COURSE TITLE: STUDY SKILLS

Introduction to Study Skills

Introduction to the Course
Objectives o the course:
To provide the students the knowledge of study skills
To help them know how they are related to their study as a distance learner, and
how they can use study skills as tools to perform efficiently in different subjects
To give them practice in the use of study skills
To enable them to use these study skills in their academic contexts
!re"kdo#n o the course contents
The course contents are divided into 32 lectures or sessions.
They are seuenced logically, thus each session leads towards the next.
!ost of the sessions are complete and independent in themselves. "owever, since
some topics can not be covered in one session, they are extended to two or three
sessions. #n case a session is a continuation of the previous session$s it is
mentioned clearly at the outset of the session.
$"ttern ollo#ed in the sessions
%lmost the same pattern of presentation is followed in each session. The topic is
introduced, defined and explained at the outset of the lecture. #ts significance is
addresses. Then the contents of covered under the topic are broken into small
pieces of information to be shared. This break down of the session is shared at the
beginning of the session. %lmost each session has exercises and activities that are
included to give the students some hands on practice. &eview of the session is
presented at the end.
$revie# o the Session
Study Skills
'hat are study skills(
'hy the development of study skills is important(
'hat are different types of study skills(
)tudy skills and distance learning
'hich study skills are important for you(
"ow to improve your distance learning study skills(
'hat do courses on )tudy )kills offer(
*our study )kills +ourse and its +ontents
Introduction to the Ter% Study Skills
&h"t "re study skills'
)tudy skills or study strategies are approaches applied to learning.
They are generally critical to academic success
,
)tudy skills are generally considered essential for acuiring good grades, and
useful for learning in academic as well as other contexts.
There is a wide range of study skills, which are involved in the process of
organi-ing and taking in new information, retaining information, or dealing with
assessments.
#n today.s academic context, unlike the traditional approach, these study skills are
not left up to the student. &ather these skills are increasingly taught in schools,
colleges and universities.
% number of books, materials, websites and other resources are available ranging
from specific techniues to general guide lines to successful study.
Study Skills: ( &ider $ers)ective
#n a broader sense any skill which enables, helps or boosts a person/s ability to
study and pass exams can be termed a study skill.
This implies that study skills include a wide range of array from time
management to stress management, language skills to efficient use of memory,
vocabulary development to presentation skills.
)tudy )kills are distinct techniues that can be learned, usually in a short time.
)tudy skills are and can be applied to almost all fields of study, irrespective of
which subject or course you are studying.
Thus, study skills are to be distinguished from strategies that are specific to a
particular field of study.
Study Skills "nd Dist"nce Le"rnin*
The trend of 0istance 1earning is increasing day by day.
2
Kno#in* yoursel "s " dist"nce le"rner
Study Skills or Dist"nce Le"rners
Study Skills or Dist"nce Le"rners
)tudy skills for distance learners are very similar to those for classroom learners.
)tudents often take courses through distance education because of the flexibility it
offers. %s a distance student you may have an extra challenge because you are
often juggling your courses, plus other responsibilities such as work and family.
&h"t do You +ener"lly ,ind in Study Skills Courses- !ooks'
3
E.(/$LES:
Re*is Study Skills +uide by &"lsh0 ,r"nk Reisi*0 Chris0 Intern"tion"l Deb"te
Educ"tion (ssoci"tion 1223
2nvironment and +oncentration in )tudy
3rgani-ing Time
&eading )peed and +omprehension
4ocabulary and )pelling
!emory of 0etails and 5actual #nformation
Taking 6otes
7articipating in +lass 0iscussions
Taking Tests
'riting 7apers and 2ssays
8sing %dvisors and +ounselors
Study Skills Str"te*ies : Your +uide to Critic"l Thinkin* by Len*eeld0 Uel"ine Cris)0
/ich"el /")son0 R"l)h4 Course Technolo*y Cris) 5667
Time control
6ote taking techniues
+ritical reading skills
memory training
2xam strategies
!athematics study skills
Study Skills +uide : Essenti"l Str"te*ies or S%"rt Students by ,orsyth0 $"trick
Connelly0 /"rk Connelly0 8"c9ueline0 Ko*"n $"*e Ltd4 1252
!anaging your time
2ffective study
#nformation gathering and absorption
%nalysis
9etting support from academic staff and others
The written word: making it work for you
7resenting successfully
Studyin* "t " Dist"nce : ( +uide or Students :1nd Edition; by T"lbot0 Christine 84
0 O)en University $ress0 122<
7reparing for distance learning
;now yourself as a learner
7racticalities of studying
9etting support
2<learning
&esources for studying
&eading and note<making
2ssays and written examinations
3ther forms of learning and assessment
0oing a research project
=
Ty)es o Study Skills
>)ource: %dapted from www. wikipidea?
Study skills b"sed on %e%ori="tion
These study skills are based on memori-ation such as rehearsal and rote learning.
3ne of the most basic approaches to learning any information is simply to repeat it
by rote. Typically this will include reading over notes or a textbook, and re<writing
notes.
Study skills b"sed on Co%%unic"tion skills e4*4 re"din* "nd listenin*
The weakness with rote learning is that it implies a passive reading or listening
style. 2ducators such as @ohn 0ewey have argued that students need to learn critical
thinking < uestioning and weighing up evidence as they learn. This is done through
lectures or reading.
5lash +ards are visual cues on cards. These have numerous uses in teaching and
learning, but can be used for revision. )tudents often make their own flash cards, or
more detailed index cards < cards designed for filing, often %A si-e, on which short
summaries are written. Being discrete and separate, they have the advantage of
allowing students to re<order them, pick a selection to read over, or choose
randomly to for self<testing.
Study skills b"sed on condensin* inor%"tion
)tudy skills based on condensing information work with summari-ing and the use
of keywords.
)ummary methods vary depending on the topic, but most involve condensing the
large amount of information from a course or book into shorter notes. 3ften these
notes are then condensed further into key facts.
3rgani-ed summaries: )uch as outlines showing keywords and definitions and
relations, usually in a tree structure.
)pider diagrams: 8sing spider diagrams or mind maps can be an effective way of
linking concepts together. They can be useful for planning essays and essay
responses in exams. These tools can give a visual summary of a topic that
preserves its logical structure, with lines used to show how different parts link
together.
)ome learners are thought to have a visual learning style, and will benefit greatly
from taking information from their studies which is often heavily verbal, and
using visual techniues to help encode and retain it in memory.
0iagrams are often underrated tools. They can be used to bring all the information
together and provide practice reorgani-ing what has been learned in order to
produce something practical and useful. They can also aid the recall of
A
information learned very uickly, particularly if the student made the diagram
while studying the information. 7ictures can then be transferred to flash cards that
are very effective last minute revision tools rather than rereading any written
material.
The Black<&ed<9reen method >developed through the &oyal 1iterary 5und? helps
the student to ensure that every aspect of the uestion posed has been considered,
both in exams and essays.The student underlines relevant parts of the uestion
using three separate colors >or some euivalent?. B1%ck denotes /B1%tant
instructions/, i.e. something that clearly must be doneC a directive or obvious
instruction. &2d is a &2ference 7oint or &2uired input of some kind, usually to
do with definitions, terms, cited authors, theory, etc. >either explicitly referred to
or strongly implied?. 9&2en denotes 9&2mlins, which are subtle signals one
might easily miss, or a D9&226 1ight. that gives a hint on how to proceed, or
where to place the emphasis in answers.
Study Skills b"sed on /"n"*e%ent "nd Or*"ni="tion
These study skills are based on Time !anagement, 3rgani-ation and 1ifestyle
+hanges.

3ften, improvements to the effectiveness of study may be achieved through changes
to things unrelated to the study material itself, such as time<management, boosting
motivation and avoiding procrastination, and in improvements to sleep and diet.
Time management in study sessions aims to ensure that activities that achieve the
greatest benefit are given the greatest focus. % traffic lights system is a simple way
of identifying the importance of information, highlighting or underlining
information in colours:
9reen: topics to be studied firstC important and also simple
%mber: topics to be studied nextC important but time<consuming
&ed: lowest priorityC complex and not vital.
Your /otiv"tion to Study
E
>u"lities you need to h"ve "s "n Eicient Le"rner
Study Skills: &h"t is it th"t Dist"nce Le"rners ?eed /ore'
Diiculties th"t %"y hinder
F
Kee)in* " !"l"nce: @o# "r you "re S"tisied #ith Your Ti%e /"n"*e%ent'
(ctivity
G
(ctivity
( ,e# /ore $ossibilities
H
+ettin* St"rted: /"kin* your schedule
The v"lue o " schedule
Before you even begin to think about the process of studying, you must develop a
schedule. #f you don/t have a schedule or plan for studying, then you will not have
any way of allocating your valuable time when the unexpected comes up. % good,
well thought out schedule can be a lifesaver. #t/s up to you to learn how to develop
a schedule that meets your needs, revise it if necessary, and most important,
follow it.
( schedule s"ves ti%e
%ll schedules should be made with the idea that they can be revised. % good
schedule keeps you from wandering off course. % good schedule, if properly
managed, assigns time where time is needed, but you/ve got to want to do itI
/"kin* every hour count
% schedule should take into account every class, laboratory, lecture, social event,
and other work in which you engage. There are givens such as classes and so on
that have to be incorporated. *ou must focus on the other Jfree timeJ available
and how you will use it. !ake a weekly schedule and block off the 2= hour day in
one hour increments. #ndicate times for study, lectures, social, and work time.
%lso block off a period for sleeping each day. 'ith what is left over, plan time for
study. This gives you a rough road map of the time available. 3f course, you can
revise your schedule as circumstances warrant.
,K
&hen to study
The problem of when to study is critical. % good rule of thumb is that studying
should be carried out only when you are rested, alert, and have planned for it. 1ast
minute studying just before an exam is usually a waste of time.
&evising a schedule
0on/t be afraid to revise your schedule. )chedules are really plans for how you
intend to use your time. #f your schedule doesn/t work, revise it. *ou must
understand that your schedule is to help you develop good study habits. 3nce you
have developed them, schedule building becomes easier.
%dapted from: http:$$www.adprima.com$studyout.htm
Study S)"ce
*our study space should be as uiet and comfortable as possible. %void studying
in noisy places such as cafeterias, recreation rooms, or lounges.
'hen studying, keep a waste basket handy.
"ave a consistent place for everything, and above all, keep it thereI
"ave everything needed for studying handy beforehand. 0on/t waste valuable
time looking for books, notes, of other information. %fter you have assembled the
items you need, put them where you can reach them easily.
http:$$www.adprima.com$studyout.htm
Su**estions to hel) you i%)rove your dist"nce le"rnin* skills
"ere are some suggestions to help you improve your distance learning skills:
54 !e %otiv"ted
%s a distance student you.ll need to be a self<directed learner. To ensure that you
can do this, you need to be highly motivated. The best way to stay sharp is to
have a clear goal in mind for what you want to achieve through your education. #f
you are working toward a degree, your goal may be to finish your degree and
change careers.
14 Le"rn ti%e %"n"*e%ent
Time<management skills are essential in distance learning. Before signing up for
your distance course, ensure you have enough time to spend on the course. %
general rule is to allow two hours of study for every hour of class. 5or example, if
you have 2 hours of class time a week, you should plan to spend about = hours
studying, approximately E hours per week. 3nce you know how much time you
need to spend, create a schedule.
A4 Set *o"ls
% good way to stay on top of your work is to set goals. The more you do now, the
easier it will be at the end. Break large tasks down into smaller parts. 5or
example, if you have a paper due at the end of the course, break it down so you do
part of it each week. 2nsure that you accomplish the goals you set for yourself by
,,
the end of each week. 'hen it comes time to pass in the paper, you.ll be glad you
did this.
74 Revie# your courses
3ne great advantage of distance courses is that you are able to view and replay
them all or in part as many times as you wish which will allow you to customi-e
your notes and review more challenging information as often as you like.
DEBELO$/E?T O, LISTE?I?+ SKILL
This lesson is about L0evelopment of 1istening )killM and it includes:
'hat is listening(
'hy listening is important(
0ifference in hearing and listening
7erspectives on listening
"uman aspects of listening
1anguage aspects of listening
0ifferent listening contexts
0ifficulties in listening
1istening strategies
Dierence bet#een he"rin* "nd listenin*
@e"rin* C #t is a physical process that is natural and passive.
Listenin* C #t is a physical as well as mental process. #t is an active, learned process
and a skill.
&e c"n deine listenin* "s ollo#in*:
1istening is the ability to accurately receive messages in the communication process.
1istening is the process of recogni-ing, understanding, and accurately interpreting
communicated messages and responding to spoken and $ or nonverbal messages.
'e spend a lot of our time listening
%dults spend an average of FKN of their time engaged in some sort of
communication, of this an average of =AN is spent listening compared to 3KN
speaking, ,EN reading and HN writing. >%dler, &. et al. 2KK,?.
http:$$www.skillsyouneed.co.uk$
#n fact research suggests that we remember between 2A percent and AK percent of
what we listen to. That means that when you talk to your boss, colleagues,
,2
customers or spouse for ,K minutes, they pay attention to less than half of the
conversation. This is dismalI
Turn it around and it reveals that when you are receiving directions or being
presented with information, you aren/t hearing the whole message either. *ou hope
the important parts are captured in your 2A<AK percent, but what if they/re not(
http:$$www.mindtools.com$
$ers)ectives on le"rnin* to listen
5rom people.s perspective
5rom 1anguage.s perspective
+learly, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from improving. By becoming a
better listener, we can add to our productivity. Better listening also adds to our
ability to influence, persuade and negotiate. 1istening is an important tool of
learning as well. Think for a while about its importance in your context of virtual
learning
(ctiveListenin*
The way to become a better listener is to practice Jactive listening.J
*ou need to make a conscious effort to hear not only the words that come from the
mouth of the person, rather, more importantly, you need to try to understand the
complete message being sent by the speaker
%ctive listening means listening with attention and carefully.
%ctive listening is a focused activity.
Becoming an %ctive 1istener
http:$$www.mindtools.com$
There are five key elements of active listening. They all help you ensure that you
receiving what the other person says, and that the other person knows you are
listening to him or her:
54 $"y (ttention
9ive the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message.
&ecogni-e that non<verbal communication also JspeaksJ loudly.
1ook at the speaker directly.
7ut aside distracting thoughts.
0on/t mentally prepare a rebuttalI
%void being distracted by environmental factors. 5or example, side conversations.
J1istenJ to the speaker/s body language.
,3
14 Sho# Th"t YouDre Listenin*
8se your own body language and gestures to convey your attention.
6od occasionally.
)mile and use other facial expressions.
6ote your posture and make sure it is open and inviting.
2ncourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes, and uh
hum.
A4 $rovide ,eedb"ck
3ur personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear.
%s a listener, your role is to understand what is being said. This may reuire you to
reflect what is being said and ask uestions.
&eflect what has been said by paraphrasing. J'hat #/m hearing is,J and J)ounds
like you are saying,J are great ways to reflect back.
%sk uestions to clarify certain points. J'hat do you mean when you say.J J#s this
what you mean(J
)ummari-e the speaker/s comments periodically.
74 Deer 8ud*%ent
#nterrupting is a waste of time. #t frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding
of the message.
%llow the speaker to finish each point before asking uestions.
0on/t interrupt with counter arguments.
E4 Res)ond ())ro)ri"tely
%ctive listening is a model for respect and understanding. *ou are gaining
information and perspective. *ou add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise
putting him or her down.
Be candid, open, and honest in your response.
%ssert your opinions respectfully.
Treat the other person in a way that you think he or she would want to be treated.
)o this was LlisteningM as a skill from human perspective. 6ow let us move on to
LlisteningM as a skill from the language perspective.
7urposes of listening in %cademic context
'e listen to obtain information.
,=
'e listen to understand.
'e listen to learn.
'e listen for enjoyment.
http:$$www.mindtools.com$
DI,,ERE?T LISTE?I?+ SITU(TIO?S
,. &ight now you are listening to me: % virtual lesson
2. @ust before this you might be listening to something that a family member told
3. 3r you might have listened to an announcement made from the local mosue
DI,,ERE?T LISTE?I?+ SITU(TIO?S
1istener is unfamiliar with how certain types of /spoken text/ are presented and organi-ed
in the foreign culture
!ustering all pre<knowledge and expectations before listening starts
Being alert to all the clues in the context or situation
Intensive Listenin*:
The widely<used form of listening practice in modern classrooms.
To pick up and remember a series of important instructions, as in the case of the
employee listening to his boss.s orders.
To listen to a passage with the aim of collecting and organi-ing the information that
it contains.
"ow would you listen to your virtual learning lessons(
1anguage learning depends on listening. 1istening provides the aural input that
serves as the basis for language acuisition and enables learners to interact in
spoken communication.
1anguage learners need to learn how they can modify their listening behavior to
deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and listening purposes.
1anguage learners need to learn which strategy works the best in which context
To)Fdo#n Listenin* Str"te*ies
,
'e may call these strategies listener based learning strategies
The listener himself or herself explores background knowledge of the topic
The listener tries to understand the context, the type of text, and the language.
,A
This leads to a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what he or she
listens to.
Top<down strategies are:

