, should anticipate
interim loading conditions, design for such conditions, and
note permitted interim conditions on the drawings where
such designs will simplify construction and reduce costs. For
example, a wall may be designed to resist backfill loads
before the top slab is in place, where it will simplify
construction. This condition may be especially important if
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an upper slab-on-ground cannot be constructed until backfill
is placed against a lower foundation wall.
Where the dewatering of excavations is required due to the
presence of ground water, the engineer should identify at
what stage of construction dewatering can be terminated
based on the strength and flotation resistance of the structure.
CHAPTER 5JOINTS IN CONCRETE
5.1General
The engineer should consider the structural effects of joint
locations and details on the design. Generally, the engineer
should show all required joints on the construction documents.
Any joints proposed to be added or deleted by the contractor
should be reviewed by the engineer after consideration of
effects on the structures design and crack control.
Movement joints permit dimensional changes in concrete
due to load, thermal effects, drying shrinkage, or differential
foundation movements; serve to separate or isolate areas or
members that could be affected by such dimensional
changes; and allow relative in-plane movements or
displacements due to such dimensional changes. Dowels
are often used in movement joints to resist out-of-plane
movements. The design should provide for slippage of the
dowel on one side of the joint. Keyways may be used in
nonmovement joints but should be used with caution in
movement joints due to the potential for a crack to occur
across the keyway and around the outside of the water-
stop. Figure 5.1 illustrates some of the most common
types of movement joints.
All joints should be considered as potential sources of
leakage. Leakage tends to occur more frequently in movement
joints, with expansion joints being the most likely to leak.
While closer spacing of movement joints may reduce
cracking between joints, the additional joints may increase
the potential for overall basin leakage. Thus, increased joint
spacing, in conjunction with increased reinforcement to
control crack widths, may reduce total basin leakage.
Effects of movement joints on load transfer should be
considered in design. For example, at joints in which
reinforcement is interrupted, the transfer of tension across
the joint is also interrupted. Movement joints may also affect
continuity of shearwalls or diaphragms.
Where joint materials will be in contact with water being
treated for use as potable water, the materials must be
nontoxic, generally after 30 days of curing.
5.2Construction joints
Construction joints are generally located at natural breaks in
concrete placements, such as between wall and slab placements,
and at intervals to limit length and volume of concrete
placements. Movement joints also function as effective
construction joints, that is, breaks in concrete placements. Unless
otherwise noted or shown, construction joints are typically
designed for full transfer of stresses across the joint. Keyways or
roughened surfaces with shear-friction reinforcement are
typically used for shear transfer at construction joints.
Cracking can occur in long wall or slab placements due to
the effects of thermal movements and drying shrinkage in
combination with movement restraints on the element. The
maximum length of wall placed at one time for conventionally
reinforced straight walls should usually not exceed 60 ft
(18 m), with 30 to 50 ft (9 to 15 m) being more common.
2
At
vertical construction joints, 48 h should be allowed between
placement of adjacent wall sections. Extra horizontal
reinforcement may be desirable near the base of the wall to
assist in control of cracks near the base.
Large circular basins typically use only construction joints
and no movement joints. Typically, a center circular
concrete placement is made, with the remainder of the slabs
and walls placed in equal segments.
5.3Movement joints
5.3.1 Contraction jointsContraction joints are often
used to dissipate shrinkage stresses and to control cracking.
Where used, contraction joints should be located at intervals
not exceeding 30 ft (9 m), unless additional reinforcement is
provided as required in ACI 350-01, Section 7.12. Shrinkage
will occur regardless of the amount of reinforcement
provided; however, the increased reinforcement tends to
distribute cracks and limit crack widths. Because cracks
occur at weak points, the intent of contraction joints is to