listening for the main idea
drawing inferences
predicting summari-ing
!otto%Fu) Listenin* Str"te*ies
Bottom<up strategies can also be called text based listening strategies
The main source of information is the text itself
The text includes sounds, words, and grammar.
!otto%Fu) str"te*ies "re:
listening for specific details
recogni-ing cognates
recogni-ing word<order patterns
DEBELO$/E?T O, S$E(KI?+ SKILL
Introduction to S)e"kin* skill
3ne of the most desired communication skill
3ne of the most freuently used communication skill
But one of the most taken for granted communication skill as well
Basic level speaking skill means OOO.
#n our own language, speaking is usually the second language skill that we learn.
This vocali-ed form of language usually reuires at least one listener.
'hen two or more people speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a
JdialogueJ. )peech can flow naturally from one person to another in the form of
dialogue which is the most freuently used form in daily life.
)ometimes we can also plan and rehearse what we want to speak, as in the
delivery of a speech or presentation.
Deinition
,E
)peaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. #t, like the other skills, is more
complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words.
>www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/ ?
#mportance of speaking skill
+onsider for a while how much of you communicate through this skill in a day
Think for a while if you do not have this skill. 'hat would you do( "ow much
you would be able to communicate( %nd, more importantly how much of your
communication would be effective(
)peaking skill is very crucial to human interaction
Biggest hindrance
,"ilin* to reco*ni=e th"t s)e"kin* is "n "c9uired skill.
2ffective speakers learn how to speak
'e can learn it as we learn other skills P 2xample of driving
S$E(KI?+ ( ,OREI+? L(?+U(+E
The expectation is not native<like speech.
0ifference in accent and pronunciation is acceptable
2rrors are okay.
7erfect grammar is not expected.
)peaking is probably the language skill that most of the foreign language learners
wish to perfect as soon as possible. But, this often proves to be the most difficult
to master.
S$E(KI?+ E?+LIS@ (S ( ,OREI+? L(?+U(+E
2xpectations
0ifferences
2rrors
9rammar
"ow about your speaking skill(
)peaking$ 1istening P The inter<relationship
4ariety in contexts: There are three kinds of speaking$ listening situations in
which we find ourselves:
interactive,
partially interactive, and
non<interactive.
Inter"ctive s)e"kin* situ"tions include face<to<face conversations and telephone
calls, in which we are alternately listening and speaking, and in which we have a
,F
chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation
partner.
)ome speaking situations are )"rti"lly inter"ctive, such as when giving a speech
to a live audience, where the convention is that the audience does not interrupt the
speech. The speaker nevertheless can see the audience and judge from the
expressions on their faces and body language whether or not he or she is being
understood.
4ery few speaking situations may be tot"lly nonFinter"ctive, such as when
recording a speech for a radio broadcast.
Co%)onents o S)eech: !"sic SiG Ele%ents Involved
2xtemporaneous $ #mpromptu: )poken without advance preparation, 7rompted by
the occasion rather than being planned before hand or in advance4 )poken,
performed, done, or composed with little or no preparation
!emori-ation
&eading
0egrees of 5ormality
)peaking can be formal or informal
#nformal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you know
well.
5ormal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when meeting
people for the first time.
,"ctors th"t (ect Or"l Delivery
54 $itch
14 S)eech R"te
A4 Bolu%e
74 Boc"l 9u"lity
E4 $ronunci"tion
$itch o your voice
#t is that property of voice which we call pitch is determined by the rate of
vibration of the vocal cords.
%s a general rule the greater the number of vibrations per second, the higher the
pitch.
6ow how the rate of vibration is determined( #t is determined by the length and
thickness of the vocal cords and by the tightening or relaxation of these cords.
6ormally, women/s voices are pitched higher than men/s.
&eason: 'omen/s vocal cords are shorter as compared to men. %mong individuals
of each sex there are wide variations due to difference in physical structure.
,G
;ey factor for us to remember as speakers is that the pitch of our voices is partly
determined by nature, but is not entirely beyond our control.
Inlection o $itch
#nflection is a change of pitch.
6aturally we do not speak on one pitch level alone.
The voice slides up and down the scale as we express various shades of thought
and feeling.
9enerally an upward slide or inflection expresses a uestion or an uncompleted
thought
9enerally a downward inflection expresses a completed thought.
#f somebody.s voice never rises or falls, and he or she drones on and on in the
same monotone, the listener very soon loses interest in what he or she is saying.
The voice that holds your attention conveys emotion and interest by change of
pitch or inflection.
'hat about 8rdu and 2nglish(
S)eech R"te: &h"t is s)eech r"te'
The #deal &ate of )peech: HK<,=K words per minute or ,=K to ,EK words per
minute.
There is some variance to the acceptable rate of speech depending on the
geographical area in which you reside.
#f your rate of speech is ideal, then there is an effective communication.
3therwise the speaker either may have to repeat himself$ herself, or some
information gets ignored.
*oung children and old people may also process information more slowly so their
rate of speech can be lower than the ideal rate of speech.
#f the rate of speech is faster the listener may miss out the information given by
the speaker.
&h"t is your r"te o s)eech'
The rate of speech that we use in normal conversation affects our fluency rating.
#f you are a speaker with excellent command of the 2nglish language, you are
more likely to speak to uickly compared to the speaker who is still learning the
language and speaks more slowly to find the right words, carefully considering
pronunciation.
#f a speaker is too slow, speech sounds labored, broken up and is difficult to listen
to. 3n the opposite end, when the rate of speech is too fast, the listener can.t
comprehend the content or understand the speaker.
% normal rate of speech benefits the speaker in enormous ways: pronunciation is
easier, intonation and stress are appropriate and pauses can easily be inserted.
,H
#f you have good pronunciation, you may be able to speak at the faster end of the
normal range. But, slower speech will benefit you in a variety of ways especially
if you are mispronouncing vowels and consonants. #t allows more time to
lengthen your vowels and add stress and pitch changes. %nd again, the sound of
your voice and the resonance dramatically improves, too.
5inally, the rate you choose to adopt may depend upon the setting in which you.ll
be speaking, the difficulty of material and the audience you are speaking to.
www.clearly-speaking.com
Bolu%e
0o you ever struggle to make yourself heard(
0o people ask you to repeat yourself(
"ow can volume affect your speech(
4ocal uality
#t is more of a natural gift
#t plays an important role in communicating emotion, mood and attitude
$ronunci"tion
#t is the ability to use the correct stress, rhythm and intonation of a word in a spoken
discourse. % word can be spoken in different ways by different individuals or groups.
#t depends on many factors which include the area in which they grew up, the area in
which they now live, if they have a speech or voice disorder, their ethnic identity,
their social class, and their education.
DEBELO$/E?T O, S$E(KI?+ SKILL C$"rt 1
$ublic s)e"kin* skill is:
The ability or art of grasping and holding on to people.s attention through speech is
called public speaking.
7ublic speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured,
deliberate manner
% public speaker intends to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners.
$ublic s)e"kin* c"n be:
To inform
To persuade
To entertain
To motivate
To influence
2K
7ublic )peaking )kill for students
&esponding and participating in the classroom interaction
To agree
To disagree
To give opinion
To substantiate
To explain
To compare
+lassroom 7resentations
7roject 7resentations
Thesis 0efense
1ater on in practical life
< $ ())ro"ch to $ublic S)e"kin*
54 $ur)ose: 54 $ur)ose: 'hy are you speaking(
'hat do you want your audience to know, think, believe,
or do as a result of your presentation(
14 $eo)le: 14 $eo)le: 'ho is your audience(
'hat are their characteristics(
'hat are their skills, opinions, and behaviors(
%ll these are going to affect you and your speaking choices.
A4 $l"ce: A4 $l"ce: 'hy are you speaking to a particular group at a
particular place(
"ow can you plan and adapt to the logistics of this
place(
"ow can you use visual aids to help you achieve your purpose(
74 $re)"r"tion: 74 $re)"r"tion: 'hat pre<hand preparation do you need(
'here and how can you find needed ideas, information,
material etc. for you(
'hat is the type, uantity and uality of supporting materials that you need, and
where would you find them(
E4 $l"nnin*: E4 $l"nnin*: #s there or should there be a natural order to the ideas and
information you want to present(
'hat are the most effective and efficient ways to organi-e
your speech(
"ow would you adapt it to the purpose, people, place of
your speech(
2,
H4 $erson"lity: H4 $erson"lity: "ow do you establish a link with the audience(
"ow do you associate yourself positively to your message(
'hat would you do to demonstrate your competence(
"ow would you have an impact on the audience(
<4 $eror%"nce: <4 $eror%"nce: 'hat form of delivery is best suited to the
purpose of your speech(
'hat delivery mode will suit you the best(
'hat techniues will suit your presentation the best(
The Role o $r"ctice in $ublic S)e"kin*
Or*"ni=in* $ublic S)e"kin*
The essence of organi-ing an idea is actually very simple:
!ake a point.
2xplain it.
)upport it.
+onclude it.
3rgani-ing a presentation then becomes a matter of developing connections between the
ideas that you have already organi-ed
@o# to tell'
//5irst you tell them what you/re going to tell them. Then you tell them. Then you tell
them what you told them.// >&afe, ,HHK?
&emember the purposes of public speaking include:
To inform
To persuade
To entertain
To motivate
To influence
Inor%"tive "nd $ersu"sive S)e"kin* Inor%"tive "nd $ersu"sive S)e"kin*
"ow to manage(
$ur)ose o Inor%"tive S)e"kin* $ur)ose o Inor%"tive S)e"kin*
22
7urpose is to give some information
#nformative speaking focuses on making an idea clear.
#t can be about a process, policy, rule or concept.
$ur)ose o $ersu"sive S)e"kin* $ur)ose o $ersu"sive S)e"kin*
The purpose is to convince
7ersuasive speaking deals with gaining willing acceptance to your central thesis.
3ne must be more creative, thoughtful and motivating while delivering message
in persuasive toneM.
T"ctics or inor%"tive s)e"kin* T"ctics or inor%"tive s)e"kin*
8sing directness
#mmediately identify the situation.
Positive situations vs. Negative situations
Tell the operational messages >policies, directions, procedures? orderly and
clearly.
8se illustrations, figures, graphs etc. for better understanding
1ogically arranging the information.
+hoosing the right tone.
Subject: Damaged condition of fire etinguis!ers on arrival.
3ffering an alternative solution.
"f someone wants to !old an event on your company ground
"f someone wants an information t!at you can not give
"f you can not give your time and service
2nding on a positive note.
" would be grateful if you could get t!e new merc!andise to me in time for my
#riday sale.
T"ctics or )ersu"sive s)e"kin* T"ctics or )ersu"sive s)e"kin*
Tell in an indirect toneOOthe opening sets strategy and gains attention.
2xamples:
'hat in your opinion as a medical doctor is the future of the private practice of
medicine(
'hile you and # dined heartily last night, 3, orphans at 2dhi center had only dried
beans to eat.
)earch for common ground.
#nsert praise for the organi-ation.
!ention names of colleagues or friends you have worked in the past.
Tone is your s)eech Tone is your s)eech
!otivate by tangible or intangible rewards.
23
Be positiveO..don.t use negative tone.
!ake it stylistically and visually interesting and attractive.
&efusing positively, suggesting courteously.
%void anger.
$amples: " can not understand your negligence.
%our careless attitude !as caused us a great loss.
&e will not tolerate t!is condition.
+losing with good will.
Avoid ending with old, negative apologies:
'gain may " say t!at " regret t!at we must refuse.
" sincerely !ope t!at you understand w!y we must make t!is decision.
End with a pleasant off subject comment.
Offer assurance and appreciate the reader as a customer or inquirer.
Invite future patronage, cooperation, suggestions or compliance with the
decision.
#or $ample: (et us know if you !ave any furt!er problems.
Kinds o inor%"tive "nd )ersu"sive s)e"kin* Kinds o inor%"tive "nd )ersu"sive s)e"kin*
o &eports
o 9oodwill
o Briefings
o #nstructions
o 7olicy
o 7rocedure
o 5act
o 4alue
o +laim
o &euest
o #nuiry
(udience "n"lysis (udience "n"lysis
;nowledge about the topic
1evel of comprehending
%ttitude , interest, background.
The degree of agreeing or disagreeing to a point.
Selectin* su))orts or your s)eech Selectin* su))orts or your s)eech
2xamples
#llustrations
2=
)tatistics
Quotations
+omparisons
definitions
Str"te*ies or "n eective nonFverb"l delivery
7osture
!ovement
9estures
5acial expressions
%ppearance
@o# to /"int"in (ttention
!ind over matter
Tell the story
8se imagery and metaphors
2mploy uotations, facts and statistics
4ary vocal pace, tone and volume
7unctuate words with attention
%nalyse audience, connect and interact with them
>: @o# to overco%e e"r o )ublic s)e"kin*'
%nswer: L5ailing to prepare is preparing for failureM )o, prepare yourself to face people.
%lso do the following:
&ehearse your talk
7re<check any euipment you.ll need
Take an object with you
Breath deeply and slowly before speaking
!ove during the speech
>: @o# (re You Doin*' (nd0 ho# to use "udience eedb"ck'
&each as many of the audience as possible
6otice body language
&espond to audience uestions
"andle unexpected issues smoothly
51 Si*ns th"t (udience is not Listenin*
)tart to look down
Touch or rub the face, hand or hair
2A
2yes gla-e over and look at the screen
5idget
*awn
5lip through their notes
!ake copious notes
)igh heavily
1ie back in the chair and cross their arms
)can across the room
'hisper
Tap their feet
Dos o Style
+raft an introduction
9o with soft skills
2xtending courtesy >e.g, thanking the audience for the opportunity to speak, tactfully
handling the interruptions etc.? shows an awareness of others and establishes the
speaker as a caring person
DonIts o style
0on.t hide behind podium
0on.t abuse the word LandM
0on.t overlook time constraint
0on.t distract from the topic
0on.t confuse enthusiasm with loudness
0on.t talk down to the other person
0on.t take negative responses personally
DEBELO$/E?T O, RE(DI?+ SKILL DEBELO$/E?T O, RE(DI?+ SKILL
&h"t is Re"din*' &h"t is Re"din*'
L&eading is more than seeing words clearly, more than pronouncing words L&eading is more than seeing words clearly, more than pronouncing words
correctly, more than recogni-ing the meaning of isolated words. &eading correctly, more than recogni-ing the meaning of isolated words. &eading
reuires to think, feel and imagine.M reuires to think, feel and imagine.M
I%)ort"nce o Re"din* in the /odern &orld
6ew methods of copying and printing have not only added to the bulk of books,
maga-ines, newspapers, journals, reports but have also made possible the
flood of information about every conceivable topic under the sun and beyond it. The
expression of printing has conseuently added to the importance of reading in the
modern world. 6ot only in the field of education but also in the entire walks of life
one has to read a great deal.
Sco)e o Re"din* in our Lives
&eading is the best utili-ation of leisure time.
&eading may be one of the inexhaustible pleasures. But the importance of reading is
not restricted to the rewarding of leisure time.
2E
#t offers much more than mere entertainment.
#t provides an individual the opportunity to expand his or her hori-ons by helping
him or her to identify, extend and explain deeper understandings of the self, of other
human beings, and of the world.
I, YOU &(?T TO LIBE /ORE T@(? O?E LIBES RE(D
Thin*s #e re"d
6ovels, short stories, fiction
6on<fiction, textbooks, travel books, encyclopedias
6ewspapers, journals, maga-ines, maps, directories, dictionaries
5orms, applications, uestionnaires
Brochures, catalogues, hoardings, advertisements, notices, labels, posters, displays
at airports, stations, etc.
1etters, reports, proposals
$ur)ose o re"din*
5or specific information
To pass an exam
To pass time
To know details of something
To have an overall idea
5or having a general idea
orelt.col.org/module/unit/)-reading-efficiently-sub-sills-reading
/ore Re"sons: (ter (ll &hy Do &e Re"d'
To comprehend the main idea
To follow directions
To increase general fund of knowledge
To solve a particular problem
To form an opinion
To check or verify certain facts
To appreciate the view point of others.
To predict an outcome.
To critici-e, summari-e or review
2F
To enjoy the pure music of words
1eedy, 7.0. >,HAE:,E,?
B"ried needs o re"dersJ
% lawyer needs the ability to read well, to skim through an article, pick out
important ideas and make deductions from passages.
% worker in a factory reuires the reading skill to read and understand the basic
rules, safety signs and changes in regulations etc.
% student needs to read O
Re"din* eiciently %e"ns #h"t' Re"din* eiciently %e"ns #h"t'
#mages for #mages for reading skills reading skills
2fficient &eading !eans: 8nderstanding pages of print accurately, rapidly and 2fficient &eading !eans: 8nderstanding pages of print accurately, rapidly and
enjoyably. enjoyably. &apid &eading !ade )imple >,HFE?
Deinition o Re"din* Skills
&eading skills are specific abilities which enable a reader
2G
to read the written form as meaningful language
to read anything written with independence, comprehension and fluency, and
to mentally interact with the message.
Re"din* subFskills "nd str"te*ies
54 prediction
14 skim reading
A4 gist reading
74 scan reading
E4 intensive reading
H4 inferring meaning
<4 extensive reading
I%)ort"nt re"din* subFskills "nd h"bits
, , &eading for Thought P Telegraphic &eading &eading for Thought P Telegraphic &eading
2 2 &eading with 7urpose &eading with 7urpose
3 3 %nalysis of 7aragraphs %nalysis of 7aragraphs
= = #nterpretation of Title #nterpretation of Title
A A 4isual %ids 4isual %ids
E E &ecognition of 7unctuation &ecognition of 7unctuation
F F )kimming )kimming
G G )canning )canning
H H 2fficient use of !emory 2fficient use of !emory
,K ,K 2ye<span 2ye<span
,, ,, %voidance of &egressions %voidance of &egressions
,2 ,2 %voidance of finger pointing and sub<vocali-ation %voidance of finger pointing and sub<vocali-ation
,3 ,3 &eviewing &eviewing
,= ,= +ritical reading +ritical reading

54 RE(DI?+ ,OR T@OU+@TFTELE+R($@IC RE(DI?+
% good and efficient reader must develop a habit of distilling and extracting from
the words, the nugget of thought, which the author is trying to express.
#n this connection telegraphic reading is helpful.
% telegraphic reader sees all the words but his or her brain learns to disregard all of
them, except the key words and word combinations, which give him or her the
thought of the author.
5or instance following are three sentences:
54 It r"ins4
2H
14 It is r"inin* "t this %o%ent4
A4 The clouds h"ve o)ened0 "nd their sho#ers "re #"terin* the )"rched e"rth4
2ach sentence is expressing the same thought that Lit rainsJ. %nd. it depends upon the
reader how he picks up the words from each sentence that reflect the thought of the
author.
The clouds h"ve o)ened0 "nd their sho#ers "re #"terin* the )"rched e"rth4

)o, instead of getting the habit of trying to see and digest, comprehend and retain every
word that meets the eyes, a reader should form the more efficient habit of selecting
the words which convey the thought clearly and economically.
The reader must remember:
)ometimes rules of structure in writing reuire more than a telegraphic
representation of thought by the author. But, a reader is free to use the telegraphic
reading techniue to read efficiently and uickly.
Tele*r")hic Re"din*: E.(/$LE O, ( $(R(+R($@
Before taking a start as a telegraphic reader look at the following paragraphs:
!Ever" boo has seleton hidden between boards. #ind it. $oo comes with flesh
and clothes. All dressed. %ot asing "ou to be impolite or cruel. &o not undress it
or tear flesh to get at structure. 'ead with (-ra"s e"es, essential part of first
apprehension to grasp structure).
1: RE(DI?+ &IT@ $UR$OSE
#n general, impatience is one of the worst weaknesses among readers.
The sight of black print on a white page incites in a reader an immediate and
irrepressible desire to begin reading.
3K
)uch a reader takes no forethought, nor does he or she analy-e his or her aim or
purpose in reading.
#f you know the purpose of your reading t adds to the reading efficiency
'e do not just read.
'e read always for a particular purpose.
7robably no type of reading illustrates uite so well the various purposes for which
we read than does the reading of newspaper.
'hile reading newspaper, the purpose for reading < to extract information, to get
facts, to form opinions or to get delight etc.< changes almost as rapidly as the reader
moves from column to column or news to news.
To fore<think and pre<decide the purpose of reading is a good habit as it enables the
reader to select the appropriate reading methods, which will best achieve that
purpose.
A: (?(LYSIS O, $(R(+R($@S
"aving an eye for paragraphs is very important for a reader.
#t is one of the first signs that you really know what to do with your reading
material.
7eople never notice paragraphs while reading whereas paragraphs are placed there
to make reading easier for them.
7aragraphs are units of writing and within a paragraph there is usually one sentence,
which states clearly the main thought of paragraph. This is commonly called the
/topic/ sentence.
(?(LYSIS O, $(R(+R($@S
#n order to crack a paragraph a reader should develop the habit of:
i4 Lookin* or the noun or )ronoun th"t do%in"tes the )"r"*r")h4
ii4 (ter indin* the do%in"nt noun0 loc"te the sentence #ithin the
)"r"*r")h th"t %"kes the %ost *ener"li=ed st"te%ent "bout this noun4 Th"t
sentence #ill be to)ic sentence4
%n efficient reader must also develop the habit of noticing the si-e of paragraphs
while reading a printed page.
These are the cells of thought within the body of the text. 2ach of these paragraph
units represents a basic structure. 2ach according to its form, will determine what
the characteristics of the corporate whole will be.
3,
#f the paragraphs are large and apparently well developed, one might expect that the
author will present a main thought and then will expand and elaborate it, exploring
all of its implications.
But, if the paragraphs are shorter, suat and skimpy the thought is skimpy, meager,
thin and certainly not so well developed. Thus, if a reader develops the habit of
si-ing up the paragraph he can know how the author will spread his thought upon
the page.
"ow do you know that the sentence that you select really is the topic sentence(
There is a very simple way of checking.
&ead the sentence that you think is the topic sentence.
Then immediately ask the uestion, L'hat does that mean(M
&ead each of the remaining sentences of the paragraph, but preface the reading of
each one with the words, L#t means that O..(
5ollow the reading of each sentence by re<reading the main sentence. By doing so
you will discover the relationship that every other sentence in the paragraph has to
the topic sentence.
%pply this techniue on the following paragraph
K*an has alwa"s had tendenc" to mae himself comfortable. +,hat does it mean- It
means that ../ 0his inclination is man1s nature is first seen in the earliest
records of the care +$ecause .. *an has alwa"s had a tendenc" to mae himself
comfortable./ *an learned to use fire, and in so doing he found a substitute for
the warmth of the 2un. +$ecause .*an has alwa"s had tendenc" to mae
himself comfortable./ 0he same proclivit" to become comfortable led him to warp
himself in the sins of animals. +$ecause .....)/
&eading improvements for %dults 1eedy, 7. 0.
7: TITLE
The author puts a title at the head of what s$he writes to tell the reader something:
what the entire price is all about.
#n a few words the writer presents for the reader the whole domain of what he or
she is going to read.
By developing a habit of exploring the focal point of the author/s thinking by means
of title, a reader can explore a piece of writing more effectively.
'hile looking at the title one should think of its implications.
%ttention must be focused on the most important word in the title. 5or instance if
there is an essay on The &esponsibilities of a 9od +iti-en an efficient reader will be
able to determine the focal point of the essay by means of the title. The essay is
primarily about the /responsibilities/ not a /good citi-en/.
32
Be careful: )ome authors use titles merely as red flags to attract the attention of the
reader.
E: BISU(L (IDS
&eading matter is usually illustrated with different types of graphic aids.
7ictures, maps, graphs, drawings or diagrams are sometimes literally worth a
thousand words. They present a wealth of material at a single glance and often
without reading a single word.
#n each graphic portrayal information of some sort is being spread before the eyes
of the reader. The habit of the casting a glance at the visual aids in connection with
a cursory inspection of the text can give the reader much advance information on
the ideas and thought areas that lie within the text.
H: RECO+?ITIO? O, $U?CTU(TIO?
EGcl"%"tion )oints0 )eriods0 colons0 se%icolons0 d"shes0 co%%"s "nd br"cketsF
"ll the )unctu"tion %"rks re*ul"te the s)eed o re"din* "nd "n eicient re"der
is "l#"ys conscious o )unctu"tion "s "n "id #hile re"din* " )rinted )"*e4
<: SKI//I?+
)kimming is another useful habit < a tool to efficient reading. %n efficient reader
can use skimming as a means of shifting out that to which he needs to give only
cursory attention and that which he may wish to consider at greater length and with
more care.
+ontrary to the popular notion, skimming is not just glancing down the page...
#nstead, it is a well defined reading skill.
#t is a highly selective process of looking at a page so that the reader is able to
survey and inspect the topographical features.
% trained reader always skims to a slight degree by practically ignoring,
unimportant, linking words<words like the, a , for with to, on, it. etc.
But the other degrees of skimming<partial and complete are used if the material
lends itself to such skimming.
#n complete skimming the reader is concerned only with the main idea while in
partial skimming he picks up the significant relative details also.
KTo ski% %ilk0 you t"ke the cre"%0 the richest )"rt0 o the to) o the bottle 444To
ski% re"din* %"teri"l0 you eGtr"ct the i%)ort"nt )"rts4444the %"in
)oints444444#here you ind the% #hich is not necess"rily "t the to)4L
33
*ow to read better and faster +,-..:/012
3: SC(??I?+
)canning means finding facts uickly or looking very uickly over a piece of
reading matter to find the answer to a specific uestion.
)canning is used to find a name, a date, some statistical information or other facts.
'hile scanning an efficient reader lets his eyes run rapidly over several lines of
print at a time and keeps in his or her mind only the item he$she is looking for while
neglecting all other facts or details.
'hat is the use of scanning in your life(
6: E,,ICIE?T USE O, /E/ORY
!emory is not some gift of fortuneC rather a skill that can be developed, like
reading itself. )o, those people who feel that much of that they read flies away as
soon as their eyes leave the print, actually do not know the art of using memory.
&emembering is a discriminative process based upon an evaluation of what is most
worthwhile.
)o, instead of trying to digest and memori-e all the material a reader should develop
the habit of picking up important facts and key words to be remembered.
52: EYEFS$(?
To be a good reader one must develop the habit of controlling his or her eye
movement as well as broaden the eye span.
+ontrary to the common notion, that while reading eyes glide smoothly over each
line, they travel in little skips and jumps: a dart. a pause, a dart a pause as shown in
the following diagram:
>&ead 'ell and &emember by 'ebester, 3wen?
3=
These JpausesJ or JfixationsJ take up most of the time while reading, and as each
pause may last from one<fifth to one<and<a<half seconds.
#mprovement in reading speed is possible by spending less time on each fixation
and by lessening the number of pauses while reading line of print.
#n fact as children many of us learn to read word by word. By practice, however, the
eyes can scoop up a whole group of words at a time and then leap to the next group
of words, thus reading time is cut to a friction and fatigue is lessened. 5ollowing is
the diagram of an efficient reader/s eye movements:
55: (BOID(?CE O, RE+RESSIO?S
3ne of the commonest faults of all but the most capable readers is that of freuent
and conclusive, regressions.
7roblem of regressions is also related to the eye< movement. 'hile reading,
inefficient reader habitually skips back to the previously read words and phrases.

3wen 'ebester observes in &ead 'ell and &emember that to go back a few
paragraphs deliberately, to compare or to check something, which has been
misunderstood, is not a fault. 5ault lies in the uncontrolled, habitual, unconscious
backward movement of the eyes.
"ere is the difference between the eye movement of a normal reader and a poor
reader as under:
3A
51: (BOID(?CE O, ,I?+ER $OI?TI?+ (?D SU!FBOC(LIS(TIO?
7lanting finger firmly under the words in childhood later<on turns into a habit. The
reader feels that his finger serves as a pointer to guide his eyes to the printed page.
This bad habit can be cured by awareness and conscious effort.
%nother major reading problem is what is called Jsub<vocalisationJ< the tendency of
a reader to mouth words s$he is reading.
#t is a product of the way in which children are thought to read usually by the
phonetic method or the look<and<say method.
%ccording to Bu-an T. >,HG2:33? generally sub<vocalisation should be avoided,
however, it can be utili-ed sometimes to aid the memory to remember important
facts or words.
5A: REBIE&I?+
&eviewing or summing up the facts and thoughts at the end of reading a printed material
is another good habit that helps a reader in further reading.
#t also improves remembering what you have read.
"ow far do you find it relevant to your academic reading(
By the way # sum up for you the main points at the end of each session.
57: CRITIC(L RE(DI?+
3All the training in reading that schools and colleges offer and all the practice in
various reading sills have one basic purpose-to prepare the reader for critical
reading- the abilit" to read with anal"sis judgment3.
The %rt of 2fficient &eading, )pache9.0. and Burg7.+. >p ,2K?
% good reader has his eyes wide open for subtle nuances of meaning, for
implications that lurk behind the words, and for the author/s motive.
"e or she also tends to know what inference is suggested by the tone, choice of
words and style of the authorC and ultimately he or she judges the accuracy of the
writer/s conclusions.
0espite the ever< increasing flood of printed material, it is a fact that the mystery of
printed paper is solved properly and efficiently by a few only.
!ajority consists of non< readers. %nd, those who read to them most of the time
reading is boring, laborious and undesirable.
2fficient and topflight readers are not bornC they are made.
3E
%nd into making of a good reader goes not only a lot of persistence, sincerity and
willingness, but also the development of certain reading habits.
%n efficient reader develops certain habits and acuires particular skills$ sub<skills
which he or she uses to suit his or her needs, and which he or she is able to adapt
according to the nature and complexity of the printed material that is to be read.
#nterpretation of the idea of the author is dependant upon the acuisition of certain
sub<skills and the establishing of desirable habits on the part of the reader.
These sub<skills and good reading habits make reading more rewarding, meaningful
and enjoyable.
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
SKI//I?+
Re"din* in our livesJ
#n everyday life, we have to read many texts ranging from books, newspapers,
pamphlets, journals to e<mails.
)tudents have to read more in order to understand the syllabus.
'hether reading is done for academic or non<academic purposes, it reuires certain
skills to get desired information.
/ovin* urtherM
!any times it is impossible to read the whole text due to various reasons.
!ost of the times, of course, reason is shortage of time
'hat other reasons do you have very often(
%nyways, in such situations there are certain techniues that come to help. There
are certain reading skills that are employed by readers in order to get the desired
information from text.
These skills include:
Ski%%in* < running the eyes over uickly, to get the gist
Sc"nnin* < looking for a particular piece of information
EGtensive re"din* < longer texts for pleasure and needing global understanding
Intensive re"din* < shorter texts, extracting specific information, accurate reading
for detail.
3F
>http:$$www.learningtolearn.group.shef.ac.uk$read$readRdifkindRtask.html?
%s far as SKI//I?+ is concerned0 #e need to eG)lore
'hat is )kimming(
0o you belong to a village(
3r
0o you have some experience of rural life(
9enerally speaking skimming refers to removing the thickest layer of milk to cut
off its fats.
)kimming as a &eading )kill
#n academics, skimming is a reading >sub<?skill in which a reader uickly goes
through a text in order to get the gist and general idea or information.
So%e Deinitions o Ski%%in*
'hen we read uickly without pausing to study the details, it is called skim reading
or skimming. >;onar, 2KKH: p.,A=?
)kimming is reading the text uickly in order to assess its nature and content.
>;umar, 2KKH: p.,?
'hen we skim an article, we uickly look over it to identify the main ideas and
some of the details.
>&ief and "eimburge, 2KKF: p.F2?
'hile skimming, Lyou pick out only key words in every sentenceM.
>;ui, 2KKG: p.2KK?
)kimming is a pre<reading techniue and should be done very fastC if it takes more
than a few minutes you.re not skimming, you.re reading.
>9lasman<0eal, 2K,K: p.,3?
);#!!#69 is );#!!#69 is
% tool to efficient reading % tool to efficient reading
% means of shifting out that to which s$he needs to give only cursory attention % means of shifting out that to which s$he needs to give only cursory attention
and that which s$he may wish to consider at greater length and with more care. and that which s$he may wish to consider at greater length and with more care.
+ontrary to the popular notion, skimming is not just glancing down the page... +ontrary to the popular notion, skimming is not just glancing down the page...
#nstead, a highly selective process of looking at a page so that the reader is able #nstead, a highly selective process of looking at a page so that the reader is able
to survey and inspect the topographical features. to survey and inspect the topographical features.
3G
Ski%%in* in Everyd"y Lie
'hen we are looking at a newspaper, we are actually skimming. 'e do not read
every word<instead we skim it to get a general idea of what the main articles are
about. 'e might use the headlines, photographs, and captions to help us decide if
we want to delve further into a particular article or skip it and search further.
>&ief and "eimburge, 2KKF: p.F2?
C"n you think o " e# %ore inst"nces o the use o ski%%in* in your d"ily
lie'
+oncluding on the definition of skimming, # would say:
*our aim when you skim through a text is to ind out 9uickly #h"t it is "bout "nd
#here the v"rious )ieces o inor%"tion "re loc"ted so that you can read it faster and
more confidently. >9lasman<0eal, 2KKH, p.,3?
Dierence bet#een Ski%%in* "nd Sc"nnin*
)kimming differs from scanning >#n scanning you look for a particular information,
such as a name or a number?S here >in skimming? you are trying to get an
overview of what a book or article is about and its possible value to you. )kimming
is often useful when you have a specific task to carry out, such as finding additional
information for an assignment. *ou look at chapter or section headings, or some
paragraphs to uickly assess their relevance, or some figures and tables. %fter you
have skimmed a text, you should have a reasonably good idea if it is likely to be
helpful for your particular needs at that time.
>!urphy, Baker, )harman, 4ermeer and "all, 2KKE: p 3K?
De*rees o Ski%%in* De*rees o Ski%%in*
)light: By practically ignoring unimportant, linking words<words like the, a , for )light: By practically ignoring unimportant, linking words<words like the, a , for
with to, on, it. etc. with to, on, it. etc.
7artial: By picking up the significant relative details also. 7artial: By picking up the significant relative details also.
+omplete: By being concerned only with the main idea. +omplete: By being concerned only with the main idea.
Ty)es o ski%%in*
)kimming to overview<the purpose of this method is to get an outline of what the
material is about. *ou will be looking more at structure than content.
)kimming to preview<this is used when you know you are going to re<read the
material. *our purpose is to gather as much background information as you can on
the subject without too much time on it.
3H
)kimming to review<you would use this method when you have already read the
material and your purpose is to re<familiari-e yourself with the content.
>;onstant, 2KK3: p.3A?
$ur)ose o Ski%%in* $ur)ose o Ski%%in*
)imply to see what the text is about )imply to see what the text is about
9lancing through the text to find the gist 9lancing through the text to find the gist
To satisfy a general curiosity To satisfy a general curiosity
6ot to find answers to particular uestions 6ot to find answers to particular uestions
To summari-e longer texts To summari-e longer texts
Ski%%in* @el)s
)kimming helps to understand
3verall purpose
+entral idea
3rgani-ational pattern
!ain points
%uthor.s intention<to describe, narrate, report, explain, discuss etc
>http:$$www.authorstream.com$7resentation$a)9uestAFGKK<=AA2FE<skimming<and<scanning$?
!eneits o Ski%%in*
&esearches show that when we read faster, our comprehension increases. The
word<to<word reader generally fails to grasp the meaning of sentences or
paragraphs.
)kimming and scanning methods of reading save time.
>Bhardwaj, 2KKG: p.,HE?
Check your co%)rehension
:5; )kimming is helpful when one needs to know the RRRR sense or the RRRR ideas
of a text.
:1; )kimming is helpful when there are RRRR amounts of reading and RRRR time to
review it in detail.
:A; )kimming is helpful when you want to know whether you should read a book
RRRR or in RRRR detail.
:7; )kimming is helpful when one needs to check whether a text is RRRR to one.s
research.

=K
Check your co%)rehension: Solved
:5; )kimming is helpful when one needs to know the overall sense or the main ideas
of a text.
:1; )kimming is helpful when there are large amounts of reading and limited time
to review it in detail.
:A; )kimming is helpful when you want to know whether you should read a book at
all or in more detail.
:7; )kimming is helpful when one needs to know whether a text is relevant to one.s
research.

@o# to ski%'
To skim well, push your eyes along so that it takes in large blocks of words. #n
general, ignore everything but the nouns and verbs. )kimming is really no different
from speed reading, except that skimming is a searching<out operation. #ts three
components are:
>a? rapid readingC
>b? un<wandering attentionC and
>c? keeping in mind what you.re looking for
>;esselman<Turkel, 2KK3: p.=2<=3?
@o# to Ski%' @o# to Ski%'
2ye for paragraph is the key 2ye for paragraph is the key
5irst sentence 5irst sentence
%ll other statements @ustify %ll other statements @ustify
2xemplify 2xemplify
2xplain 2xplain
describe describe
#f not, last sentence #f not, last sentence
#f not, what to do( #f not, what to do(
#n a book, glance at the preface. That.s where the author usually states what the book is
about. 1ikewise, the afterword often recounts the author.s major ideas. 1ook up your
research subject in the index of the book. 5reuently you can tell from the number of
pages devoted to the subject whether or not the book is likely to be useful. 5or instance, if
you are looking in an 2nglish history book for information on @ack )heppard, the
eighteenth<century criminal, and see from its index that it contains only one page about
him, you probably should move on to another source. >'inkler and !etherell, 2K,K:
p.EK?
&ead the chapter headings. 3ften they reveal what each chapter is about.
)ubheadings also can tell you a lot about the major ideas in a book.
=,
&ead the first and last two sentences in a paragraph to find out what information it
contains. 9enerally the main idea of a paragraph is stated in its initial sentences and
summed up in its final sentences.
9lance at the opening paragraph of an article, essay, or book chapter. 3ften the
author.s thesis is stated in the first paragraph or two.
>'inkler and !etherell, 2K,K: p.E,?
Rec")ture: Techni9ues o Ski%%in*
&ead the title<it is the shortest possible summary of the content
&ead the introduction or lead<in paragraph
&ead the first paragraph completely
#f there are subheadings, read each one, looking for relationship among them
&ead the first sentence of each remaining paragraph
a? the main idea of most paragraphs appears in the first sentence
b? if the author.s pattern is to begin with a uestion or anecdote, you may find the last
sentence more valuable.
>http:$$www.aacc.edu$tutoring$file$skimming.pdf?
)ince you don/t know exactly what you are looking for while skimming, prepare
yourself by reading the title, source, author, and picture: then you uestion yourself,
<< w!o3 w!at3 w!en3 w!ere is this likely to be mainly about(
'ith a uestioning mind you direct your eyes down the column of print, or in a -ig<
-ag, if the lines are uite long.
1ook for exact names of people, places, things, ideas, numbers, and words like
t!erefore3 w!enever3 until3 because3 and instead, to clue you to how and why.

>http:$$www.academictips.org$acad$skimming.html?
( ,e# %ore Ti)s
0ip into the text looking for:
a. clue words that answer who, what, when, why, how
b. proper nouns
c. unusual words, especially if capitali-ed
d. enumerations
e. ualifying adjectives >best, worst, most, etc?
f. typographical cuesSitalics, boldface, underlining, asterisks, etc
>http:$$www.aacc.edu$tutoring$file$skimming.pdf?
=2
(dv"nt"*es o Ski%%in*
)kimming helps in several ways. 5or example, it helps you understand,
who the audience is, whether the text is written for professionals, laymen, a
particular target group, or the general publicC
what kind of text it is, whether it is a report, letter, article, or the likeC
the purpose of the author, whether it is to describe, inform, or entertainC and
the general context of the text
>;onar, 2KKH: p.,A=?
Dis"dv"nt"*es o Ski%%in*
)kimming a book, article or webpage only gives the reader a general idea of its contents.
6uances, vital details and caveats are easily missed. This can produce a confused or
misleading impression. )kimming works well when dealing with clear subjects that lend
themselves to a general overview, such as a chronological description of an event.
)kimming is far less effective in making sense of complex discussions or detailed
arguments.
>http:$$www.ehow.com$aboutREA33KH=Rreading<skillsR<scanning<vsR<skimming.html?
EG"%)le: 8ust c"st " *l"nce "t the )"r"*r")hM
'ho says women don.t admire their own sex( 3ne of our favourite past times was
to observe the beautiful girls in the dining hall. %part from their fair, flawless
complexions, many of these northern ladies have the height and built of 7aris
models. They possessed a keen fashion sense. #t was fascinating just watching their
winter accessories<matching shawls, gloves and boots. 3ne or two would wear the
beret in a lop sided fashion which reminded me of 5rench street artists.
>;ui, 2KKG: p.2KK?
2xample
"ere is the same paragraph again. The words highlighted in bold represent the main
idea of the text and therefore are important to be noticed while skimming.
'ho says women don.t "d%ire their o#n seG( 3ne of our favourite past times was
to observe the be"utiul *irls in the dining hall. %part from their fair, flawless
complexions, many of these northern ladies have the hei*ht "nd built o $"ris
%odels. They possessed a keen "shion sense. #t was fascinating just watching
their #inter "ccessories<matching shawls, gloves and boots. 3ne or two would
wear the beret in a lop sided fashion which reminded me of 5rench street artists.
>;ui, 2KKG: p.2KK?
%lso think about the topic sentence for this paragraph.
=3
Ski%%in* ?eeds $r"ctice
0eveloping skimming ability reuires practice. The more you practice, the better.
!aga-ine articles and chapters from supplementary textbooks are a good source of
material for additional skimming practice. )et a goal of GKK wpm even if repeated
practice on the same article is necessary. +heck a page or two of the book or maga-ine to
discover the approximate number of words per page. 0etermine the number of pages you
must cover each minute to achieve GKK wpm.
>http:$$www.palomar.edu$reading$r,,Khybrid$!oduleN2KA$modA.,skim.htm?
2? 'hy we sleep(
!ost scientists believe that we need sleep to give our bodies a rest as our
heartbeat slows down during sleep. +hildren needs more sleep as they grow
when they sleep.
3? 'hat are two steps of sleep(
0reamless sleep and dreaming sleep
(ctivity A
Ski% the teGt "nd "ns#er the 9uestions0 )ointin* out the true o)tion #ith T4
,: This teGt is "bout:
> ? library resources
> ? opening hours
> ? fines and other fees
> ? membership conditions
2: Inor%"tion is *iven "bout borro#in* CDs4
> ? false
> ? true
3: &hich c"te*ory o video isnDt listed'
> ? educational
> ? exercise
> ? film
> ? travel
=: ( tele)hone nu%ber is )rovided4
> ? true
> ? false
A: This teGt tells you #here to *et %ore inor%"tion "bout ho# %"ny ite%s you c"n
borro# ro% the libr"ry4
> ? *es, it gives you a phone number where you can get more information.
> ? *es, it says that this information is available online.
> ? *es, it tells you about the enuiry desk in the library.
> ? 6o, this information isn/t included.
E: &h"t ty)es o iction"l books "re listed'
> ? romantic, horror, science<fiction and adventure
> ? historical novels
> ? sporting adventures
==
> ? )panish fiction
F: /e%bers c"n "lso borro# CD Ro%s4
> ? true
> ? false
> ? The text doesn/t say.
G: &hich %onth is Dlibr"ry %onthD'
> ? 6ovember
> ? %ugust
> ? )eptember
> ? %pril
H: &h"t is the n"%e o the libr"ry'
> ? 5rimsborough Town 1ibrary
> ? 5rimsborough +ounty 1ibrary
> ? 5rimsborough 4illage 1ibrary
> ? 5ramborough 0istrict 1ibrary
,K: &h"t ty)e o teGt is this teGt'
> ? informative text
> ? descriptive text
> ? persuasive
> ? instructive
Solved (ctivity:
,: This teGt is "bout:
>T? library resources
> ? opening hours
> ? fines and other fees
> ? membership conditions
2: Inor%"tion is *iven "bout borro#in* CDs4
> ? false
>T? true
3: &hich c"te*ory o video isnDt listed'
> ? educational
> ? exercise
> ? film
>T? travel
=: ( tele)hone nu%ber is )rovided4
>T? true
> ? false
A: This teGt tells you #here to *et %ore inor%"tion "bout ho# %"ny ite%s you c"n
borro# ro% the libr"ry4
> ? *es, it gives you a phone number where you can get more information.
>T? *es, it says that this information is available online.
> ? *es, it tells you about the enuiry desk in the library.
> ? 6o, this information isn/t included.
E: &h"t ty)es o iction"l books "re listed'
=A
>T? romantic, horror, science<fiction and adventure
> ? historical novels
> ? sporting adventures
> ? )panish fiction
F: /e%bers c"n "lso borro# CD Ro%s4
> ? true
> ? false
>T? The text doesn/t say.
G: &hich %onth is Dlibr"ry %onthD'
> ? 6ovember
> ? %ugust
> ? )eptember
>T? %pril
H: &h"t is the n"%e o the libr"ry'
> ? 5rimsborough Town 1ibrary
>T? 5rimsborough +ounty 1ibrary
> ? 5rimsborough 4illage 1ibrary
> ? 5ramborough 0istrict 1ibrary
,K: &h"t ty)e o teGt is this teGt'
>T? informative text
> ? descriptive text
> ? persuasive
> ? instructive
SC(??I?+
&eading is a complex activity of recogni-ing words and decoding their meanings in
order to understand the main idea of a text.
The text may be in the form of a book, a newspaper, an article, a journal, a banner, a
pamphlet, fax, an e<mail etc.
&eading is an essential component throughout education. #t enables students to be
successful in all areas of the curricula.
>+ripe and 4etter, 2K,,: p.3?
To comprehend the art of reading, certain skills and strategies are developed that
make reading easier.
Sc"nnin* Sc"nnin*
#f skimming is to run our eye on the text to find the general idea, scanning is to look for #f skimming is to run our eye on the text to find the general idea, scanning is to look for
a specific piece of information a specific piece of information
'hat do we scan in our daily lives( 'hat do we scan in our daily lives(
=E
"ere are a few examplesI "ere are a few examplesI
0ictionary 0ictionary
0irectory 0irectory
Time table Time table
)chedule )chedule
% particular date in a book etc. % particular date in a book etc.
&h"t is Sc"nnin*'
)canning means reading to find specific information. *ou have a specific target and
you search the text uickly for the information you need.
)canning is a reading skill used to locate key or specific information uickly, e.g.
dates, numbers, examples T definitions.

>https:$$www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au$lsu$content$,Rstudyskills$studyRtuts$readingR11$s
can.html?
)canning involves moving your eyes uickly down the page seeking specific words
and phrases.
>http:$$www.ababasoft.com$widerReyeRspan$scan.htm?
( e# %ore deinitions o sc"nnin*
)canning is one of the reading skills you reuire to locate information uickly in the
index of a textbook.
>9lendinning and "olmstrUm, 2KK=: p.,G?
'hen scanning you don/t start from the beginning and read to the end. #nstead,
what you do is jump around in the text, trying to find the information you
need. *ou probably already scan the T4 guide, the phone book, or the dictionary,
but it is possible to improve your scanning skills. 2ffective scanning techniues can
be useful in any academic setting.
>http:$$www.angelfire.com$blues$writing$scanscim.html?
Sc"nnin* T"sks
Typical scanning tasks include searching a text for a particular uotation, someone.s
name, a particular date or number, or a particular wordC or searching a list for a
telephone number, someone.s name, or a particular word or phrase.
>6ation, 2KKH: p.FK?
8ust to Reresh: Dierence bet#een ski%%in* "nd sc"nnin*
#n skimming the reader goes through a text uickly, not noting every word but
trying to get the main idea of what the text is about. This is sometimes called
getting the gist of the text.
=F
)canning involves searching for a particular piece of information in a text, such as
looking for a particular name or a particular number.
>6ation, 2KKH: p.FK?
)kimming reuires a greater degree of reading and word recognition skills as it
involves a more thorough understanding of the text.
)canning to find a particular piece of information can be achieved successfully by
relatively poor readers.
>1ittlejohn and "icks ,HHG: p.,A2?
EG"%)le o the dierence o Ski%%in* "nd Sc"nnin*
'e skim through a report to have rough idea of what it says but we scan a page of
the telephone directory to find a particular name or number.
+an you think of one example to explain the difference in skimming and scanning(
(nother EG"%)le
'hen you read the weather forecast in a newspaper you may skim over all the
headings until you find the place you are looking for. *ou then scan the information
about that place looking for the information you need, such as Dheavy rain. or
Dcloudy..
>www.skillsactive.org.n-$assets$...$sheet,<activeRreading.pdf?
@o# to Sc"n' @o# to Sc"n'
'hen you read >for scanning? you have to be aware of the non<verbal signals of
a text. 0ifferent stylistic features such as italics or bold face, photographs,
figures, bars and graphs act as useful pointers to a text. >;onar, 2KKH: p.,A=?
'hen scanning, look for the author/s use of organi-ers such as numbers, letters, 'hen scanning, look for the author/s use of organi-ers such as numbers, letters,
steps, or the words, first, second, or next. steps, or the words, first, second, or next.
1ook for words that are in a different font si-e, style, or color. 1ook for words that are in a different font si-e, style, or color.
)ometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin. )ometimes the author will put key ideas in the margin.
/ore on the Techni9ues o Sc"nnin*
'hile scanning, the reader should have a mental picture of what he is looking for.
"e glances swiftly down the page and verifies the information carefully.

So%e /ore Sc"nnin* Ti)s
;now what you/re looking for. 0ecide on a few key words or phrasesPsearch
terms, if you will.
1ook for only one keyword at a time. #f you use multiple keywords, do multiple
scans.
=G
1et your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you
want.
'hen your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material
carefully.
>http:$$www.butte.edu$departments$cas$tipsheets$readingstrategies$skimmingRscanning.html?
% picture can also be taken as a hint while scanning a text.
&here do #e use sc"nnin*'
)canning is used often with technical, scientific or professional materials to locate
specific information.
)canning is a valuable skill for second language learners to develop because often
they do not reuire a detailed read of a text. There are many everyday uses for
scanning, relevant to a purpose, such as reading a schedule.
>http:$$fis.ucalgary.ca$Brian$E,,$readingtype.htmlVscanning?
&hen is Sc"nnin* useul'
)canning is useful when you want to find a date, a key word, a number or an amount. 5or
example, when you are doing research on screwdrivers, you glance through various
books and maga-ines and stop when you see anything about screwdrivers. *ou scan the
page by looking down the page for the word in which you are interested. *ou can also
look through the book or maga-ine for a picture of a screwdriver.
>7ilbeam and ;errp, 2KKG: p.,KE?
Sc"nnin* hel)s
*ou use this techniue when you are really in a hurry to find specific information from a
text, or when using a dictionary, reading through an index or content list, or browsing
through T4 schedules.
>"offmann, 5arrell, 1ilford, 2llis and +ant, 2KKF: p.3H3?
Ste)s or sc"nnin*
1ook for key words, or words that are repeated.
1ook for definitions.
1ook for highlighted words, eg words in bold or italic.
1ook for numbers, eg dates and statistics.
1ook for examples, including diagrams.
;eep in mind all times what it is you are searching for. #f you hold the image of the
word or idea clearly in mind, it is likely to appear more clearly than the surrounding
words.
%nticipate in what form the information is likely to appearSnumbers, proper
nouns, etc.
=H
%naly-e the organi-ation of the content before starting to scan.
a? #f material is familiar or fairly brief you may be able to scan the entire article in
a single search.
b? #f the material is lengthy or difficult, a preliminary skimming may be necessary
to determine which part of the article to scan.
1et your eyes run rapidly over several lines of print at a time.
'hen you find the sentence that has the information you seek, read the entire
sentence.
#n scanning, you must be willing to skip over large sections of text without reading
or understanding them.
)canning can be done at ,AKK or more words per minute.
>www.aacc.edu$tutoring$file$skimming.pd
f?
(dv"nt"*es o Sc"nnin*
)canning allows the reader to efficiently gather information, which may be
scattered throughout a long piece of writing.
#t encourages the reader to research in a purposeful way and avoid distractions.
%ccording to %nne %rundel +ommunity +ollege/s &eading and )tudy )kills 1ab,
scanning can be done at approximately ,,AKK words a minute, or even more
>http:$$www.ehow.com$aboutREA33KH=Rreading<skillsR<scanning<vsR<skimming.html?
Dis"dv"nt"*es o Sc"nnin*
)canning can be monotonous and the techniue is not suited for long periods of
study, as it is easy to lose concentration. %lthough scanning is a good way to
uickly gather facts, it is not always thorough and a key fact may be overlooked.
The context in which a fact appears may affect its meaning. 'ithout reading the
surrounding text, it is easy to misinterpret a fact/s true significance. .
>http:$$www.ehow.com$aboutREA33KH=Rreading<skillsR<scanning<vsR<skimming.html?
(ctivity
5irst read the following uestions and then use the T4 )chedule to find the answers.
,< *ou are thinking about traveling to the 8)% for a vacation. 'hich show should
you watch(
2< *our friend doesn/t have a T4, but would like to watch a film starring Tom
+ruise. 'hich film should you record on your video(
AK
3< 'hich sport can you watch that takes place outside(
=< *ou like modern art. 'hich documentary should you watch(
A < #s there a horror film on this evening(
C!C
H422 )4%4: 6ational 6ews < join @ack 7arsons for your daily news roundup.
H4A2: The Tiddles< 7eter joins !ary for a wild adventure in the park.
<422: 9olf &eview< 'atch highlights from today/s final round of the 9rand
!aster/s.
34A2: )hock from the 7ast< This entertaining film by %rthur )chmidt takes a poke at
the wild side of gambling.
524A2: 6ightly 6ews< % review of the day/s most important events.
55422: !3!%: %rt for 2veryone< % fascinating documentary that helps you enjoy
the difference between pointilism and video installations.
51:22: "ard 0ay/s 6ight< &eflections after a long, hard day.