concentrate full-depth cracks at specific locations where
measures can be taken to protect against leakage.
Two types of contraction joints, known as full and partial
contraction joints, are in common use. In full contraction
joints, all reinforcement should be terminated 2 in. (50 mm)
clear of the joint. In partial contraction joints, at least 50% of
the reinforcement should be terminated 2 in. (50 mm) clear
of the joint, with the remainder being continuous through the
joint. The surface of the joint should be treated to prevent
bonding with the adjacent concrete placement where fresh
concrete is placed against hardened concrete. Full contraction
joints provide less restraint against shrinkage at the joint;
however, partial contraction joints provide some shear
transfer and limit differential movements across the joint due
to partial continuity of the reinforcement. Because the use of
a partial contraction joint creates a weak plane, consideration
should be given to seismic performance of these joints (for
Fig. 5.1Movement joints.
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example, effects due to high, localized energy dissipation).
Partial contraction joints are typically spaced at about 2/3 the
spacing used for full contraction joints. Even though
partially reinforced, such joints should be assumed to
open when considering the moment, shear, and diaphragm
shear capacity at such joints.
5.3.2 Expansion joints and isolation jointsExpansion joints
allow for thermal expansion and act as effective contraction
joints. Expansion joints tend to have the most problems with
long-term leakage in liquid-containment structures, so their
usage should be limited. Expansion joints are generally used in
very long structures (typically over 150 ft [45 m] in length) or
where abrupt changes in configuration or support occur.
All expansion joints should include some type of
preformed compressible filler and a joint sealant at the liquid
face. If the structure must be liquid-tight, a suitable waterstop
should be included to act as the primary barrier against leakage.
The waterstop, preformed filler, and joint sealant should be
selected to allow for the anticipated movement and should be
suitable for the service environment. Refer to ACI 504R for
recommended joint design and materials of construction.
Isolation joints serve to separate portions of a structure,
such as between vibrating equipment foundations and building
foundations or between column foundations and floating slabs.
Such joints should include some type of preformed
compressible filler and a joint sealant at the exposed face to
keep dirt, debris, and water from entering the joint, as well as a
waterstop, where required, for liquid tightness.
5.4Waterstops
Waterstops are required in all types of joints where liquid
tightness is required. Rubber waterstops permit the greatest joint
movement and last indefinitely when placed in a dark and humid
environment that is not corrosive to rubber. Polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) waterstops permit somewhat less movement than rubber
but are less sensitive to light exposure during construction and to
drying. Another advantage of PVC waterstops is the simplicity
of splicing by applying heat. The minimum sizes of either type
of flexible waterstop commonly used in environmental
structures is 3/8 x 9 in. (10 x 230 mm) for expansion joints and
1/4 x 6 in. (6 x 150 mm) for construction or contraction joints.
Minimum 3/8 x 6 in. (10 x 150 mm) waterstops should be
used at wall base joints where possible to avoid folding
under wet concrete placement. Copper waterstops have
also been used effectively. Stainless steel waterstops are
typically used in ozone process environments, due to the
damaging effect of ozone on other materials used for
waterstops. Refer to ACI 504R for additional discussion
of waterstop materials.
Rigid (metal) waterstops should not be used in movement
joints. Rubber or PVC waterstops with a center bulbs are
common in movement joints. Concrete cover at flat waterstops
should be equal to or greater than 1/2 the width of the waterstop.
Adequate support and careful concrete placement should be
provided to ensure proper position and embedment of the water-
stop in the concrete. For vertical waterstops, the use of tie wires
tied to the reinforcement to anchor the waterstop in position
should be considered. For flexible horizontal waterstops, the
following construction sequence should be considered:
a. Fold the waterstop upward along its entire length and
hold in position;
b. Place and consolidate concrete up to the elevation of the
waterstop;
c. Reposition the waterstop into the top of the fresh