,?!
H422 )4%4: #n<0epth 6ews < #n<depth coverage of the most important national and
international news stories.
<422: 6ature &evealed< #nteresting documentary taking a look at the microscopic
universe in your average speck of dust.
<4A2: 7ing < 7ong !asters< 1ive coverage from 7eking.
64A2: #t/s *our !oney< That/s right and this favorite game show could make or
break you depending on how you place your bets.
524A2: 9reen 7ark< )tephen ;ing/s latest monster madness.
24A2: 1ate 6ight 6ews< 9et the news you need to get a hard start on the upcoming
day.

(!?
H422 )4%4: Travel %broad < This week we travel to sunny +aliforniaI
H4A2: The 5lintstones< 5red and Barney are at it again.
<422: 7retty Boy< Tom +ruise, the prettiest boy of them all, in an action packed
thriller about #nternet espionage.
6422: Tracking the Beast< The little understood wildebeest filmed in its natural
surroundings with commentary by 0ick )ignit.
52422: 7ump Those 'eights< % guide to successfully using weights to develop your
physiue while getting fit.
A,
554A2: The Three #diots< % fun farce based on those three tenors who don/t know
when to call it uits.
5422: 6ational %nthem< +lose the day with this salute to our country.
>http:$$readingstrategies.wikidot.com$scanning?
(ns#ers
,? Travel %broad
2? 7retty Boy
3? 9olf &eview
=? !3!%: %rt for 2veryone
A? 9reen 7ark
%ctivity 2
Quickly find out the meanings of the words %bscission, %bsorbed, %bstruse and
%bysmal on the given dictionary pages on this and the next slide.
Time: 3K seconds
>2nglish To 2nglish and 8rdu 0ictionary, n.d: p.A,E?
To su% u): &hy do #e sc"n'
)canning allows you to locate uickly a single fact, date, name, or word in a text without
trying to read or understand the rest of the piece. >chatt.hdsb.ca$gaps$7rocessingpdfs$)kim)can.pdf?
RE(DI?+ CO/$RE@E?SIO?
Re"din* "nd the Re"der
&eading is a complex phenomenon that mainly involves a text and a reader.
There are specific meanings encoded into the text and the reader.s duty is to decode
such meanings successfully.
&eading is a process of constructing meaning in which the reader is an active
participant.
A2
!eaning doesn.t flow automatically from the text to the readerC rather, the text
contains clues that the reader uses to generate meaning.
>5eathers, 2KK= : p.2E?
Co%)rehension
(ccordin* to ?"tion"l Re"din* $"nel0 :1222;0 Kco%)rehension is " hi*hly
co%)leG co*nitive )rocess involvin* the intention"l inter"ction bet#een the
re"der "nd the teGt to cre"te %e"nin*N4
>+hard, 0. @., T )antoro, 1.2, 2KKG: p.,?
Co%)rehension doesnIt just h"))enO it re9uires eort4
>+hard, 0. @., T )antoro, 1.2, 2KKGp.,?
Re"din* Co%)rehension
&eading comprehension refers to the ability to understand information presented in
written form. 'hile this process usually entails understanding textbook
assignments, reading comprehension skills also may affect one/s interpretation of
directions on exams, labs, and homework assignments and completion of job
applications or uestionnaires.
>http:$$www.muskingum.edu$Wcal$database$general$reading.htmlVBackground?
'e define reading comprehension as the process of simultaneously extracting and
constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language.
>)now, 2KK2, p.,,?
Co%)rehension ent"ils three ele%ents:
The reader who is doing the comprehending
The te(t that is to be comprehended
The activit" in which comprehension is a part.
In other #ords: &h"t ,"ctors (ect Re"din*'
&eading always takes place within a context and is specific to the context that
surrounds the act of reading.
Three factors S the text, the reader, and the context of the reading situation S
influence reading.
Though each will be discussed separately, they are not, in fact, entirely separate.
&ather, they overlap and interact to affect the reading process.
>5eathers, 2KK=: p.23?
TeGt is broadly construed to include any printed text or electronic text.
#n considering "ctivity, we include the purposes, processes, and conseuences
associated with the act of reading.
A3
>http:$$www.rand.org$content$dam$rand$pubs$monographRreports$!&,=EA$!&,=EA.ch2.pdf?
&eading comprehension involves much more than readers. responses to text.
&eading comprehension is a multi<component, highly complex process that
involves many interactions between readers and what they bring to the text
>previous knowledge, strategy use? as well as variables related to the text itself
>interest in text, understanding of text types?.
>;lingner, 4aughn T Boardman, 2KKF p.G?
The vocabulary, sentence structure, and organi-ational patterns of reading materials
vary. Though fictional narratives differ from poems and info<texts, there are also
differences within the types. @ust as all stories are not alike, not all info<texts are the
same. % history text and a science text are as different as a history text and a story.
>5eathers, 2KK=: p.23?
The features of any given text have a large impact on comprehension. 'hile
reading, the reader constructs various representations of the text that are important
for comprehension. Those representations include the surface code >the exact
wording of the text?, the tet base >idea units representing the meaning of the text?,
and the mental models >the way in which information is processed for meaning? that
are embedded in the text.
>)now, 2KK2: p. p.xv?
T@E RE(DER
The reader also affects the reading process. % reader.s physical and emotional state
affects how she approaches reading experiences. #s she tired( "ungry( "appy(
)tressed( %ny one of these factors can S and will S make a difference in how
readers approach texts.
>5eathers, 2KK= : p.23<2=?
The reader doesn.t operate in isolation but interacts with the reading material and
the situation in which the reading occurs.
>5eathers, 2KK=: p.23<2=?
#n considering the re"der, we include all the capacities, abilities, knowledge, and
experiences that a person brings to the act of reading.
The reader brings to the act of reading his or her cognitive capabilities >attention,
memory, critical analytic ability, inferencing, visuali-ation?C motivation >a purpose
for reading, interest in the content, self<efficacy as a reader?C knowledge
>vocabulary and topic knowledge, linguistic and discourse knowledge, knowledge
of comprehension strategies?C and experiences.
>)now, 2KK2: p. xiii<xiv?
The ConteGt
A=
1ouise &osenblatt indicates that stories are typically read for enjoyment, to
experience a lived<through event, understand human characters and emotions, and
recogni-e and appreciate the author.s craft.
#nformational material, on the other hand, is usually read to garner important
information about a topic.
These different purposes S reading for information and reading for pleasure S
reuire different approaches to the act of reading. >5eathers, 2KK= : p.2A<2E?
Re"din* co%)rehension str"te*ies:
% reading compre!ension strategy is a cognitive or behavioral action that is enacted
under particular contextual conditions, with the goal of improving some aspect of
comprehension.
>!c6amara,2KKF: p.E?
&eading comprehension strategies are tools that proficient readers use to solve the
comprehension problems they encounter in texts.
>!oreillon, 2KKF: p.,K?

Pi%%er%"nn "nd @utchins :122A; identiy seven re"din* co%)rehension str"te*ies:
,.%ctivating or building background knowledge
2.8sing sensory images
3.Questioning
=.!aking predictions and inferences
A.0etermining main ideas
E.8sing fix<up options
F. )ynthesi-ing
>!oreillon, 2KKF: p.,,?
LET US T@I?K (!OUT E(C@ O?E O, T@ESE O?E !Y O?E
5F (ctiv"tin* !"ck*round Kno#led*e
"3' 032) 7&#3& ;63'12092 %552+T &2%0#69(
'hen we encounter new objects, we use everything we.ve learned from our
previous experiences to understand the new thing. 'e relate it to other similar<
looking objects that might be found in a similar location or used for a similar task.
The same is true of reading. 'e use our past experiences with texts, language, and
people to generate meaning from texts.
>5eathers, 2KK=: p.2G?
AA
+apitali-ing on what they know about the topic and integrating that with new
learning. >;lingner, 4aughn T Boardman, 2KKF p.3?
14 Usin* sensory i%"*es
)ensory images are images created in your head from a very detailed description of
something, often using more than one of the five senses >sight, smell, taste, touch,
and hearing?.
8sing mental images such as visuali-ation to assist them in remembering or
understanding events or characters
>;lingner, 4aughn T Boardman, 2KKF p.3?
%lso the sensory images can be what you imagine in your head as you read the
story you image what is happening in a piece of writing < the book or the poem or
the story. #t is the like a little screen inside your head.
A4 >uestionin*
Questioning is a very important reading comprehension.
74 /"kin* )redictions "nd inerences
!aking predictions about what will happen, checking them as they go along, and
revising and evaluating them as needed.
>;lingner, 4aughn T Boardman, 2KKF p.3?
E4 Deter%inin* %"in ide"s
0o you remember what we discussed about it(
H4 Usin* iGFu) o)tions
Try fix up options to comprehend.
<4 Synthesi=in*
)ynthesi-ing all the gathered information enables a reader to comprehend easily.
$ur)ose o Re"din* co%)rehension str"te*ies
&eading is one of the most important academic tasks faced by students. )trategies
designed to improve reading comprehension may have any number of purposes.
To enhance understanding of the content information presented in a text
To improve understanding of the organi-ation of information in a text
To improve attention and concentration while reading
To make reading a more active process
To increase personal involvement in the reading material
AE
To promote critical thinking and evaluation of reading material
To enhance registration and recall of text information in memory
>http:$$www.muskingum.edu$Wcal$database$general$reading.htmlVBackground?
(DB(?T(+ES O, Usin* RE(DI?+ CO/$RE@E?SIO? STR(TE+IES
#mproved reading comprehension skills can positively impact many facets of
student academic performance.
)tudents who have effectively read and understood reading assignments are better
prepared for class, leading to improved class participation and more accurate and
complete notes.
7erformance on exams and ui--es may be greatly improved as students become
more proficient and effective readers.
)tudent interest and motivation in a subject is often fostered when one understands
the reading assignments.
#n addition, as students gain proficiency in reading, self<esteem improves.
>http:$$www.muskingum.edu$Wcal$database$general$reading.htmlVBackground?
,"ilure o Re"din* co%)rehension
#f reading comprehension fails . . .
ignore that section of text and read on.
suspend judgment and look ahead for clarification.
form a tentative hypothesis and read on to see if you are correct.
reread the current sentence.
reread the previous context.
go to an expert source.
RE(DI?+ CO/$RE@E?SIO?
$(RT 1
Re"din* co%)rehension is defined as the level of understanding of a text$message.
"ow does this understanding come( OThis understanding comes from the
interaction between the words that are written and how they trigger knowledge
outside the text itself.
7roficient reading depends on the ability to recogni-e words uickly and
effortlessly.
AF
#f word recognition is slow or difficult, students use too much of their processing
capacity to read individual words which will reduce their ability to comprehend
what they read.
())ro"ch t"ken or re"din*444
The approach a reader takes is defined not by the nature of the text but by the
purpose for reading.
%ny text can be read in any way.
)tories can be read for information and informational material can be read for
pleasure.
)o in determining the purpose we predispose the reader to read a specific text in a
particular way.
>5eathers, 2KK= : p.2A<2E?
+ener"l )rinci)les or re"din*
The more extensive the vocabulary, the better the comprehension.
% reciprocal relationship exists between reading and writing. #ndividuals are born
with a mental grammar which, placed in context, allows the individual to place a
meaning upon that particular word or phrase in an appropriate context. +ontextual
practice will assist individuals in activating that mental placement, enhancing their
understanding of different materials.
The more active the mind while reading, the better the comprehension and the
retention of materialC for example, pre<reading activities help with comprehension
>http:$$www.lynchburg.edu$writing<center$reading<comprehension?
&@(T IS I?BOLBED I? RE(DI?+ CO/$RE@E?SIO?'
The principal thought behind reading comprehension lies in vocabulary. 4ocabulary
facilitates the reading and writing process in three ways:
Thinkin*Sa large vocabulary gives the reader$writer more control over ideas.
Underst"ndin*Sthe more words the reader $ writer is aware of, the less time he or
she will spend hesitating between words or sentencesC thus, the understanding will
be continuous rather than fragmented. %llowing the reader to maintain a constant
speed, vocabulary will not only enhance the reader/s comprehension, but will also
enable him $ her to read more uickly.
&ritin*Sincreasing vocabulary will result in long term benefits as the writer,
understanding the items read, will be able to compose papers or essays based on
understanding rather than guesswork.
>http:$$www.lynchburg.edu$writing<center$reading<comprehension?
AG
Co%)rehension T"ctics Co%)rehension T"ctics
54 LOC(TE T@E KEY SE?TE?CE TO (?TICI$(TE &@(T T@E $(SS(+E 54 LOC(TE T@E KEY SE?TE?CE TO (?TICI$(TE &@(T T@E $(SS(+E
&ILL !E (!OUT &ILL !E (!OUT
8sually the opening or closing sentence of a paragraph is a key sentence. 0o not 8sually the opening or closing sentence of a paragraph is a key sentence. 0o not
worry about the position of the key$topic sentenceC look for the most important worry about the position of the key$topic sentenceC look for the most important
statement or idea . #t can serve as guidepost for you , pointing out the author.s main statement or idea . #t can serve as guidepost for you , pointing out the author.s main
idea . idea .
14 ,IRST RE(D T@E $(SS(+E T@E? RE(D T@E >UESTIO?S
)ome of the students think that if they will read the uestions before reading the
passage , it will save their time.
6inety<nine times out of a hundred they are wrong.
)o, first concentrate on comprehending the passage as a whole.
0o not read very rapidly because this way you will begin to take short cuts and miss
the correct answer in your haste.
A4 A4 &@E? (SKED TO /(KE I?,ERE?CES 0 !(SE YOUR (?S&ER O? &@(T &@E? (SKED TO /(KE I?,ERE?CES 0 !(SE YOUR (?S&ER O? &@(T
T@E $(SS(+E I/$LIES0 ?OT &@(T IT ST(TES DIRECTLY T@E $(SS(+E I/$LIES0 ?OT &@(T IT ST(TES DIRECTLY
)ometimes the author does not convey his message or give the information directly. )ometimes the author does not convey his message or give the information directly.
#n such a situation you will have to go beyond the obvious > the hidden meaning ? #n such a situation you will have to go beyond the obvious > the hidden meaning ?
and infer the meaning >the hidden meaning?. and infer the meaning >the hidden meaning?.
To find out this meaning and to reach your own judgment you should look for clues To find out this meaning and to reach your own judgment you should look for clues
in the passage . in the passage .
74 DETER/I?E T@E (RE( O, T@E (?S&ER
To find the answer of a uestion , it is very important to locate the place of the
answer.
This place might be particular $ exact or random $ scattered.
#n first case, you should take out the important or key words of the uestion and run
your eye down the passage uickly to find out those key words or their synonyms in
the passage.
#n the second case, you should develop a logical relationship in different ideas and
opinions expressed in the passage before determining the correct answer.
E4 &@E? (SKED TO C@OOSE ( TITLE0 (BOID T@E C@OICES T@(T (RE
TOO S$ECI,IC OR TOO R(?DO/
#n a passage all the sentences revolve around one central theme . % proper title for a
paragraph , therefore , should include this basic theme . #t is not essential that to
AH
make a title you should use the vocabulary given in the passage itself . % good title
is one which
R includes all the essentials of the given passage
R is neither too specific nor too broad
R is comprehensive and not very long
H4 &@E? (SKED (!OUT (? (TTITUDE0 /OOD OR TO?E0 LOOK ,OR
&ORDS T@(T CO?BEY E/OTIO?0 E.$RESS B(LUES OR $(I?T
E/OTIO?S
#f you are asked a uestion about the mood or the tone of the author you should take
a close look at the specific language used.
5or example if the author is using adjectives to describe a subject , you should look
whether the author has used positive connotations R i<e: happy, uiet , good
tempered etc R or negative connotations Ri<e: selfish , irritable , careless etc.
"aving noticed such words you will be in a better position to determine the mood of
the author Rfrustrated , cheerful , sad , critical , gloomy , angry etc .
F. RE/E/!ER 4 4 4 $ICKI?+ U$ O?E O$TIO? /E(?S DRO$$I?+ T@E
OT@ERS
The options that a uestion offers you might be very distracting, pu--ling,
misleading or confusingC but the secret of your success lies in finding the reasons
for picking or dropping any of them.
*our casual eye or hastiness in picking up one option without analy-ing the others
can earn you a discredit.
;inds 3f +omprehension ;inds 3f +omprehension
2xtract comprehension 2xtract comprehension
7assage comprehension 7assage comprehension
)entence comprehension )entence comprehension
'ord comprehension 'ord comprehension
$R(CTICE O?E 4 4 4 4 $(SS(+E CO/$RE@E?SIO? $R(CTICE O?E 4 4 4 4 $(SS(+E CO/$RE@E?SIO?
$ac! passage below is followed by a set of 4uestions5 you are to mark t!e correct $ac! passage below is followed by a set of 4uestions5 you are to mark t!e correct
answer from t!e c!oices given wit! eac! 4uestion . answer from t!e c!oices given wit! eac! 4uestion .
$(SS(+E 5 $(SS(+E 5
3ne major cause of slow reading is that sometimes you don.t focus. *our eyes keep 3ne major cause of slow reading is that sometimes you don.t focus. *our eyes keep
moving down the page , but your mind is out to lunch . Then bangI you wake up moving down the page , but your mind is out to lunch . Then bangI you wake up
from your day dream and say L"ayI 'hat was # reading( M %nd your eyes jump from your day dream and say L"ayI 'hat was # reading( M %nd your eyes jump
back to an earlier spot on the page and you wind up, rereading the whole thing. back to an earlier spot on the page and you wind up, rereading the whole thing.
3bviously, regressing Rgoing back and rereading the words or whole passages 3bviously, regressing Rgoing back and rereading the words or whole passages
EK
you.ve supposedly read, slows you down. &egressing, is a habit, but like any other you.ve supposedly read, slows you down. &egressing, is a habit, but like any other
habit you can break it. habit you can break it.
5 4 &h"t does this )"ss"*e %"inly discuss' 5 4 &h"t does this )"ss"*e %"inly discuss'
>%? >%? &ainfall &ainfall >B? )nowfall >B? )nowfall
>+? 6ew *ork )tate >0? +omputation of 7recipitation >+? 6ew *ork )tate >0? +omputation of 7recipitation
1 4 &hich o the ollo#in* is "nother #ord th"t is used in )l"ce o R"in"ll 1 4 &hich o the ollo#in* is "nother #ord th"t is used in )l"ce o R"in"ll ' '
>%? "umidity >B? 'etness >%? "umidity >B? 'etness
>+? >+? 7recipitation 7recipitation >0? Quantity of water >0? Quantity of water
A 4 The ter% $reci)it"tion includes A 4 The ter% $reci)it"tion includes
>%? only rain fall >B? rain , hail , and humidity >%? only rain fall >B? rain , hail , and humidity
>+? >+? rain , snow and hail rain , snow and hail >0? rain , hail ,and humidity >0? rain , hail ,and humidity
7 4 &h"t is the "ver"*e "nnu"l r"in"ll in inches in the United St"tes ' 7 4 &h"t is the "ver"*e "nnu"l r"in"ll in inches in the United St"tes '
>% >%? thirty<six inches ? thirty<six inches >B? thirty<eight inches >B? thirty<eight inches
>+?forty inches >0? forty<two inches >+?forty inches >0? forty<two inches
E 4 I " st"te h"s orty inches o sno# in " ye"r 0 by ho# %uch does this incre"se the E 4 I " st"te h"s orty inches o sno# in " ye"r 0 by ho# %uch does this incre"se the
"nnu"l )reci)it"tion ' "nnu"l )reci)it"tion '
>%? by two feet >B? >%? by two feet >B? by four inches by four inches
>+? by four feet >0? by forty inches >+? by four feet >0? by forty inches
H 4 &hich "ctors "ect the "%ount o )reci)it"tion ' H 4 &hich "ctors "ect the "%ount o )reci)it"tion '
>%? >%? altitude, location, proximity to the sea altitude, location, proximity to the sea >B? location, rainfall, proximity to the sea, >B? location, rainfall, proximity to the sea,
altitude altitude
>+? altitude, winds, proximity to the sea >0? location ,proximity to the sea >+? altitude, winds, proximity to the sea >0? location ,proximity to the sea
,winds ,height ,winds ,height
$R(CTICE T&OJE.TR(CT CO/$RE@E?SIO? $R(CTICE T&OJE.TR(CT CO/$RE@E?SIO?
St"rtin* in 56EE0 "ll #orkers h"d to #e"r steel hel%ets i they #ere e%)loyed in the St"rtin* in 56EE0 "ll #orkers h"d to #e"r steel hel%ets i they #ere e%)loyed in the
construction industry 4 construction industry 4
&hich o the ollo#in* c"n the st"te%ent )ro)erly inerred ro% the "bove' &hich o the ollo#in* c"n the st"te%ent )ro)erly inerred ro% the "bove'
>%? >%? 6o workers had to wear steel helmets before ,HAA, but all workers had to wear 6o workers had to wear steel helmets before ,HAA, but all workers had to wear
them after ,HAA. them after ,HAA.
>B? >B? +onstruction industry workers were the first to be reuired to wear steel +onstruction industry workers were the first to be reuired to wear steel
helmets. helmets.
>+? >+? +onstruction industry workers had to wear steel helmets prior to ,HAA. +onstruction industry workers had to wear steel helmets prior to ,HAA.
>0? >0? )ome workers may have worn steel helmets before ,HAA, but all construction )ome workers may have worn steel helmets before ,HAA, but all construction
workers were reuired to wear them beginning in ,HAA. workers were reuired to wear them beginning in ,HAA.
>2? >2? 'orkers may have worn some type of helmet before ,HAA, but later all had to 'orkers may have worn some type of helmet before ,HAA, but later all had to
wear steel<type helmets. wear steel<type helmets.
%nother 2xtract
!y "r the chie eG)ort in the 5Eth century #"s teGtiles4 (%on* these #oolens
)redo%in"ted0 linens #ere "r less i%)ort"nt "nd silks )l"yed "n insi*niic"nt )"rt4
Outside this *rou)0 the only i%)ort"nt ite%0 in the irst h"l o the century #"s corn0
thou*h the eG)orts o ish0 le"d "nd tin #ere by no %e"ns ne*li*ible4
E,
6ow ThinkI
+iven the "bove inor%"tion #hich o the ollo#in* st"te%ents best tells the
inor%"tion *iven in the )"r"*r")h:
>%? +orn was nearly as important an export as linen.
>B? +orn, though not as important an export as textiles, was still an
important component of the export trade.
>+? )ilk was a valuable export in the ,Ath century.
>0? 5ishing was a bigger industry than wool production in the
,Ath century.
>2? 6on textile items were one of the chief elements in the list of
products exported in the ,Ath century.
P'67 8 9 P'67 8 9
$ac! sentence below is followed by four c!oices 5 you are to $N:"6:($ t!e option t!at $ac! sentence below is followed by four c!oices 5 you are to $N:"6:($ t!e option t!at
best replaces t!e original tet . best replaces t!e original tet .
5 4 Lo# blood su*"r is no %ore " disorder o unkno#n ori*in4 5 4 Lo# blood su*"r is no %ore " disorder o unkno#n ori*in4
>%? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder C its causes are not known. >%? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder C its causes are not known.
>B? >B? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder C its causes are no more hidden 1ow blood sugar is a disorder C its causes are no more hidden
>+? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder that has its own causes >+? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder that has its own causes
>0? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder and its causes are known. >0? 1ow blood sugar is a disorder and its causes are known.
1 4 This h"bit %"kes you susce)tible to dise"se 1 4 This h"bit %"kes you susce)tible to dise"se
>%? 3nly because of this habit you will catch the disease. >%? 3nly because of this habit you will catch the disease.
>B >B? you are likely to catch disease because of this habit. ? you are likely to catch disease because of this habit.
>+? *ou will catch this disease because of the habit. >+? *ou will catch this disease because of the habit.
>0? *ou can save yourself if you give up this habit. >0? *ou can save yourself if you give up this habit.
A 4 I9b"lIs )oetry #ill "l#"ys be "d%ired4 A 4 I9b"lIs )oetry #ill "l#"ys be "d%ired4
>%? #bal.s poetry will always be read. >%? #bal.s poetry will always be read.
>B? #bal.s poetry will always be recited >B? #bal.s poetry will always be recited
>+? >+? #bal.s poetry will always be venerated. #bal.s poetry will always be venerated.
>0? #bal.s poetry will always be repeated. >0? #bal.s poetry will always be repeated.
EGercise: TRY IT ?O& EGercise: TRY IT ?O&
$(SS(+E 5 : $(SS(+E 5 : The effect of science upon our view of man.s place in the universe has The effect of science upon our view of man.s place in the universe has
been of two divergent kinds C it has at once besmirched and exalted him .The latter effect been of two divergent kinds C it has at once besmirched and exalted him .The latter effect
is generally assumed as outweighing the former. This assumption can be justified through is generally assumed as outweighing the former. This assumption can be justified through
varied kinds of favorable effects that science has earned . There are direct intellectual varied kinds of favorable effects that science has earned . There are direct intellectual
effects RRR the dispelling of many traditional beliefs , and the adoption of others effects RRR the dispelling of many traditional beliefs , and the adoption of others
suggested by the success of scientific method . Then there are technical effectsRRR the suggested by the success of scientific method . Then there are technical effectsRRR the
advancement in industry and war. )till then , there are profound effects on human health advancement in industry and war. )till then , there are profound effects on human health
E2
RRR remarkable decrease in death rate owe its existence to wonderful medicines. Though RRR remarkable decrease in death rate owe its existence to wonderful medicines. Though
the future effects of science are yet a matter of conjecture C the study of its effects hitherto the future effects of science are yet a matter of conjecture C the study of its effects hitherto
may make the conjecture complimentary may make the conjecture complimentary
54 @o# h"s science "ected %"n' 54 @o# h"s science "ected %"n'
>%? #t has degraded and deprived man at the same time. >%? #t has degraded and deprived man at the same time.
>B?#t has at once dishonored and tainted man. >B?#t has at once dishonored and tainted man.
>+?#t has debased and dignified man at the same time. >+?#t has debased and dignified man at the same time.
>0?#t has at once high<ranked and glorified man. >0?#t has at once high<ranked and glorified man.
14 The n"ture o the direct intellectu"l eects o science on %"n i%)ly 14 The n"ture o the direct intellectu"l eects o science on %"n i%)ly
:(; :(; the dismissing of many traditional beliefs. the dismissing of many traditional beliefs.
>B? the embracing of many traditional beliefs. >B? the embracing of many traditional beliefs.
>+? the approval of many traditional beliefs. >+? the approval of many traditional beliefs.
>0? the implementation of many traditional beliefs. >0? the implementation of many traditional beliefs.
A4 The #riterIs %ode o "))ro"ch is A4 The #riterIs %ode o "))ro"ch is
>%? emotional >+? expository >%? emotional >+? expository
>B? descriptive >0? logical >B? descriptive >0? logical
74 &hich o the ollo#in* is true "ccordin* to the )"ss"*e4 74 &hich o the ollo#in* is true "ccordin* to the )"ss"*e4
>%? The future effect of science is yet a matter of supposition. >%? The future effect of science is yet a matter of supposition.
>B? The future effect of science is yet a matter of suggestion. >B? The future effect of science is yet a matter of suggestion.
>+? The future effect of science is yet a matter of analysis. >+? The future effect of science is yet a matter of analysis.
>0? The future effect of science is yet a matter of reasoning. >0? The future effect of science is yet a matter of reasoning.
E4 The )hr"se Q the study o its eects hithertoI %e"ns E4 The )hr"se Q the study o its eects hithertoI %e"ns
>%? the study of its effects in future >%? the study of its effects in future
>B? the study of its effects described here >B? the study of its effects described here
>+? the study of its effects up till now >+? the study of its effects up till now
>0? the study of its effects hereby >0? the study of its effects hereby
H4 The %ost "))ro)ri"te title o the )"ss"*e is H4 The %ost "))ro)ri"te title o the )"ss"*e is
>%? The advantages and disadvantages of science >%? The advantages and disadvantages of science
>B? The impact of science on man >B? The impact of science on man
>+? %chievements of science >+? %chievements of science
>0? )cience RR a great boon for man >0? )cience RR a great boon for man
The skills "nd str"te*ies th"t *ood re"ders use:
&apid and accurate word reading
)etting goals for reading
6oting the structure and organi-ation of text
!onitoring their understanding while reading
+reating mental notes and summaries
>;lingner, 4aughn T Boardman, 2KKF p.3?
&irections: 6ead t!e passage. 7!en answer t!e 4uestions below.
!arcia says that all of her friends have a cell phone, but !arcia.s mom doesn/t want to
buy her one. !arcia/s mom doesn/t want !arcia to play video games either. 'hat is
E3
more, the #nternet scares her. !arcia/s mom says, L#f !arcia has a cell phone, how do we
know whom she is talking to( 4ideo games are bad for you. The #nternet is dangerous
and uncontrolled. #t.s like having a gun in the house. 'e should just ban her from using
the computer, and #/m not buying her a cell phone until she is eighteen. This is the only
way we can be sure that !arcia is safe.J
!arcia.s dad disagrees with !arcia/s mom. %lthough he agrees that there are some
dangers to it, he likes the #nternet, and finds it to be very useful. LThe trouble is,M he says,
L'e just can.t stop !arcia from using the #nternet, as this would put her at a
disadvantage. 'hat is more, # like video games. # think that, when played in moderation,
they are fun. 3bviously, it is not good to play them without restraint or self<control.
5inally, # think !arcia needs a cell phone. 'e can.t take these things away.M
>uestions
5; 'hich of the following best describes the difference between !arcia/s mom and
!arcia/s dad(
%. !om wants to ban !arcia from using the computer, while dad likes to play video
games.
B. !om thinks technology is dangerous, while dad thinks it can be useful.
+. !om cares little about !arcia/s future, while dad is very supportive.
0. !om is very strict while 0ad is open minded.
(ns#ers "nd EG)l"n"tions
,? !
#n paragraph ,, !arcia/s mom says, JThe #nternet is dangerous and uncontrolled,J and
J4ideo games are bad for you.J This lets us know that mom thinks cell phones and the
#nternet are dangerous and that video games are bad for you. #n paragraph 2 we learn that
although he agrees with mom that there are some dangers involved with using the
internet, he Jlikes the #nternet, and finds it to be very useful.J !oreover, dad thinks 0ad
continues to say, J# like video games.J %t the end of paragraph 2 dad says, J# think
!arcia needs a cell phone.J This let us know that dad thinks the #nternet is useful, video
games are fun >when played in moderation?, and that !arcia needs a cell phone. +ell
phones, video games and the #nternet are all examples of technology. !om thinks these
things are dangerous and 0ad thinks these things are useful. Therefore :!; is correct.
!om does want to ban !arcia from the computer and 0ad does like playing video
games. "owever, :(; is not the best choice because these are not the only differences
between !arcia.s !om and 0ad. #n addition, !om doesn.t want !arcia using certain
technologies because she is worried that they are dangerous or bad for !arcia. !arcia.s
dad thinks that !arcia should use the technology because it is useful and fun. This means
that both parents want the best for !arcia. )ince both parents support !arcia and care
about her future, :C; is incorrect. 5inally, just because !om is concerned about the use of
certain technologies doesn.t mean that she is strict in general. @ust because 0ad is pro<
technology does not mean that he is open minded about everything. )ince choice :D;
makes generali-ations not supported by the passage, it is incorrect.
E=
1; 'hich of the following best describes the similarity between !arcia/s mom and
!arcia/s dad(
%. !om and dad both like technology.
B. !om and dad both think video games are bad.
+. !om and dad both think the internet is dangerous.
0. !om and dad both care about !arcia/s wellbeing.
2? D
#n paragraph ,, !arcia/s mom describes why she thinks technology is bad. )he says that
the internet, cell phones, and video games are dangerous. %t the end of the paragraph she
says, JThis is the only way we can be sure that !arcia is safe.J This lets us know that the
reason why she dislikes technology is because it will put !arcia/s safety at risk. This lets
us know that !arcia/s mom cares about !arcia/s wellbeing. #n paragraph 2, we learn
about why !arcia/s dad thinks technology is good for !arcia. %ccording to him,
technology is Jvery useful.J !oreover, he does not want to take technology away from
!arcia, as this will Jput her at a disadvantage.J This lets us know that !arcia/s dad also
cares about !arcia/s wellbeing. Therefore :D; is correct. The passage does not provide
information to support choices :(;, :!;, and :C;. Therefore they are incorrect.
A; #n paragraph ,, !arcia/s mom says, J#t/s like having a gun in the house.J )he says this
in order to
%. support the idea that the #nternet is dangerous
B. reject the claim that guns can be safe if used responsibly
+. encourage !arcia/s dad to purchase a gun
0. explain why the #nternet is uncontrolled
7; #n paragraph 2, !arcia/s dad says, J'e just can.t stop !arcia from using the #nternet,
as this would put her at a disadvantage.J 'hat does !arcia/s dad mean by this(
%. !arcia needs to learn how to use the internet if she wants to have friends in the future.
B. !arcia should not stop using the internet because this will seriously slow her learning.
+. #f a person/s ability to use the internet becomes important in the future, !arcia will be
at a loss.
0. #f !arcia does not learn to use the internet on her own, then she will never learn to
recogni-e its dangers.
=? C
dis"dv"nt"*e +noun2: an unfavorable or poor condition.
#n paragraph 2, we learn about why !arcia/s dad thinks technology is good for !arcia.
%ccording to him, technology is Jvery useful.J !oreover, he does not want to take
technology away from !arcia, as this will Jput her at a disadvantage.J This lets us know
that !arcia/s dad also cares about !arcia/s wellbeing. )o, it makes sense to think that if
!arcia does not learn to use the internet, and the internet becomes important in the
EA
future, !arcia will be at a loss. +hoice :C; is correct. The passage does not provide
information to support choices :(;, :!;, and :D;. Therefore they are incorrect.
E; #n paragraph 2, !arcia/s dad says, J5inally, # think !arcia needs a cell phone.J 9iven
what you know about !arcia.s mom.s concerns, what is the best reason !arcia/s dad can
provide to convince !arcia/s mom that !arcia needs a cell phone(
%. !arcia can use her cell phone to talk to her friends, instead of needing to borrow
one of ours.
B. "aving a cell phone will teach !arcia how to use new technology.
+. Because all of her friends have one, it would be unfair to disallow !arcia to
have a cell phone.
0. #f !arcia/s is in trouble she can use her cell phone to call for help.
H; 'hich of the following describes a level of game play that !arcia/ dad would
disapprove of(
%. 3n )aturday, !arcia plays video games all evening. The next day, she wakes up early
and goes for a walk through the woods near her house. 'hen her friend calls !arcia,
they talk about the what they are going to wear to school on !onday.
B. !arcia plays video games for an hour or two. Then she eats lunch and meets her
friends at the skating rink. That night, !arcia and her friends go to see a movie.
+. !arcia plays video games all morning. 'hen her friends ask her to come play outside,
!arcia tells them that she is too busy and continues to play.
0. !arcia plays video games for an hour every day for five days straight. 0uring these
days, she does not watch any T4.
<; !arcia/s mom can best be described as
%. ridiculous
B. careful
+. cruel
0. rude
3; !arcia/s dad can best be described as
%. shameless
B. foolish
+. wild
0. reasonable
6; 'hich of the following would be the best way for !arcia to change the way her mom
thinks about technology(
%. &ead her a newspaper article that talks about the importance of technology.
B. 7rovide her an instruction manual detailing how the latest cell phone functions.
+. Take her to the library and show her the top five most popular internet websites.
0. )pend the weekend playing video games with her.
H? (
EE
#n paragraph ,, we learn that !arcia/s mom does not like the internet and other forms of
technology because she thinks they are Jdangerous and uncontrolled.J #n order to change
the way she thinks about technology, it makes sense to read her a newspaper article that
talks about the importance of technology. This is a good idea because it involves a form
of communication that is not technological. %lso, a newspaper article is typically viewed
as a reputable source. !arcia/s mom will be most likely to consider the opinion of a
newspaper article author. Therefore :(; is correct. :!; is incorrect because an instruction
manual will not provide arguments in favor of the idea that a child should be able to use
technology. %lthough it may be a good idea to take !arcia/s mom to the library to show
her the internet, it is not a good idea to show her the top five most popular websites. The
most popular websites may not demonstrate the true value to be gained by using the
internet. This means :C; is incorrect. %lthough it may be a good idea for !arcia to play a
video game with her mom to show her what they are like, it is not a good idea to play
them all weekend with her. This would be bad because you should not play video games
for such a long time. !arcia/s mom would not like this. 2ven !arcia/s dad, who is in
favor of using technology, would consider this level of game play to be excessive, or
immoderate. +hoice :D; is incorrect.
Re"din* Co%)rehension Ti)s
&ead early in the day: This will allow you to concentrate and retain more
information than studying later at night when you may be tired. 'hen tired, your
concentration and comprehension will decrease.
&ead for short bursts: Try to read for 3A to =K minutes at a time and then take a
short break. #f you have this as your reading goal it can serve as a motivator in
trying to really focus on the material at hand. Try to make these LburstsM uality
reading time.
5ind a uiet location: There should not be too many distractions as they are not
conducive for uality reading.
+heck and monitor your comprehension by asking yourself every once in a while,
L'hat have # learned so far(M #f you do not have clear cut answer to this uestion,
re<read the material.
Try skimming the chapter first. Take a look at the title page, preface, subtitles, the
introduction and the chapter summary before reading the entire chapter. 'hat #
mean is use skimming for preview.
BOC(!UL(RY !UILDI?+
0r. )arwet &asul
This Session is "bout:
Boc"bul"ry !uildin*
&h"t is voc"bul"ry
EF
&h"t is voc"bul"ry buildin*'
Boc"bul"ry buildin* "nd our lin*uistic conteGt
I%)ort"nce o Boc"bul"ry !uildin*
Te"chin* Le"rnin* Boc"bul"ry: $l"ce in Curriculu%
@o# to build voc"bul"ry'
Use o $reiGes in voc"bul"ry buildin*
Use o suiGes in voc"bul"ry buildin*
&h"t is voc"bul"ry'
Broadly defined, vocabulary is knowledge of words and word meanings.
>http:$$www.prel.org$products$reR$2)K=,H.htm?
4ocabulary is Lall the words known and used by a particular personM.
>http:$$dictionary.cambridge.org$dictionary$british$vocabulary(Xvocabulary?
4ocabulary is about words P where they come from, how they change, how they
relate to each other and how we use them to view the world.
>Beauer,,HHG: p.4###?
4ocabulary is the foundation of language, our most effective communication tool.
>!c0ermott, 2KKE: p.=?
&ords
'ords, like facts, are difficult to remember out of context. &emembering is greatly
facilitated when you have a body of information with which to associate either a
word or a fact. 5or words, interesting origins or histories will help provide a
context. 5or example, a hippopotamus is a Jriver horse,J from the 9reek hippos,
meaning Jhorse,J and potamos, meaning JriverM.
2tymology is the study of the origins of words. The 2nglish language is living and
growing. %lthough many of its words have been part of 2nglish language for many
years, new words are added all the time.
>http:$$academic.cuesta.edu$acasupp$as$AK2.htm?
Our Lin*uistic ConteGt
'hat about 8rdu(
"ow do you see the addition of words in it(
'hat about the mixing of 2nglish(
Boc"bul"ry buildin* %e"ns incre"sin* the voc"bul"ry4
EG
4ocabulary development refers to the knowledge of stored information about the
meanings and pronunciations of words necessary for communication.
>www.broward.k,2.fl.us$esol$2ng$...$705$...$,2N2K4ocabulary.pdf?
;nowledge of word parts can play a role in increasing our vocabularies. 'ord parts
include prefixes, suffixes, and root words.
>)mith, 2K,2: p.,?