concrete; and
d. Complete concrete placement and consolidation around
the remainder of the waterstop.
A number of alternative waterstop types have become
available, such as premolded adhesive waterstops;
premolded, expansive, water-reactive waterstops; and injection
tube waterstops that are injected with water-reactive chemical
grout. Some waterstops are available that combine more than
one of the above types. The effectiveness and applicability of
a particular waterstop system to any given situation should
be evaluated by the engineer. Some of these alternative
waterstops can provide solutions where new construction is
to be tied to existing construction and should be liquid-tight
or where backup systems to ensure liquid-tightness are
required. Waterstops that expand and contract with varying
exposure to moisture may leak initially until the reaction
with moisture takes full effect. Such waterstops may be less
desirable where frequent wetting-and-drying cycles may
occur or where water is not in contact with the joint during
normal operations. Also, such waterstops may not be effective
for containment of liquids other than water, and most of these
alternative waterstops are not recommended for movement
joints. Where such alternative waterstops intersect rubber or
PVC waterstops, the method of connecting for continuity of
liquid tightness should be specified.
5.5Joint fillers
Preformed joint filler serves dual tasks: it serves as a form for
the second placement of concrete while preserving the space into
which the concrete may intrude, and it prevents dirt and water
from filling the formed space in service. An ideal joint filler will
permit compression to 1/2 its original width and will re-expand
to fill the joint when the adjacent members contract. Cork,
rubber, foam, and other materials conforming to ASTM D
1056 and D 1752 are satisfactory joint fillers. In general, these
joint fillers are not capable of expanding beyond their initial
width and require precompression to exhibit expansion
characteristics. The effect of precompression, however, may be
reduced with time due to relaxation.
5.6Joint sealants
Sealants used in movement joints should be placed on the
liquid side and should be suitable for the service environment,
such as submerged service and exposure to wastewater and
chemicals. Sealants and joint fillers should be compatible with
each other. Joint sealants are not expected to function for the
entire life of a structure. Owners should be advised of the
need to repair, maintain, and reseal joints with proper
sealants at proper maintenance intervals. Joint sealants
should not be relied on to act as the primary barrier to
leakage in containment structures.
--``````,`,`````,`,,``,,,`,``,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Where the movement will be not more than 25% of the joint
width, polyurethane elastomers, as referred to in ACI 504R, are
suitable joint sealants. These materials are available in two types:
self-leveling or pourable for horizontal joints, and nonsagging
for vertical or sloping joints. Bituminous joint fillers should not
be used in conjunction with polyurethane sealants, as they may
impair adhesion (ACI 504R).
Polysulfide sealants are not suitable for use in wastewater
treatment plants because they generally have low resistance to
the chemical and biological reactions inherent to wastewater
treatment. In addition, the chemical reactions necessary for the
curing process of these sealants are impeded by the presence
of moisture.
CHAPTER 6REFERENCES
6.1Referenced standards and reports
The standards and reports listed below were the latest
editions at the time this document was prepared. Because
these documents are revised frequently, the reader is
advised to contact the proper sponsoring group if desired
to refer to the latest version.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
American Concrete Institute
318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete
350/350R Code Requirements for Environmental Engineering
Concrete Structures and Commentary
350.1 Tightness Testing of Environmental Engineering
Concrete Structures
350.2R Concrete Structures for Containment of Hazardous
Materials
350.3 Seismic Design for Liquid-Containing Concrete
Structures
504R Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures
SP-17 ACI Design Handbook
American Society of Civil Engineers
ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures
American Water Works Association
C 560 Cast-Iron Slide Gates
C 513 Open-Channel Fabricated-Metal Slide Gates
American Water Works Association/American Society for
Civil Engineers
Water Treatment Plant Design