I%)ort"nce o Boc"bul"ry !uildin*
&oughly HKN of the time, self<expression is done through words. *ou can/t express what
you want to if you don/t know the words to say. !any people find themselves stumped
when it comes to written and spoken communication because they have trouble
organi-ing their thoughts and because the right words tend to elude them.
6o matter who you are < a student trying to finish a term paper or a professional
completing a written project, or anyone else relying on the power of words to send a
message < you need an expressive and comprehensive vocabulary in order to interact well
and to do a good job in your daily tasks.
!ost of your vocabulary development takes place through reading, specially when it
comes to a second language or a foreign language
!uild Boc"bul"ry to Underst"nd Thin*s !etter
1anguage is the key to learning. % child who has limited vocabulary tends to have lots of
uestions. There is no way of understanding the real meaning or essence of a sentence if
we don/t know the exact meaning of the words used in it. 2ven mathematical problems
become easier to understand if you have a good vocabulary. *ou can easily translate the
problem at hand and find solutions to it if you know the meaning of the words used.
7eople who have a good grasp of vocabulary are often more intelligent. They are the ones
who easily grasp knowledge.
!uild Boc"bul"ry To Inter"ct &ith $eo)le !etter
Brush up your speaking and vocabulary skills if you want to interact with people better.
%ccording to studies, people prefer interacting with well<spoken and well<read people
because they know more and they have a lot of interesting things to talk about.
!uild Boc"bul"ry To Incre"se SelFConidence
!any people admit to feeling intimidated when they are around people who speak
intelligently and articulately. % sort of social stigma is often applied to people who do not
have the ability to clearly express themselves.
!uild Boc"bul"ry to S)eed U) $ro*ress
% good vocabulary can actually speed up learning. #t is much easier to understand
difficult sentences in academic books if you have a good vocabulary. 7eople who are
EH
well<versed in many topics < and the vocabulary to talk about them < look and sound more
intelligent, and they therefore stand a better chance of making progress in academics and
jobs.
Boc"bul"ry buildin* "nd our "c"de%ic curricul"
!ost graduates from our schools and colleges are found to have a vocabulary that is
often inadeuate for their needs.
!ost of the time, the source of this deficiency is the curriculum, unfortunately.
The curriculum doesn.t adeuately focus on the development of a well<rounded
vocabulary and is also limited in the resources it offers for one to enhance theirs..
!ajority of the students who have a good command of the 2nglish language and a
greater vocabulary are usually those who make their own efforts to achieve it.
'hen reading, if they come across words unfamiliar to them, they go out of their
way to look them up in a dictionary.
They try to remember them and use them in their communication.
The B"lue o Boc"bul"ry !uildin*
'ords are uniue and interesting. % limited vocabulary keeps you from expressing your
real thoughts and feelings. % strong vocabulary gives you the right words to use at the
right time.
4ocabulary building takes patience and continued effort. *our vocabulary can and
should be a reflection of you. *our vocabulary is you. %nd like you, your
vocabulary should be alive. #t should change and grow to meet your needs.
4ocabulary development is also a primary determinant of reading comprehension.
&eaders cannot understand the content of what they are reading unless they
understand the meaning of the majority of words in the text.
>www.broward.k,2.fl.us$esol$2ng$...$705$...$,2N2K4ocabulary.pdf?
4ocabulary is a basic part of reading comprehension. #f you don/t know enough
words, you are going to have trouble understanding what you read. %n occasional
word may not stop you, but if there are too many words you don/t know,
comprehension will suffer. The content of textbooks is often challenging enoughC
you don/t want to work as well on understanding the words that express that
content.
4ocabulary is a major part of almost every standardi-ed test, including reading
achievement tests, college entrance exams, and armed forces and vocational
placement tests. 4ocabulary is a key measure of both one/s learning and one/s ability
FK
to learn. The more words you know, then, the better you are likely to do on such
important tests.
>http:$$academic.cuesta.edu$acasupp$as$AK,."T!?
Te"chin* Le"rnin* Boc"bul"ry: $l"ce in Curriculu%
There is a need for direct instruction of vocabulary items reuired for a specific
text.
&epetition and multiple exposure to vocabulary items are important. )tudents
should be given items that will be likely to appear in many contexts.
1earning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learning. 4ocabulary words
should be those that the learner will find useful in many contexts. 'hen vocabulary
items are derived from content learning materials, the learner will be better
euipped to deal with specific reading matter in content areas.
&h"t the ?"tion"l Re"din* $"nel S"ys (bout the Role o Boc"bul"ry in
Re"din* Instruction :Re)rinted ro% ?"tion"l Re"din* $"nel0 12220 )4 7F7;
>http:$$www.prel.org$products$reR$2)K=,H.htm?
4ocabulary tasks should be restructured as necessary. #t is important to be certain
that students fully understand what is asked of them in the context of reading, rather
than focusing only on the words to be learned. &estructuring seems to be most
effective for low achieving or at<risk students
4ocabulary learning is effective when it entails active engagement in learning tasks.
+omputer technology can be used effectively to help teach vocabulary.
4ocabulary can be acuired through incidental learning. !uch of a student.s
vocabulary will have to be learned in the course of doing things other than explicit
vocabulary learning. &epetition, richness of context, and motivation may also add
to the efficacy of incidental learning of vocabulary.
)tudies have indicated that students with strong vocabularies are more successful in
school and that a good vocabulary is an influential factor for people who enjoy
successful careers in life. 'ords are the tools not just of better reading, but of better
writing, speaking, listening, and thinking as well. The more words you have at your
command, the more effective your communication can be, and the more influence
you can have on the people around you.
#n today/s world, a good vocabulary counts more than ever. !any jobs provide
services or process information, and the skills of reading, writing, listening, and
speaking are essential.
>http:$$academic.cuesta.edu$acasupp$as$AK,."T!?
@o# to build voc"bul"ry'
&ord )"rts
$reiGes are word parts added at the beginning of words, and they dramatically alter
a word.s meaning, including changing a word to its opposite meaning: correct<
incorrectC regard<disregard.
F,
SuiGes are word parts added at the end of words. % suffix can change a word.s
part of speech: jump >verb? <jumper >noun?C poison >noun?<poisonous >adjective?.
Roots are the base part of words. They convey the bulk of a word.s meaning.
>)mith, 2K,2: p.,?
$reiGes "re OOOO.
7refixes Ypre >before? Z fix >fasten? X fasten before[ are groups of letters placed
before words or roots. 7refixes modify or extend the meanings of words and roots.
under0 %e*" 0 sub 0 "rch 0 over 0 %icro
JJ44line X to emphasi-e
JJJJ normal X below normal average
JJphone X a cone<shaped device held to the mouth to intensify and direct the
human voice
JJnourished X not sufficiently fed
JJ44<rebel X the main rebel
OOO..fine X extremely fine si-e or texture, very fine in uality
OOO take X to go before another vehicle on the road
OO. computer X a small computer based on a microprocessor
OOOO come X to beat or win a victor
OOOO bred X not given enough food
JJJJsi-e X smaller than normal for its kind
JJJJmerge X to go under
JJ4<opponent X the main opponent
O film X a film with photographed materials in greatly reduced si-e
OOO estimate X to give something higher importance
under 0 %e*" 0 sub 0 "rch 0 over 0 %icro
JJ44line X to emphasi-e under
JJ normal X below normal average sub
JJ4phone X a cone<shaped device held to the mouth to intensify and direct the
human voice mega
JJ4nourished X not sufficiently fed under
JJ4<rebel X the main rebel arch
F2
OO.fine X extremely fine si-e or texture, very fine in uality mega
OOtake X to go before another vehicle on the road over
OO. computer X a small computer based on a microprocessor micro
OO come X to beat or win a victor over
OO bred X not given enough food under
Jsi-e X smaller than normal for its kind under
Jerge X to go under sub
J<opponent X the main opponent arch
O film X a film with photographed in greatly reduced si-e micro
OO estimate X to give something higher importance over
Tr"ns0 )"n0 su)er0 out0 dis0 hy)o0 "uto0 con0 de0 circu%0 "nti0 "nte0 ultr"
OOpower X a state powerful enough to influence events throughout the world
O..swim X travel faster through water than competitors
O.dermic X a way of injecting drugs under a person/s skin
O <light X extremely light
O class X belonging to the lowest and least privileged social stratum
O <room X % large entrance or reception room or area
O. pathy X dislike, opposite feeling
..O. scribe X draw a line around
O verse X +arry on a conversation
O loading X self<loading
O. 3rgani-ation X % condition in which an orderly system has been disrupted
O activate X &emove from active military status or reassign
O.. arthritis X #nflammation involving all the tissues of a joint
... action X The act of dealing within or between two groups
O. figure X !ar or spoil the appearance of
O. 7olar X 1ocated or found around a polar region
Tr"ns0 )"n0 su)er0 out0 dis0 hy)o0 "uto0 con0 de0 circu%0 "nti0 "nte0 ultr"
Opower X a state powerful enough to influence events throughout the world
..super
O..swim X travel faster through water than competitors .out
F3
O..dermic X a way of injecting drugs under a person/s skin hypo
OO. <light X extremely light ultra
O. class X belonging to the lowest and least privileged social stratum under
OO <room X % large entrance or reception room or area ante
O. pathy X dislike, opposite feeling anti
..O scribe X draw a line around circum
O verse X +arry on a conversation con
O loading X self<loading auto
O. 3rgani-ation X % condition in which an orderly system has been disrupted dis
O activate X &emove from active military status or reassign de
O.. arthritis X #nflammation involving all the tissues of a joint pan
... action X The act of dealing within or between two groups trans
O. 5igure X !ar or spoil the appearance of dis
O. 7olar X 1ocated or found around a polar region circum
4ircle the best available answer for each of the following:
,? This newspaper is a B#'22;1*.
a? the newspaper is published once a week
b? the newspaper is published three times a week
c? the newspaper is published twice a week
2? This medicine is a nasal 02+3692)T%6T.
a? the medicine helps to reduce nasal congestion
b? the medicine causes nasal congestion
c? the medicine makes your nose bigger
3? That shopping bag is &28)%B12.
a? throw the shopping bag away, we won.t need it again
b? don.t throw away the shopping bag because we can use it again.
c? if you throw the shopping bag we cannot use it again
=? #.m sorry # !#)&2%0 the notice and therefore !#)8602&)T330 the message.
a? 0id not read the notice correctly and therefore did not understand correctly.
b? &ead the notice and understood the message correctly
c? 0id not read the notice and therefore did not understand the message.
A? 'e usually do not publish articles we don.t 7&24#2'.
a? we usually read articles before publication
b? we do not read articles after publication
c? we read articles the day we publish them
F=
E? &253&2)T%T#36 will help to &2)T3&2 our environment.
a? planting trees again will replenish our environment.
b? cutting down trees will further help to worsen the environment.
c? forests should be cut to improve the worsening environmental pollution
F? 0253&2)T%T#36 will cause environmental 02712T#36.
a? !eans planting trees will help our environment from depletion
b? !eans cutting down trees will cause further environmental depletion
c? !eans too many forests will cause further environmental depletion
Concludin* re%"rk
% learner.s lack of existing vocabulary knowledge also acts as an impediment. 3ne
of the uickest ways to increase your vocabulary is to build on existing knowledge.
This could refer to background information or understanding familiar parts of a
word >such as a prefix or suffix?.
>http:$$www.write<better<english.com$importance<of<improving<your<vocabulary.aspx?
BOC(!UL(RY !UILDI?+
$(RT 1
0&. )%&'2T &%)81
4ocabulary is the first and foremost important step in language acuisition. 'hen it
comes to 12, vocabulary can be a great strength or weakness of a learner.
Our cl"ssroo% )r"ctices: 4ocabulary items are imparted mostly by translation. 2ither a
list of words with their translation at the beginning of the lesson or the translation of the
content having new words or glossaries at the very end is sed. This is an erroneous
practice as it leads to a state of confusion for the learners.
$"tterns o Diiculty in Boc"bul"ry
'hile dealing with vocabulary one should take into account following important
aspects of words:
their form,
their meaning
their distribution
their various kinds of classes with reference to their function
,ive b"sic ste)s to " better voc"bul"ry
&ead
1isten.
'rite down words you read and hear that you don.t know.
FA
1ook up the word in a dictionary and write down its meaning in a vocabulary
notebook.
8se the new word several times in conversation as soon as you can.
>Brett T !c;ay, 2K,2?
Key Str"te*ies in Le"rnin* Boc"bul"ry
)ome of the key strategies to unfold the information and meaning of a new word are
as follows:
(ntony%s
'hen one member of a pair of opposites is understood, the meaning of the other
can be easily comprehended. This adds an additional word to your vocabulary.
Synony%s
% synonym may be helpful to understand the different shades of meaning if the
synonym is better known than the new word. )ynonyms help to enrich a learner/s
vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly.
Deinitions
0efinitions in the target language may be very handy.
)pecially if they are expressed in terms that are better known or more easily
guessed than the word that is defined.
ConteGt
The context makes the situation clear, and this in turn illuminates the meaning of
the new word. This practice saves time and develops an intensive reading habit and
better understanding.
$ictures "nd Dr"#in*s
7ictures or drawings, if you can lay hand on, are of great support in understanding
the new word. )ometimes pictures and drawings help in understanding the meaning
of things, actions, ualities, and relations.
Series0 Sc"les0 Syste%s
The meaning of words such as the months of the year, the days of the week, the
parts of the day, seasons of the year, ordinal numbers, cardinal numbers, etc. that
form part of well<known series are understood and learnt better by placing them in
their natural order in the series.
$"rts o &ords
The parts of complex and compound words may be more common than the words
themselves. )eparating such words into their component parts generally elaborates
the meaning.
Illustr"tive Sentences
!ost words have a variety of restrictions on their use. %ppropriate illustrative
sentences or examples that elucidate the range and variation of usage help learning
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new vocabulary items.
$r"ctice ro% /e"nin* to EG)ression
% careful and continuous practice can help in building vocabulary.
Re"din* the &ord
)ometimes reading words aloud is also very beneficial. #t makes a learner familiar
with the word, removes hesitation attached to the use of a new word, and also
improves pronunciation.
&ritin* the &ord
'rite the new word while the auditory memory is fresh, even if the objective is
only to read. 'riting or copying the word gives a chance to understand the
grammatical aspect of the word such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective etc. in the
context. #t also helps to retain the new vocabulary item.
Usin* roots or voc"bul"ry buildin*
'ords did not just happen. They grew. %nd if you learn how they grew<what
original roots they came from<you.ll find it easier to remember them.
The best first step in vocabulary building, then, is to become familiar with some
word roots because learning the root of one word often gives a clue to do-ens or
hundreds more. >5riend, ;night T 9la-ier, 2K,2: p.,?
Synony%s
)ynonym is nothing but the similar meaning of a particular word or its semantic
relation. )o, it is a word or a phrase that means the same as another word or a phrase
in the same language.
+ive #ords or short )hr"ses si%il"r to the #ords in red belo#4
The 7resident of the college refused to abolish the physical education
reuirement.
%n abusive parent damages a child both physically and mentally.
# fail to understand what actuated you to reply to this letter so nastily.
)ome species of animals have become extinct because they could not adapt to a
changing environment.
'e must learn to meet adversity gracefully.
"is ambiguous instructions mislead us.
4isiting the site of the explosion, the 7resident wept to see the anguish of the
victims.
The attentive audience watched the game of the tennis match, never taking their
eyes from the ball.
FF
!r. \ was a benevolent employer who wanted to make his employees happy and
comfortable.
Thanks to the good harvest who had a bountiful supply of food.
'e were impressed by the breadth of her knowledge.
#n the capacious area of the railroad terminal, thousands if travelers were waiting
for their trains.
)olids have a greater tendency to cohere than liuids.
'e planned to compile a list of words most freuently used in the test.
0id you concur with the decision of the court(
Brutus joined in the conspiracy to kill @ulius +aesar.
#f you delete this paragraph the composition will have more appeal.
8pon the demise of the dictator, a bitter dispute about succession to power
developed.
"e refused to disclose any information about his company.
The diversity of colleges in the country indicates that many levels of ability are
being served.
%fter her appointment to this eminent position, she seldom had time for her
friends.
@ill esteemed @ack.s taste in music.
5allacious reasoning does not always bring good results.
The committee discussed all the side issues except the fundamental problem.
&est and proper nourishment should facilitate the patient.s recovery.
#t is not feasible to build a new campus in the town.
The company offered to give one package gratis to every purchaser of one of
their products.
The governor.s appointment of his brother Pin<law to the state supreme court
was a flagrant violation of the state laws.
'hen her supervisor ignored her complaint, she took her grievance to the
union.
"is hapha-ard reading left him unacuainted with many classic books.
(ntony%s
FG
%ntonyms are the negative connotation of a particular word. %n %ntonym is a word or
phrase that is opposite in meaning to a particular word or a phrase in the same language.
The !eneits o !uildin* Your Boc"bul"ry
,. 9ives you the ability to say what you mean.
2. "elps you understand other people.
3. "elps you understand what you read.
=. %ssists you in becoming a more informed and involved citi-en.
A. %llows you to communicate effectively.
E. Boosts your powers of persuasion.
F. "elps you make a good impression on others.
>Brett T !c;ay, 2K,2?
Ro"d !locks to Boc"bul"ry Develo)%ent
There are also some common obstacles or road blocks when improving you
vocabulary. This should not be taken in a negative context. %ll it reuires is patience
and some effort. %wareness of these road blocks will ensure you are not deterred
from building your vocabulary when confronted by them. )ome of these include:
4ocabulary is multifaceted.
% word can have different meanings when used within different contexts.
'ords can mean different things just by the way they are said.
3ur spoken word differs to our written vocabulary. 5or some of us, this vocabulary
can almost be polar opposites. 'ith oral vocabulary, we can manage
communication by using less range and less depth. "and gestures, body language,
and facial expressions make up a very large segment of our verbal communication.
#n contrast to this, however, we don.t have any of these aids at our disposal with the
written word. %s such, a richer vocabulary is needed to accurately convey a
message.
The sheer uantity of words in a language can impact upon improving your
vocabulary. The amount of words in everyday language is staggering in itselfC
however, we are also reuired to learn speciali-ed vocabularies as well. This can
include business vocabulary or academic vocabulary.
>http:$$www.write<better<english.com$importance<of<improving<your<vocabulary.aspx?
@el)in* hints or Boc"bul"ry develo)%ent
2liminate distractions.
&ead as often as possible.
;eep an orderly notebook for vocabulary work.
0o many practice exercises.
%naly-e words by learning prefixes, roots and suffixes.
!emori-e a few words every day.
3rgani-e a schedule.
!anage time carefully, and do not wait until the last minute.
8se online resources for better understanding.
1earn to skim dense material.
%void cramming information.
FH
Try teaching the material to someone else.
)ummari-e newly<learned information in writing.
BOC(!UL(RY !UILDI?+ $(RT A
%ctivities are provided in a separate file named as L!ore 4ocabulary %ctivitiesM.
E,,ICIE?T USE O, /E/ORY
/ent"l $rocesses ?eeded or Re"din*
&eading is more than recogni-ing letters and the sounds they represent. #n order for
readers to comprehend what they read, they have to perform a number of mental
processes.
5irst, they have to recogni-e the letters on the page. They have to remember the
sounds those letters represent and they have to be able to understand how the
sounds blend together to form words.
The Role o ShortFTer% /e%ory in Re"din* Co%)rehension
#t is short<term memory that allows readers to perform all the tasks reuired for
reading.
'hen children are learning to read, their working memory capacity is not sufficient
to allow them to remember everything they need to remember.
!ost adults have experienced this decoding and comprehension problem when they
read highly technical information written in long sentences full of speciali-ed
vocabulary.
Being familiar with the vocabulary and having the information presented in shorter
sentences helps us understand more easily.
&orkin* /e%ory
'orking memory is the kind of short<term memory that stores information for a
short amount of time as we/re working with it. #t/s actually the process of
temporarily storing and manipulating information. &esearchers believe that short<
term memory is critical for reading comprehension. )hort<term memory capacity
increases with age and is dependent on the development of the front part of the
brain >frontal lobes?. 8ntil it is sufficiently developed, the brain can/t both process
and store information. #n other words, there is a trade<off between decoding words
and remembering what they mean. The brain can do one or the other, but not both.
Co%%on $roble%s o Students
@o# to %"n"*e to *et throu*h your re"din*0 "nd ret"in #h"t you h"ve re"d'
%lways remember:
%cademic material is not meant to be read.
#t is meant to be ransacked for essential content.
!e selective4
+heck through the items on your reading list.
'hich are basic texts, and which are more detailed( >'ill you need basic information or
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more specific information for your assignment(?
'hich are the most accessible to you( >Texts which are crystal clear to one person may
be incomprehensible to another, and vice versaSthis is not a matter of /intelligence/, but
of a preference for a particular presentation and style?
'hich are reasonably available(
Set " re"listic ti%e r"%e or "ny re"din* t"sk4
0o not read any longer than you can concentrate. #t doesn.t matter if your attention span
is shortSjust set your tasks accordingly.
?ever re"d #ithout s)eciic 9uestions you #"nt the teGt to "ns#er4
#f you want your reading to stay in your memory, you must approach your text with a list
of uestions about the particular information you are after, and search the text for the
answers to those uestions.
0on/t just read with the hope that an answer will appear.
?ever st"rt re"din* "t )"*e 5 o the teGt0 but look or the su%%"ry0 conclusion0
subhe"din*s0 etc4
#f there is a summary, a conclusion, a set of sub<headings, or an abstract, read t!at first,
because it will give you a map of what the text contains. *ou can then deal with the text
structurally, looking for particular points, not just reading Dblind. and so easily getting
lost.
Re"d only "s %uch "s you need to *et the inor%"tion you "re "ter4
5or example, if a piece of information you need is in the abstract of an article, why read
the whole article unless you have time to spare(
#f a point is clear from reading a summary, is there any benefit in reading through the
complete text of a chapter(
#f you are interested in the overall findings of a study, do you really need to read the
methodology and results sections(
%lways keep in mind what you need, what is relevant to the uestion you are asking the
text.
(l#"ys kee) in %ind #h"t you need0 #h"t is relev"nt to the 9uestion you "re "skin*
the teGt4
5or example, rather than reading all of a series of articles on a topic, consider whether the
literature review in the last article of the series will give you enough to go on with. *ou
can be infinitely creative with your time< and labour<saving strategies.
@o# do you re%e%ber #h"t you h"ve re"d'
3ne of the basic principles of memory is that the uality of memory is related to the
uality of your interaction with what you are trying to remember. #f you have organi-ed,
dissected, uestioned, reviewed and assessed the material you are reading, it will sit more
firmly in your memory.
@o# do you re%e%ber #h"t you h"ve re"d'
'hy is it so easy to remember the contents of an article about something you are really
interested in( #t is because you get involved personally in the events and images the text
portrays. *ou can harness some of the same memory potential in academic reading by
adopting a particular kind of involved Dactive reading..
1earn to use your own cognitive strengthsSvisual, oral<aural, systematic, etc.Sto create
memorability in your reading. #magine, visuali-e, recite, act out your academic material,
get it out of the dry text<on<page >or screen? context and put some real life into it.
G,
% final hintSdon/t take notes whilst you are reading. #nstead, try dividing your reading
into short sections, closing the book when you have read a section, and writing a
summary from memory. The things you recall are strengthened in memory by the act of
recall, and the correction of things you leave out or get wrong helps fix them in memory
as well.
&eading in anticipation of writing a summary improves reading by becoming more
analytical and conscious of Dkey points.. +www.canberra.edu.au/studysills/learning/reading/
Ti)s or enh"ncin* your "bility to le"rn "nd re%e%ber
$"y "ttention4 *ou can.t remember something if you never learned it, and you
can.t learn somethingSthat is, encode it into your brainSif you don.t pay enough
attention to it. #t takes about eight seconds of intense focus to process a piece of
information into your memory. #f you.re easily distracted, pick a uiet place where
you won.t be interrupted.
Involve "s %"ny senses "s )ossible4 Try to relate information to colors, textures,
smells, and tastes. The physical act of rewriting information can help imprint it onto
your brain. 2ven if you.re a visual learner, read out loud what you want to
remember. #f you can recite it rhythmically, even better.
Rel"te inor%"tion to #h"t you "lre"dy kno#4 +onnect new data to information
you already remember, whether it.s new material that builds on previous
knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street
where you already know someone.
,or %ore co%)leG %"teri"l0 ocus on underst"ndin* b"sic ide"s rather than
memori-ing isolated details. 7ractice explaining the ideas to someone else in your
own words.
Rehe"rse inor%"tion youIve "lre"dy le"rned4 &eview what you.ve learned the
same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. This Lspaced rehearsalM is more
effective than cramming, especially for retaining what you.ve learned.
!ttp://www.!elpguide.org/life/improving;memory.!tm
/e%ory "s " $roble%FSolvin* Tool
!ost of your academic tasks are problem solving tasks. !emory can be used as an
effective tool for problem solving
STOR(+E: ORI+I?(L (&(RE?ESS #ith I?TE?TIO? TO RE/E/!ER
#t is useful to consider memory as a two<step process:
Stor"*e "nd retriev"l4
#f you want to remember something, it must be LstoredM in your memory.
%fter being introduced to someone, have you ever forgotten the name( 'hen this
happens you typically haven/t forgotten the name, because you never really Lhad
it.J But if you listen carefully >original awareness? and then silently review the
name >intention to remember?, the name is now stored in your memory so you can
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remember it later. 'hen you find something worth remembering in your reading or
problem<solving practice, stop for a few seconds and revie# it beore you lose itI
RETRIEB(L: The i%)ort"nce o OR+(?IP(TIO?
#t/s easy to find page GE of a book, the word LgraceM in a dictionary, or a book in a
library, due to organi-ation. Book pages are in numerical order, dictionary words
are alphabetical, and library books are arranged according to a system >1ibrary of
+ongress, 0ewey 0ecimal,...?. 1ogical organi-ation also makes it easier to retrieve
information from your memory. "ere is an example.
Re%e%ber 5: 5or a few seconds, look at these 22 letters:
t s e k h " u o e n d y * c " l h t e y n %
Then close your eyes and try to remember all of themC don/t leave any letters out,
and don/t put any extras in.
#f you were given enough time and incentive, you could memori-e these letters. But
there is a better way to do it S by using organi-ationI
Re%e%ber 1: Try to remember these letters after a few seconds of study:
sne"ky the lunch do* %y "te
'hy is this easier to remember(
,? >U(?TITY: #t/s easier to remember E things >in V2? than 22 things >in V,?.

2? /E(?I?+: )imply forming letter<groups isn/t enough. #s it easy to remember letter<
groups like Ltemuy acnh gnte ysol aek dhJ( 6o, because they are not organi-ed into
words that have %e"nin*. % meaningful JlunchM is easy to remember, but not
nonsensical letter<groups like LtemuyM.
3? STRUCTURE: +an you organi-e the words of V2 into a sentence( 'hat does the
dog do(
#f you want to remember something >concepts, euations, problem<solving strategies,...?,
review it.
% balanced review distributed throughout the course is better than cramming.
4arious types of review offer advantages. 5or example, 5lash +ards reuire "ctivity,
)ummary 6otes provide or*"ni="tion, and both let you make 9uick revie#s of the
entire ch")ter. 9enerally, review is more effective when you are active.
!ttp://www.asa).org/'S'/education/learn//<).!tm=/<)
3ne powerful organi-ing techniue is summary notes.
To make them, choose the most important ideas from your textbook, lecture notes,
and problem<solving practice, then or*"ni=e these ideas into a unified summary.
0ivide information into idea<clusters, spread these all over the page, and use spatial
cues to show their relationships. 8se flowcharts, hierarchy structure, relational
concept maps, logical outlines, tables, or free<form chaos.
Uses o " su%%"ry
%nd when you study it, a summary is useful in many ways. #t will help you to:
G3
,? %e%ori=e. 'hen information is condensed in a small area you can literally see the
visual and logical interconnections, and it is easier to understand relationships. Because
the information is organi-ed on paper, it is easier to organi-e in your mind, which makes
it easier to rememberI %nd summary notes are short, so you can do many uick yet
thorough reviews.
2? develo) )roble%Fsolvin* str"te*ies. !ost of the tools you need are available in clear
view, so you can focus your attention on how to use them.
3? "c9uire %ore kno#led*e. 6ew information is easier to understand when it is related
to what you already know, if it is a variation on a familiar theme, or is a logical
conseuence of a principle you understand.
#n short, summary notes organi-e the essential ideas into a framework, providing a
structure where you can insert details and new ideas.
To )um up this part it can be said:
,? le"rn with intention<to<remember,
2? or*"ni=e the information >with intrinsic logic or an external system?,
3? revie# "ctively and often, using appropriate cues.
(nother Ti)
&ead a list of ,A words, pausing A seconds between each word. %fter reading the words
to the students, they will be asked to write down as many as they can remember.
'ord 1ist for 7art #:
dog horse
strawberry carrots
cow apple
onion chicken
orange corn
suash grapefruit
rat celery
plum
6ow 8se !emory techniues of visuali-ation, organi-ation and repetition.
3rgani-ation by three categories: sea creatures, kitchen utensils, and tools.
5or example, visuali-e the sea creatures in an auarium. )et the kitchen utensils
on a table. 7ut the tools in your toolbox or picture yourself using the tools. 7ut
action and color into the pictures.
&epetition helps. 'e need to keep these words in our minds for at least A seconds
to become part of long<term memory.
(*"in re"d these #ords "nd )"use E seconds bet#een the #ords:
Se" Cre"tures Kitchen Utensils Tools
G=
)hark 7late 0rill
)tarfish +up 6ail
Tuna 5ish )ugar Bowl 'rench
2el ;nife )aw
+rab 0rinking 9lass )crewdriver
DEBELO$/E?T O, &RITI?+ SKILL
'riting skills are specific abilities which help writers put their thoughts into words in a
meaningful form and to mentally interact with the message.
&hy #ritin* skills "re i%)ort"nt'
(bility to EG)ress:
'riting skills help the learner to communicate in writing with independence,
accuracy, fluency, comprehensibility and creativity.
Encodin* %ess"*e or others:
#f learners have mastered these skills, they will be able to write so that not only t!ey
can read what they have written, but other speakers of that language can read and
understand it.
"ere are some writing goals as defined by "ampton ,HGH:
'riters are independent when they are able to write without much assistance.
'riters gain comprehensibility when they can write so that it can be read and
understood by themselves and others.
'riters are fluent when they are able to write smoothly and easily as well as
understandably.
'riters gain creativity when they can write their own ideas, not copying what has
already been written, so that they can be read and understood.
9reat writing reuires an extensive skill set.
The writer has to understand:
vocabulary
syntax
+ontext
grammar
Then come:
3rgani-ation into paragraphs
6obody is born knowing how to write.
GA
'e all have to work at building and growing our writing skills.
Better writing is not something that happens overnight.
#t is a long<term goal.
!UT
5irst we have to identify our writing needs.
@o# to #rite Eiciently0 Eectively0 "nd Cle"rly
,or%"t
The first step to writing clearly is choosing the appropriate format. 0o you need to
send an informal email( 'rite a detailed report( +reate advertising copy( 3r write
a formal letter( 2ach of these needs a specific format.
The format, as well as your audience, will define your Jwriting voiceJ P that is, how
formal or relaxed the tone should be. 5or instance, if you write an email to a
teacher, should it have the same tone as an email to a friend( 0efinitely not.
)tart by identifying who will read your message.
Co%)osition "nd Style
3nce you know what you are writing, and for whom you are writing, you actually
have to start writing.
% blank, white computer screen is often intimidating. %nd it/s easy to get stuck
because you don/t know how to start. Try these tips for composing and styling your
document:
St"rt #ith your "udience P &emember, your readers may know nothing about what you
are telling them. 'hat do they need to know first(
Cre"te "n outline P This is especially helpful if you/re writing a longer document
such as an essay, a report, a presentation, or a speech. 3utlines help you identify
which steps to take in which order, and they help you break the task up into
manageable pieces of information.
Identiy your %"in the%e P #f you/re having trouble defining the main theme of
your message, pretend that you have ,A seconds to explain your position. 'hat do
you say( This is likely to be your main theme.
Use si%)le l"n*u"*e P 8nless you/re writing a scholarly article, it is usually best to
use simple, direct language. 0o not use long words$ sentences just to impress
people.
Structure o your #ritin*
*our document should be as Jreader friendlyJ as possible.
8se headings, subheadings, bullet points, and numbering whenever possible to
break up the text.
GE
%fter all, what/s easier to read P a page full of long paragraphs, or a page that/s
broken up into short paragraphs, with section headings and bullet points(
"eading should grab the reader/s attention.
Think of other possibilities of visual support: tables, graphs, charts, pictures etc.
These visual aids not only keep the reader/s eye engaged, but they can communicate
important information much more uickly than text.
$rooFRe"d
The enemy of good proofreading is speed. !any people rush through their
documents, but this is how you miss mistakes. 5ollow these guidelines to check
what you/ve written:
$roo your he"ders "nd subFhe"ders P 7eople often skip these and focus on the
text alone. @ust because headers are big and bold doesn/t mean they/re error free.
Re"d the docu%ent out loud P This forces you to go more slowly, so that you are
more likely to catch mistakes.
St"rt "t the end o your docu%ent P 7roofread one sentence at a time, working
your way from the end to the beginning. This helps you focus on errors, not on
content.
+www.mindtools.com2
&ritin* StyleR ,or%"l- Collo9ui"l
Collo9ui"l P #nformal writing is similar to a spoken conversation. #nformal writing
may include slang, figures of speech, broken syntax, asides and so on. #nformal
writing takes a personal tone as if you were speaking directly to your audience >the
reader?. *ou can use the first person point of view ># and we?, and you are likely to
address the reader using second person >you and your?.
Collo9ui"l
Si%)le P )hort sentences are acceptable and sometimes essential to making a point
in informal writing. There may be incomplete sentences or ellipsis>O? to make
points.
Contr"ctions "nd (bbrevi"tions P 'ords are likely to be simplified using
contractions >for example, #.m, doesn.t, couldn.t, it.s? and abbreviations >e.g. T4,
photos? whenever possible.
E%)"thy "nd E%otion P The author can show empathy towards the reader
regarding the complexity of a thought and help them through that complexity.
,or%"l
Co%)leG P 1onger sentences are likely to be more prevalent in formal writing. *ou
need to be as thorough as possible with your approach to each topic when you are
GF
using a formal style. 2ach main point needs to be introduced, elaborated and
concluded.
Objective P )tate main points confidently and offer full support arguments. %
formal writing style shows a limited range of emotions and avoids emotive
punctuation such as exclamation points, ellipsis, etc., unless they are being cited
from another source.
,ull &ords P 6o contractions should be used to simplify words >in other words use
J#t isJ rather than J#t/sJ?. %bbreviations must be spelt out in full when first used, the
only exceptions being when the acronym is better known than the full name >BB+,
#T4 or 6%T3 for example?.
Third $erson P 5ormal writing is not a personal writing style. The formal writer is
disconnected from the topic and does not use the first person point of view ># or we?
or second person >you?.
&hen to Use ,or%"l "nd Inor%"l &ritin*
% formal writing style is not necessarily LbetterM than an informal style, rather each
style serves a different purpose and care should be taken in choosing which style to
use in each case.
'riting for professional purposes is likely to reuire the formal style, although
individual communications can use the informal style once you are familiar with the
recipient.
6ote that emails tend to lend themselves to a less formal style than paper<based
communications, but you should still avoid the use of Jtext talkJ. #f in doubt as to
how formal your writing should be, it is usually better to err on the side of caution
and be formal rather than informal.
http:$$www.skillsyouneed.co.uk$'rite$formalRandRinformalRwriting.htmlVix--29A1#+3px
Students "nd &ritin*: Introduction to (c"de%ic &ritin*
&h"t is (C(DE/IC &RITI?+' &h"t is (C(DE/IC &RITI?+'
%cademic writing is: %cademic writing is:
linear linear
informative informative
standard written format of language standard written format of language
(c"de%ic docu%ent ty)es (c"de%ic docu%ent ty)es
Book Book
Book report Book report
+onference paper +onference paper
0issertation$Thesis 0issertation$Thesis
2ssay 2ssay
GG
2xplication 2xplication
&esearch 7aper &esearch 7aper
Technical report Technical report
Translation Translation
(c"de%ic &ritin* Ty)es Students "re EG)osed toJ (c"de%ic &ritin* Ty)es Students "re EG)osed toJ
2xam uestions T 2ssay titles that students write. 2xam uestions T 2ssay titles that students write.
#nstructional material, or hand<out, or reading listC usually meant for students to #nstructional material, or hand<out, or reading listC usually meant for students to
read. read.
7resentationsC usually short, often illustrated. 7resentationsC usually short, often illustrated.
Rese"rch S $l"nnin* Rese"rch S $l"nnin*
2xperiment plan. 2xperiment plan.
&esearch &eport. &esearch &eport.
&aw data collection plan. &aw data collection plan.
)tructured notes. )tructured notes.
Disse%in"tin* kno#led*e outside the "c"de%y Disse%in"tin* kno#led*e outside the "c"de%y
+all for papers +all for papers
0ocumentary film script or Television$ &adio script 0ocumentary film script or Television$ &adio script
3bituary 3bituary
3pinion: an academic may sometimes be asked to give an expert written opinion 3pinion: an academic may sometimes be asked to give an expert written opinion
&eview of a book, film, exhibition, event, etc. &eview of a book, film, exhibition, event, etc.
7amphlet, position paper, or briefing paper. 7amphlet, position paper, or briefing paper.
Coll"tin* the #ork o others Coll"tin* the #ork o others
%nthology, collection, collation, ordering and editing of the work of others. %nthology, collection, collation, ordering and editing of the work of others.
!onograph or exhibition catalogC usually containing exemplary works, and a scholarly !onograph or exhibition catalogC usually containing exemplary works, and a scholarly
essay. )ometime contains new work by a creative writer, responding to the work. essay. )ometime contains new work by a creative writer, responding to the work.
,e"tures o "c"de%ic #ritin* ,e"tures o "c"de%ic #ritin*
There are eight main features of academic writing. There are eight main features of academic writing.
complex complex
formal formal
precise precise
objective objective
explicit explicit
accurate accurate
hedged hedged
GH
responsible responsible
9etting started
Inter)retin* the T"sk
!ake sure that you fully understand your task.
Underst"ndin* (ssess%ent Criteri"
Think about how academic work is assessed, particularly the specific task given to you,
ensure that you understand how you will be assessed on it.
Ti%e %"n"*e%ent
7lanning your schedule before you begin an assignment will help you to ensure you have
enough time to complete a high uality piece of work.
>library.leeds.ac.uk])kills^1ibrary, )tudents?
,indin* inor%"tion "nd note t"kin*
8sing appropriate, relevant information sources and taking effective notes from them will
strengthen the uality of your work.
/ind /"))in* "s " Tool in "c"de%ic &ritin*
@o# to do " /ind /")
!ind mapping >or concept mapping? involves writing down a central idea and thinking
up new and related ideas which radiate out from the centre. By focusing on key ideas
written down in your own words, and then looking for branches out and connections
between the ideas, you are mapping knowledge in a manner which will help you
understand and remember new information.

Look or rel"tionshi)s
8se lines, colours, arrows, branches or some other way of showing connections between
the ideas generated on your mind map. These relationships may be important in you
understanding new information or in constructing a structured essay plan. By
personali-ing the map with your own symbols and designs you will be constructing
visual and meaningful relationships between ideas which will assist in your recall and
understanding.
Dr"# 9uickly on unlined )")er #ithout )"usin*0 jud*in* or editin*
%ll of these things promote linear thinking and the idea of mind mapping is to think
creatively and in a non<linear manner. There will be plenty of time for modifying the
information later on but at this stage it is important to get every possibility into the mind
map. )ometimes it is one of those obscure possibilities that may become the key to your
knowledge of a topic.
&rite do#n key ide"s
)ome students find that using capital letters encourages them to get down only the key
points. +apitals are also easier to read in a diagram. *ou may, however, wish to write
HK
down some explanatory notes in lower case. )ome students do this when they revisit the
mind map at a later date while others write in such things as assessment criteria in this
way.
$ut %"in ide" in the centre
!ost students find it useful to turn their page on the side and do a mind map in
JlandscapeJ style. 'ith the main idea or topic in the middle of the page this gives the
maximum space for other ideas to radiate out from the centre.

Le"ve lots o s)"ce
)ome of the most useful mind maps are those which are added to over a period of time.
%fter the initial drawing of the mind map you may wish to highlight things, add
information or add uestions for the duration of a subject right up until exam time. 5or
this reason it is a good idea to leave lots of space.
SE?TE?CE STRUCTURE
&h"t is " Sentence'
Sentence Structure
)entence structure is the order and arrangement of the clauses in a sentence, which
is a group of words that express a complete thought.
Three of the most common types of sentence structure are simple, compound, and
complex sentences. 2ach of these can be identified by the number and types of
clauses found within them.
>http:$$www.wisegeek.org$what<is<sentence<structure.htm?
!"sic ty)es o " sentence
There are = types of sentences.
0eclarative
#nterrogative
#mperative
2xclamatory
Ty)e o Sentence Use $unctu"tion /"rk
0eclarative !akes a statement 7eriod
: 4 ;
#nterrogative %sks a uestion Question !ark
: ' ;
#mperative 9ives a command or makes a reuest 7eriod
: 4 ;
2xclamatory 2xpresses strong feeling 2xclamation !ark
: M ;
H,
>http:$$www.study-one.org$testprep$ela=$o$typesofsentencesl.cfm?
Decl"r"tive Sentences are used to form statements.
2xamples: J!ary is here.J, J!y name is !ary.J
Interro*"tive Sentences are used to ask uestions.
2xamples: J'here is !ary(J, J'hat is your name(J
I%)er"tive Sentences are used for commands.
2xamples: J+ome here.J, JTell me your name.J
Condition"l Sentences are used to indicate dependencies between events or conditions.
2xample: J#f you cut all the trees, there will be no forest.J
>http:$$www.scientificpsychic.com$grammar$enggram2.html?
Ele%ents o Sentence Construction
Subjects "nd )redic"tes
2very complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a )redic"te. The subject
is what >or whom? the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about
the subject.
#n the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces >_`?, while the
subject is hi*hli*hted.
$hr"ses
% group of two or more grammatically linked words that do not have subject and
predicate is a phrase. 5or example:
The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to the amusement park.
*ou can see that Lthe amusement parkM is a phrase located in the second clause of the
complete sentence above.
7hrases act like parts of speech inside clauses. That is, they can act as nouns, adjectives,
adverbs and so on.
Cl"uses
The term JclauseJ simply refers to a group of words that form an idea, somewhat
synonymous with Jsentence.J %n Jindependent clauseJ is a phrase that includes a
subject and predicate and can stand on its own as a full statement. #n contrast to
this, a Jdependent clauseJ might have both a subject and predicate but what it
expresses is incomplete. This distinction is important, as various types of sentence
structure are created by combining these two forms.
>http:$$www.wisegeek.org$what<is<sentence<structure.htm?
(djective Cl"uses
To show that one idea in a sentence is more important than another, we rely on
subordination<<that is, treating one word group as secondary >or subordinate? to
another.
H2
3ne common form of subordination is the adjective clause<<a word group that
modifies a noun. The most common adjective clauses begin with one of these
relative pronouns: w!o, w!ic!, and t!at.
(dverb Cl"uses
1ike an adjective clause, an adverb clause is always dependent on >or subordinate
to? an independent clause. 1ike an ordinary adverb, an adverb clause usually
modifies a verb, though it can also modify an adjective, an adverb, or even the rest
of the sentence in which it appears. %n adverb clause begins with a subordinating
conjunction<<an adverb that connects the subordinate clause to the main clause.
>http:$$grammar.about.com$od$basicsentencegrammar$a$basicstructures.htm?
(voidin* ,r"*%ents
'hen dealing with sentence structure, it is important to avoid fragments. %
fragment is an incomplete thought or a dependent clause by itself. J"owever, # went
to the store,J is a fragment, since there is clearly something missing from the idea
expressed by it. #t contains a subject and predicate, but the conjunction Jhowever,J
indicates a missing element.
>http:$$www.wisegeek.org$what<is<sentence<structure.htm?
#n the each of the following examples the fragment is the second /sentence/, shown
in red:
# don/t think #/m going to get a good grade. Because # didn/t study.
)he got angry and shouted at the teacher. 'hich wasn/t a very good idea.
"e watched T4 for an hour and then went to bed. %fter falling asleep on the sofa.
)he got up and ran out of the library. )lamming the door behind her.
# have to write a report on %lbert 2instein. The famous scientist who left 2urope to
live in the 8)%.
%fter riding my bike without problems for over a year, the chain broke. =K
kilometers from my houseI >http:$$esl.fis.edu$learners$advice$syntax.htm?
(voidin* co%%" s)lices "nd used sentences
Two common errors in writing are used sentences and co%%" s)lices.
% used sentence is really two sentences joined with no punctuation.
2xample: Tiger 'oods began playing golf at an early age he is now the world/s greatest
golfer.
% co%%" s)lice is two sentences joined with a comma and no conjunction.
2xample: Tiger 'oods began playing golf at an early age, he is now the world/s greatest
golfer.
H3
% comma splice is incorrect because two sentences cannot be joined with a comma
alone. They must be separated by something stronger.
>https:$$docs.google.com$viewer(aXvTXcache?
Sentence ty)es
Si%)le Sentence
% sentence with only one independent clause >also known as a main clause?.
EG"%)les
# don/t like dogs.
3ur school basketball team lost their last game of the season FA<EG.
The old hotel opposite the bus station in the center of the town is probably going to
be knocked down at the end of next year.
>http:$$esl.fis.edu$learners$advice$syntax.htm?
Co%)ound Sentence
% sentence that contains at least two independent clauses.
>http:$$grammar.about.com$od$c$g$compoundsent.htm?
J# walked to the store,J and JThe clerk waved hello,J are both simple sentences.
They can be joined together to create the compound, J# walked to the store, and the
clerk waved hello.J
>http:$$www.wisegeek.org$what<is<sentence<structure.htm?
EG"%)les
# don/t like dogs, and my sister doesn/t like cats.
*ou can write on paper, or you can use a computer.
% tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured.
>http:$$esl.fis.edu$learners$advice$syntax.htm?
Co%)leG Sentence
% sentence that contains an independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
>http:$$grammar.about.com$od$c$g$complexsentence.htm?
5or example, J# walked to the store, and # bought some milk, though # really wanted
ice cream,J is compound<complex. #t begins with a simple sentence, J# walked to
the store,J which is connected by JandJ to a complex sentence consisting of the
independent clause J# bought some milk,J and the dependent clause, Jthough #
really wanted ice cream.J
>http:$$www.wisegeek.org$what<is<sentence<structure.htm?
EG"%)les
# don/t like dogs that bark at me when # go past.
)he did my homework, while her father cooked dinner.
H=
*ou can write on paper, although a computer is better if you want to correct
mistakes easily.
>http:$$esl.fis.edu$learners$advice$syntax.htm?
Co%)oundFCo%)leG Sentences
% sentence with two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
EG"%)les
# don/t like dogs, and my sister doesn/t like cats because they make her snee-e.
*ou can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you can easily correct
your mistakes.
% tree fell onto the school roof in a storm, but none of the students was injured,
although many of them were in classrooms at the top of the building.
>http:$$esl.fis.edu$learners$advice$syntax.htm?
!"sic )"ttern o " sentence
There are five basic patterns around which most 2nglish sentences are built.
SFB )ubject<4erb
@ohn sleeps.
@ill is eating.
@ack will arrive next week.
SFBFO )ubject<4erb<3bject
# like rice.
)he loves her job.
"e/s eating an orange.
SFBF(dj )ubject<4erb<%djective
"e is funny.
The workers are la-y.
;aren seems angry.
SFBF(dv )ubject<4erb<%dverb
@im is here.
5lowers are everywhere.
6o one was there.
SFBF? )ubject<4erb<6oun
HA
)he is my mom.
The men are doctors.
!r. @ones is the teacher.