ASTM International
D 1056 Standard Specification for Flexible Cellular
MaterialsSponge or Expanded Rubber
D 1752 Standard Specification for Preformed Sponge
Rubber and Cork Expansion Joint Fillers for
Concrete Paving and Structural Construction
These publication may be obtained from the following
organizations:
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
444 Capitol St NW Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001
American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 9094
Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
American Society of Civil Engineers
1801 Alexander Bell Dr.
Reston, VA 20191
American Water Works Association
6666 West Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235
ASTM International
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conshohocken, PA 19428
6.2Cited references
1. Portland Cement Association, Circular Concrete
Tanks Without Prestressing, ISO72, 1992.
2. Portland Cement Association, Rectangular Concrete
Tanks, IS003, 1998.
3. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates, Engineering
Monograph No. 27, 1963.
4. American Water Works Association/American Society of
Civil Engineers, Water Treatment Plant Design, 1990,
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
5. American Society of Civil Engineers, Retaining and
Flood Walls, 1994. (as adapted from U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Publication EM 1110-2-2502, 1989).
6. Golder Associates and W. M. Slater and Associates, Inc.,
Deterioration and Repair of Above Ground Water Tanks in
Ontario, Canada, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, 1987.
7. Das, B. M., Principles of Soil Dynamics, Brooks/Cole,
Pacific Grove, 1993.
8. Kramer, S. L., Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1996.
9. Seed, H. B., and Whitman, R. V., Design of Earth
Retaining Structures for Dynamic Loads, Proceedings,
Specialty Conference on Lateral Stresses in the Ground and
Design of Earth Retaining Structures, ASCE, 1970, pp. 103-147.
10. Davis, C. V., and Sorensen, K. B., Handbook of
Applied Hydraulics, Third Edition, McGraw Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1969.
11. Verma, S. P., Flood Considerations for Sanitary
Structures, Civil Engineering, ASCE, Oct., 1981.
12. Arya, S.; ONeill, M.; and Pincus, G., Design of
Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines,
Gulf Publishing Co., 1981.
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13. Whitman, R. V., and Richart, F. E., Design Procedures
for Dynamically Loaded Foundations, Proceedings, ASCE,
V. 93, No. SM6, Nov. 1967, pp. 169-193.
14. Irish, K., and Walker, W. P., Foundations for Reciprocating
Machines, Concrete Publications Ltd., London, 1969, 103 pp.
15. Karabinis, A. H., and Fowler, T. J., Design Consid-
erations for Dynamically Loaded Equipment Foundations,
Foundations for Equipment and Machinery, SP-78, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 1982, pp. 61-78.
16. Novak, M., Vertical Vibration of Floating Piles,
Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, No. EM1, Feb. 1977, pp. 155-168.
17. Novak, M., and Howell, J. F., Torsional Vibration of
Pile Foundations, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 103, No. GT4,
Apr. 1977, pp. 272-285.
18. Singh, J., P.; Donovan, N. C.; and Jobsis, A. C.,
Design of Machine Foundations on Piles, Proceedings,
ASCE, V. 102, No. GT8, Aug. 1977, pp. 863-877.
19. Barkan, D. D., Dynamics of Bases and Foundations,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1962, 496 pp.
20. Biggs, J. M., Introduction to Structural Dynamics,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1964, 341 pp.
21. Church, A. H., Mechanical Vibrations, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1963, 432 pp.
22. Skipp, B. O., ed., Vibrations in Civil Engineering,
Butterworths, London, 1966, 298 pp.
23. Major, A., Vibration Analysis and Design of Foundations
for Machines and Turbines, Colets, London, 1962, 828 pp.
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ACI 350.4R-04 became effective February 27, 2004.

Copyright 2004, American Concrete Institute.

Keith W. Jacobson Andrew R. Philip

John W. Baker Dov Kaminetzky Narayan M. Prachand

M. Reza Kianoush Satish K. Sachdev

Steven R. Close David G. Kittridge William C. Schnobrich

Nicholas A. Legatos William C. Sherman

Committee Chair while this document was being prepared.

Co-chair of subcommittee that prepared this document.

Members of subcommittee that prepared this document.

Usual 1.5 100% 3.0

Bearing-capacity safety factors may be adjusted based on recommendations of

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