74 &h"t ty)e o sentence is the ollo#in*'
# hurried over to 4arun/s house and met @ared on the way.
simple
compound
complex
compound complex
E4 Choose the sentence th"t is #ritten correctly4
!rs. )mith has a puppy named )pot.
!rs. )mith has a puppy named spot.
mrs. smith has a puppy named )pot.
mrs. smith has a puppy named spot.
H4 ,ind the verb in the sentence4
That women is a millionaire.
is
millionaire
women
<4 ,ind the subject "nd verb in the ollo#in* sentence4
!y voice sounds terrible in the morning.
sounds, terrible
!y, voice
voice, sounds
sounds, morning
34 Identiy the st"te%ent th"t is " r"*%ent4
9reetings, my friend.
#/ll do the same for you.
J'e/re having spinach salad.J
J# made it from scratch.J
64 &hich sentence is #ritten correctly'
1ast week, ;aren dance in the ballet.
HE
1ast week, ;aren dances in the ballet.
1ast week, ;aren danced in the ballet.
1ast week, ;aren has danced in the ballet.
524 ,ind the verb in the ollo#in* sentence4
The pants feel very itchy.
#tchy
feel
SE?TE?CE CO??ECTORS
Sentence connectors F Linkin* Your Ide"s in En*lish
)entence connectors are used to link ideas from one sentence to the next and to give
paragraphs coherence.
)entence connectors perform different functions and are placed at the beginning of a
sentence.
They are used to introduce, order, contrast, seuence ideas, theory, data etc.
!ttps://www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/1...((/sentence.!tml
Sentence connectors F Linkin* Your Ide"s in En*lish
"elp to develop ideas and relate them to one another
'hen speaking in a formal context or when presenting complicated information in
writing they add sophistication to writing style.
Sentence Connectors F Sho#in* co%)"rison
)ource: http:$$esl.about.com$od$writingadvanced$a$wcRaddition.htm
Sentence Connectors F Sho#in* "ddition
HF
Sentence Connectors F Sho#in* c"use -eect
Sentence Connectors F Sho#in* condition
Sentence Connectors F Sho#in* contr"st
!3&2 )26T26+2 +3662+T3&)
...
/ORE SE?TE?CE CO??ECTORS
54 Ti%e
# read the morning papers for a while. (ter#"rds, # took a shower.
,irst pick up the receiver and then insert a coin into the coin<box.
(t irst, # had great difficulty with grammar. 1ater, !owever3 # was able
to overcome these difficulties by studying hard.
The party is Tuesday, but in the %e"nti%e # have to shop and prepare
the food.
They/ll be here soon. /e"n#hile, let/s have coffee.
TIME
at first
afterwards
later
then
in the meantime
meanwhile
HG
14 EGe%)liic"tion
'omen generally live longer than men. ,or inst"nce, in the 8nited
)tates life expectancy for women is FA, while it is F3 for men.
2arthuakes can be highly destructive. To illustr"te, the earthuake
which occurred in 2r-incan in ,H3H devastated the whole town, killing
more than 3A,KKK people.
A4 $"rticul"ri="tion
in particular particularly specifically
)hopping in small markets is uite advantageous. In )"rticul"r, one can find
specialty items that larger stores do not contain.
'e still needed to arrange several details for the trip. S)eciic"lly, we had to
make plane and train reservations as well as decide on the final itinerary.
74 EG)l"n"tion
t!at is namely in ot!er words t!at is to say
The brochure dealt with travelling in !orocco. Th"t is$In other #ords$ ?"%ely,
it discussed transportation, currency, and language.
The machinery was not impairedC th"t is, it wasn/t damaged.
9ood readers should be able to read between the linesC th"t is, they should be able
to make inferences >Xto draw conclusions? about information that is conveyed
indirectly or given only partially.
There is only one topic to discuss, n"%ely, the uestion of discipline.
%s a child grows up, he learns how to behave in ways which are appropriate to the
society into which he is born. Th"t is to s"y, he acuires the patterns of behavior
which are accepted as normal in his society.
E4 E%)h"sis
in fact indeed as a matter of fact actually
"e is uite wealthy. In "ct, he is one of the richest men in Turkey.
# like reading. (s " %"tter o "ct, it is my favorite pastime.
!ural is a highly talented musician. Indeed, he has an extraordinary gift for
music.
EXEMPLIFICATION
for instance
for example
to illustrate
HH
H4 Reut"tion
on t!e contrary
)he is not ugly. On the contr"ry, she is a good<looking girl.
# don/t hate classical music. On the contr"ry, #/m very fond of it.
<4 Reor%ul"tion
in ot!er words to put it in a different way3 put differently
"e is a conservative. In other #ords, he favors the preservation of old
institutions in their original form.
#s there a cheaper solution( In other #ords, can you make a cheaper device(
34 Correction
rat!er to be more precise
"e is enjoying himself. R"ther, he seems to be enjoying himself.
This system must be improved. R"ther, it must be thoroughly changed.
"er name is not !argeret. R"ther, it is !argot.
64 Tr"nsition
as for as to wit! regard to wit! respect to
as regards regarding as far as > is concerned
Both 3rkun and 3-kan are my friends. 3rkun studies law at %nkara 8niversity.
(s or 3-kan, he studies mechanical engineering at !2T8.
(s "r "s comfort is concerned, a car is definitely much better than a bicycle. ?n
t!e ot!er !and3 #ith res)ect to convenience, it is difficult to say the same thing.
!2T8 and #T8 are similar in several res)ects >Xways?. 5irst, they are both
technical universities. )econdly, they are alike "s re*"rds the courses offered.
)ony, which is aAAK, is much more expensive than 9rundig, which is a==K.
"owever, "s "r "s uality is concerned >&ith re*"rd to$ (s re*"rds uality?,
t!e former is far better than t!e latter.
524 (ltern"tive
*ou/re welcome to come with us now in our car. (ltern"tively, you could go later
with !ary.
554 ?e*"tive Condition
or else ot!erwise
# must leave now, or else #/ll be late.
*ou must study hard. Other#ise, you may fail.
514 Su%%"tion- Conclusion
in summary in brief in s!ort in conclusion to be brief to sum up all in
all
,KK
This is our most disastrous and embarrassing defeat everC in short, it is a fiasco.
The system lacked originality, efficiency and ingenuity. In conclusion, it was a
complete failure.
5A4 Other Sentence Connectors
"ter "ll: considering all t!e factors in t!e situation
# don/t think he should be punished for breaking the window. (ter "ll, he/s only
five years old.
incident"lly$by the #"y +used to introduce an additional point t!at t!e speaker !as just
t!oug!t of2
)ome people, and incident"lly that includes &obert, just won/t look after
themselves properly.
"bove "ll +@more t!an anyt!ing else2
"e misses all of us, but he longs "bove "ll to see his family again.
"ll the s"%e: even so3 nevert!eless3 in any case3
# like himC "ll the s"%e, # don/t trust him
"ny#"y3 "nyho#3 in "ny c"se
# wasn/t askedC "ny#"y-"nyho#-in "ny c"se, # wasn/t keen to go.
inste"d +used to indicate contrast2
!ary did not answer. Inste"d she looked out of the taxi window.
'ater shortages %"y trigger conflict between nations.
The first sentence indicates a high level of certaintyC indeed, the claim, or assertion, is
presented as a fact. The second sentence, on the other hand, is more tentative,
suggesting that conflict will occur in certain circumstances or under certain
conditions, but not necessarily in every case.
%s the example above illustrates, the use of hedging enables the writer to make claims
that are proportionate to the evidence available at the time of writing. #n other
words, hedging language helps to make statements as accurate and fair as possible.
)ince there is a wide range of hedging words and phrases, it is important to choose
one that reflects the strength of the supporting evidence.
The use of the word Dprobably. in the sentence below indicates that the evidence is fairly
strong. #n the second sentence, the more tentative word Dcould. was selected, indicating
that the evidence is weak.
The fire was )rob"bly caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge.
The fire could have been caused by a fault in the engine temperature gauge.
,K,
7aying due attention to accuracy and fairness helps to avoid, or at least reduce, criticism
of your work. 4iewed from this perspective, hedging has a persuasive function. "edging
is also used to mitigate criticism of other authors. work, as in the examples below:
@ohnson >2KKF? "))e"rs to ignore the adverse psychological side<effects of this
approach.
The risks of the new vaccine %"y have been overstated.
+www.ncl.ac.uk A ... A (earning resources A 'cademic language B style2
L"n*u"*e used in hed*in* L"n*u"*e used in hed*in*
Ty)e EG"%)les
#ntroductory verbs: doubt, be sure, indicate, think, believe, suggest seem, tend,
look, like, appear to be
+ertain modal verbs will, must, would, may, might, could
+ertain lexical verbs suggest, believe, assume
!odal adjectives certain, definite, clear, probable, possible
%dverbs of freuency often, sometimes, usually
!odal adverbs certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps,
conceivably,
!odal nouns assumption, possibility, probability
That clauses #t could be the case that.
#t might be suggested that.
There is every hope that.
To<clause Z adjective #t may be possible to obtain.
#t is important to develop.
#t is useful to study.
@ed*in* l"n*u"*e: Lookin* "t it "*"in
% wide range of words and phrases can be used in hedging:
/od"l "uGili"ry verbs:
can, could, may, might, should, would
Other %od"l verbs:
appear, look, seem, tend
$rob"bility "djectives:
likely, possible, probable, unlikely
$rob"bility "dverbs:
perhaps, possibly, probably, presumably
,re9uency "dverbs:
generally, occasionally, often, seldom, usually
(ctivity: Identiy the hed*es (ctivity: Identiy the hed*es
,. #t may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was ,. #t may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was
less strong than it is now. less strong than it is now.
2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self<denying to most women today. 2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self<denying to most women today.
,K2
3. 'eismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be 3. 'eismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be
no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution. no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
Ori*in"l teGt #ithout hed*es Ori*in"l teGt #ithout hed*es
,. The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is ,. The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is
now. now.
2. The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self<denying to most women today. 2. The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self<denying to most women today.
3. 'eismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no 3. 'eismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no
successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution. successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
>+onsider the difference meaning that hedging has created? >+onsider the difference meaning that hedging has created?
(ctivity: Identiy the hed*in* eG)ressions in the ollo#in* sentences4 (ctivity: Identiy the hed*in* eG)ressions in the ollo#in* sentences4
There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a feather There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a feather
contributes to survival and reproductionC the difficulty is in thinking of a series of contributes to survival and reproductionC the difficulty is in thinking of a series of
steps by which it could have arisen. steps by which it could have arisen.
5or example, it is possible to see that in @anuary this person weighed EK.G kg for 5or example, it is possible to see that in @anuary this person weighed EK.G kg for
eight days, eight days,
5or example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on which it is 5or example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on which it is
standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch. standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch.
3: Res)onsibility 3: Res)onsibility
#n academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence #n academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence
and justification for, any claims you make. *ou are also responsible for demonstrating an and justification for, any claims you make. *ou are also responsible for demonstrating an
understanding of any source texts you use. understanding of any source texts you use.
@o# to Develo) !etter &ritin* @"bits
There.s no better way to consistently improve your work and knowledge of the
craft than by adopting good writing habits.
These habits will strengthen your writing through study, practice, observation, and
self<reflection.
)et a goal to acuire all of these writing habits over the course of one year or so.
Then, adopt one habit each month. By the end of the year, you.ll be well on your
way to becoming an expert in all things writing.
Re"d4 1istening to audio books and surfing around the #nternet do not count as reading.
+url up with a well written novel, brush up on your nonfiction reading, flip through
some poetry collections. &eading is the single best way to naturally acuire writing
skills.
&rite every d"y4 % music teacher would say it is better to practice for fifteen minutes
every day than to practice for two hours three times a week. # think the same is true
,K3
for writing. 2ven if you can only dedicate a few minutes to writing every day, it will
become an ingrained habit. 'riting will become an integral part of your life.
!rush u) on *r"%%"r "nd style4 #t.s rare for a piece of writing to be so ama-ing that
readers are willing to ignore bad grammar. !any writers are la-y in this area
because learning grammar is a lot of work and it.s academic work rather than
creative work. The good news is that once you learn the rules, they will be with you
forever. !ake sure you know which style guides are pertinent to your chosen field
of writing and make sure you include them in your own collection of writing
resources.
Cultiv"te cre"tivity4 "ave fun with your writing. Try new words and off<the<wall
images. +reative writing keeps readers interestedI
Collect tools "nd resources4 5ind out which writing tools work best for you. )ome of us
like notebooks or note cards. 3thers need nothing more than a simple computer.
!ake sure you have a nice stockpile of writing resources, from blog and maga-ine
subscriptions >on the craft of writing? to books and mentors you can call on when
you.re faced with writing<related uestions.
Conduct thou*htul rese"rch4 #f you work in the nonfiction arena, then make sure
you.ve got your facts straight. 2ven in fiction, there has to be some alignment with
reality for a story to be believable. &esources are abundant. 8se them >and be sure
to check their credentials?.
Develo) " )rocess4 5ind a writing process that works for you. 'hat steps do you need to
complete to tackle a writing project( !aybe you need to start with an outline, or
perhaps you do better when you just dive right in. *ou could have one process for
fiction and another for nonfiction. ;now yourself and know your process, whatever
it may be.
$roore"d0 edit0 "nd revise4 #t.s blatantly obvious when a piece of writing has not been
properly proofread. Typos, grammatical errors, and other crimes against language
will assault anyone who attempts to read your work. )o fix it.
Sh"re your #ork "nd invite eedb"ck4 3ne of the uickest ways to improve your
writing is through feedback. 9et a real, live, well<read person to review your work.
2mbrace the feedback, even if it hurts, and then put it to work for you by ironing
out all the wrinkles that your friendly reader found. &eturn the favor: when you edit
or critiue another writer.s work, you.ll see a piece of writing from the editor.s
angle as well as the reader.s. This will give you a better perspective on your own
work.
/"ke #ritin* " )riority4 #t will be almost impossible to succeed if writing isn.t high on
your list of priorities and commitments. #f writing is last on your daily to<do list,
maybe it.s not something you.re all that serious about
,K=

E. Transform to interrogative

#n many cases, more than one transformation may be performed at a time on a
given sentence.
2xample < passive and interrogative
2xample < passive, negative, and interrogative yes-no
2xample < cleft, emphasis, and interrogative yes-no
$(R(+R($@ DEBELO$/E?T
&h"t is " )"r"*r")h'
% paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one central point.
>Bates, ,HHG: p.E?
% paragraph is a group of related sentencesC it usually has one main idea. #t has a
topic sentence that presents the controlling idea, some supporting sentences, and a
conclusion.
% paragraph is a collection of sentences that all relate to a common theme. #n a
sense, each paragraph is a small essay.
>Taylor, 2KKA: p.3E?
Be considerate of your reader by making your paragraphs not too long, not too
short, and not too dense.
>Taylor, 2KKA: p.3H?
&ritin* $"r"*r")hs
,KA
'riting paragraphs is a skill that comes with practice just like almost everything
else in life. 3nce the formulaic understanding of the types of sentences is mastered,
joining these sentences together is the next major task in writing process. % good
paragraph has a beginning, middle, and end. % good paragraph is one that is well
developed and organi-ed. #t has a main idea or topic sentence. #t has supporting
sentences that add clarification or detail to help the reader understand the topic.
5inally, it has either a concluding sentence or a transitional sentence that ends the
paragraph.s idea completely or moves the reader smoothly to the next paragraph.
>1acie, 2KKG:p.2,,?
The !e*innin*: The To)ic Sentence
The topic sentence states what the paragraph is about and is thus probably going to
be somewhat general in nature.
>Taylor, 2KKA: p.3E?
% topic sentence reveals the writer.s direction. #t tells the reader where the idea of
the paragraph is going. % topic sentence is the beginning, the jumping<off point of
the paragraph. Think of each paragraph as a separate entity. 2ach has a beginning<
the topic sentence. % topic sentence is usually the first sentence of the paragraph but
not always. >1acie, 2KKG:p.2,2?
Revie# the ollo#in* rules or the to)ic sentence4
3ne topic euals one main idea per paragraph.
The support sentences that follow the topic sentence are closely related to the topic
or main idea.
The topic sentence forces the writer to control the writing of the paragraph by
keeping it within the boundaries of the main idea or topic.
The topic sentence should be neither too broad of an idea nor too narrow in scope.
>1acie, 2KKG:p.2,2?
Selection O To)ic Sentence "nd Controllin* Ide"
The topic sentence states the theme and the controlling idea specifies the limits of the
statement
Internet h"s three "dv"nt"*es4
Topic: #nternet
+ontrolling #dea: three advantages
)tarting with this topic the author proceeds to list three advantages
S%okin* is h"r%ul or v"rious re"sons4
Topic: )moking
+ontrolling #dea: many reasons
)tarting with this topic the author gives some reasons why smoking is harmful
,KE
The controllin* ide" %"y be eG)ressed in such )hr"ses
several reasons
three groups
four steps
the following steps
these effects
several problems
three main causes
two aims
three characteristics
two classes
three kinds
many rules
The controllin* ide" %"y "lso be eG)ressed in such #ords:
)uitable unsuitable
9ood bad
)uccessful unsuccessful
Beautiful ugly
Busy free
EGercise: Underline the controllin* ide" in the ollo#in* sentences 4
,. 0ifferent people spend their weekends in different ways.
2. 7eople hold different views about palmistry.
3. There are two misunderstandings about studying.
=. )moking is harmful for four reasons.
A. )chool canteens have three disadvantages.
E. # always run into some problems when # try to study at home.
F. There are only two ways of getting thin.
G. 1ast weekend # had a busy time.
H. # think it is a good idea for everyone to study a foreign language.
,K. The use of chemical pesticides can be harmful for plants and animals.
The /iddle: Su))ort Sentences
)upport sentences do just that: support.
The topic sentences are often enlarged by giving examples, supporting details , facts or
statistics. They can also be enlarged by stating a cause and noting down its effects.
These sentences provide the reader with more specific or concrete details about your
topic sentence or main idea of the paragraph.
)upport sentences help to explain the topic and provide interesting facts.
,KF
8sually there are about three to five support sentences in a paragraph, depending on the
topic. >%dapted from: 1acie, 2KKG:p.2,3?
Take supporting sentences in a paragraph as a logical rather than a random unit.
)upporting sentences also function as a transitory device : help the reader to see the
connections between ideas.
SO
%nything that has no direct bearing on the topic sentence must be excluded.
%pply cohesion and coherence
Look "t " )oor eG"%)leJJ
There are two main reasons why # joined the army. >,? The recruitment office for
joining the %rmy in ;arachi is on )hahra<e<5aisal. >2? "owever the officers have to
go for their initial training to the 7!% %cademy in ;akul. >3? ;arachi is on the top
of %rabian )ea.>=? But ;akul is near the hill station %bbotabad.>A? #t is very green
and beautiful in ;akul and on a clear day snow peaked mountains can be seen.>E?
!y friend %sim had never seen mountains before, so he was happy to be recruited
along with me.>F? #t is a very exciting experience for us.
?o# look "t it "*"in:
There are two main reasons why # have chosen to join the %rmy.>,? 5irst of all it is a
noble profession.>2? #n this profession we are responsible for defending our country.
>3? %lso, our countrymen respect us for our devotion and patriotism.>=? The second
reason is that in this profession there is a lot of scope for personal development . >A?
3fficers are groomed to develop self<confidence and leadership ualities.>E? These
ualities are useful not only professionally but also in other real<life situations.>F?
)o, joining the %rmy was a good decision # took.
The End: Concludin* "nd Tr"nsition"l Sentences
These are used to complete a thought about the topic of the paragraph.
% concluding or clincher sentences ends a stand<alone paragraph with a more thought<
provoking statement.
These are grand finales so to speakC the paragraph is concluded, finished. >1acie,
2KKG:p.2,A?
Concludin* sentences
The boldface sentences that are added onto the support sentences are concluding
sentences. These paragraphs are finished and are not leading to another paragraph.
Tr"nsition"l Sentences
% paragraph that has a transitional ending ends one thought but slides into the topic of
the next paragraph for a smooth transition. >1acie, 2KKG:p.2,A, 2,E?
Ty)es o $"r"*r")hs
#n an essay, there are four types of paragraphs:
introductory,
body,
transitional and
concluding >!c+loud<Bondoc, n.d: p.,?
,KG
Introductory )"r"*r")hs
%n introductory paragraph supports the thesis in three ways.
5irst, it engages readers. interest with a strong opening sentence. )ome writing texts
advise using a uotation or an anecdote to capture readers. attention, and this can
work well.
%n introductory paragraph also supports the thesis by giving relevant background
information and context, such as important facts or theory.
The third, and perhaps most important function of an introductory paragraph, is to
introduce the thesis statement and thereby focus your readers on the central idea of
your paper. >!c+loud<Bondoc, n.d: p.,,2?
!ody )"r"*r")hs
3nce you have engaged your readers and presented your thesis in your introduction, use
your body paragraphs to fully develop your ideas.
*ou can do this by first introducing a sub<topic of the thesis in a topic sentence.
5or example, if you were expanding a theme about 6apoleon.s loss at 'aterloo, you
might have a topic sentence that reads like this: L6apoleon brought on one of the first
financial crises of the 5rench government by emptying government coffers for his war
with Britain.M
6otice that the topic sentence doesn.t provide details, just the general topic of the
paragraph. 6otice also that the topic sentence tells readers how the paragraph.s
topic$main idea relates to the essay.s core thesis.
'ith your topic sentence in place, you can now develop your idea with sentences that
provide supporting details.
>!c+loud<Bondoc, n.d: p.2?
Tr"nsition"l $"r"*r")hs
There may be times when you want to shift from one sub<topic of your thesis to another
or from a general discussion to a more detailed treatment of an idea. %t these times, you
can use a transitional paragraph to sum up and hint at the material to come. Transitional
paragraphs act as signposts that guide readers to the next part of your essay.
>!c+loud<Bondoc, n.d: p.3?
Concludin* $"r"*r")hs
The conclusion should reassert the core idea of your work, but it should also clearly flow
from the material you have carefully developed in your body paragraphs and thus, it
should be more than a mechanical restatement of your thesis. &ather, an effective
concluding paragraph should reinforce the central idea of your paper and leave your
readers satisfied that you have made your case.
3ne way to ensure that you have written an effective conclusion is to ask, L0oes it
strengthen the main message of my paper(M #f it draws conclusions from the points you
have made in your paper or suggests the implications of them, chances are your
conclusion is fully developed.
>!c+loud<Bondoc, n.d: p.=?
,KH
;eep in mind that the purpose of the writing and the audience must be determined: to
focus on the writer.s experiences is the expressive aim, to inform or explain
information is the expository aim, and to persuade or argue the reader to one side of
an issue is the persuasive aim.
Techni9ues to Develo) +ood $"r"*r")hs
)everal methods exist for developing paragraphs. )ome writers may find that simply
using an outline helps them to better enhance their skills, while others may discover that
they need to combine different techniues to put together stronger writing.
"ere are some suggestions that may help in developing a good paragraph:
+reating an outline
Topic sentence development
)upporting details
8sing uotations and evidence
%naly-ing uotations and evidence
7roviding strong, relevant information
8sing concise language
8sing clear words
+rafting a strong conclusion statement
8tili-ing appropriate transition words
5ollowing proper grammar rules
>http:$$examples.yourdictionary.com$examples$examples<of<paragraph<development.html?
Devices to "chieve *ood )"r"*r")h
% true paragraph is not just a set of sentences put together but sentences which are
interlinked with each other. This interlinking provides coherence to the paragraph. There
are four significant devices to achieve this uality. These are:
,. 7ronouns,
2. &epetition of key words and phrases,
3. )ynonyms and
=. +onnectives.
>!ohan T &aman, 2KKF:p. p.,,2?
?o# e"ch o these is discussed in det"il:
$ronouns
'ords that refer to nouns or other pronounsSallow readers to follow your train of
thought from one sentence to the next without boring repetition. 'ithout pronouns, you
would have to repeat nouns over and over.
>https:$$docs.google.com$viewer(aXvTXcache2
EG"%)le
Pasteur proved t!at !e was rig!t by a very simple and clever eperiment. *e put
some soup into some bottles and t!en !e boiled it in order to destroy any germs t!at
mig!t already be in t!e soup. 'fter t!at3 !e !eated and pulled out t!e neck of eac!
bottle until it formed a long narrow neck wit! a big bend in t!e middle.
>!ohan T &aman, 2KKF:p. p.,,2?
,,K
Re)etition o key #ords
% key word is a strong word that.s central to the main idea of the paragraph. &epetition
of a key word is a useful way to achieve +3"2&26+2 in a paragraph.
:apital can build irrigation canals in "ndia3 supply pumps and tube-wells to tap t!e
fres! water under t!e saline mars!es of t!e "ndus river basin in west Pakistan.
:apital can supply tools3 mac!inery3 pesticides3 fertiliCers and provide training in
modern met!ods. Dost important of all3 foreign capital can create an atmosp!ere
t!at is conducive to self-!elp.
>!ohan T &aman, 2KKF:p. p.,,2?
Synony%s
#f you start writing on the topic of hiding something, for example, you might use
synonyms like conceal3 concealing3 !idden3 or camouflage to continue t!at idea in later
sentences or paragrap!s. >https:$$docs.google.com$viewer(aXvTXcache?
EG"%)le:
7oday3 foetal monitors prevent cases of brain damage3 caused w!en t!e babyEs
oygen is cut off during labour and birt!. "ntensive care units for t!e newborn will
!alve t!e rate of FS infant mortality.
>!ohan T &aman, 2KKF:p. p.,,3?
Connectives
+onnectives are words such as but0 i and thereore which indicate logical relations
between two clauses or sentences. They belong to three different word classes:
coordin"tin* conjunctions: but3 and3 or
subordin"tin* conjunctions: if3 because3 until, etc.
"dverbs: t!erefore, nevert!eless3 t!en3 meanw!ile3 etc.
+!ttp://www.p!on.ucl.ac.uk/!ome/dick/tta/connectives/connectives.!tm2
EG"%)le
7!us3 t!e mis!andling of connectives by students is more t!an a minor local
irritant3 t!oug! it is often treated as suc!. ?n t!e contrary3 overuse always s!ades
into misuse3 and because t!e misuse of connectives is inseparable from poor
t!inking3 t!e issue could !ardly be more important.
>!ohan T &aman, 2KKF:p. p.,,3?
TY$ES O, $(R(+R($@
This session )resents ty)es o )"r"*r")h
(nother #"y o lookin* "t )"r"*r")hs
0escriptive paragraph
6arrative paragraph
,,,
2xpository paragraph
%rgumentative and 7ersuasive paragraph
0efining paragraph
+omparison and classification paragraph
7rocess oriented paragraph
2valuative paragraph
#n order to write coherent essays, students need to learn about the basic functions of
various paragraphs in college writing. !ost paragraphs will have several functions
to fulfill at a time and it is important to know under what circumstances their
functions can be conjoined, if at all.
)ources for types of paragraphs: >http:$$writingcenter.unc.edu$handouts$paragraphs$?, www.time=writing.com$free<writing<
resources, suite,<,.com/article/seven-t"pes-of-paragraphs-a---1. www.write.armstrong.edu/!andouts/Dodes.pdf3 and
>https:$$docs.google.com$viewer(aXvTXcache:c5A4s)t2*7#@
Dierent Ty)es o $"r"*r")hs
54 Descri)tive $"r"*r")h
'hen writing this type of paragraph, you describe something with words that allow
your reader almost to JseeJ what you are describing.
% descriptive paragraph provides specific details about what something looks,
smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like.
The basic objective of descriptive writing is the depiction of the appearance of
people, places, and things. The writer helps recreate for the reader sense
impressions >sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste? that have been experienced or
observed by the writer.
3rgani-e spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
#n a paragraph developed by detail, the topic sentence is supported by factual
material, either sense impressions or conceptual facts. %lmost all writing has some
detail in it.
0escription is not what you saw, but what readers need to see in order to imagine
the scene, person, object, etc.
0escription reuires you to record a series of detailed observations. Be especially
careful to make real observations.
The success of a description lies in the difference between what a reader can
imagine and what you actually saw and recordedC from that gap arises a spark of
engagement.
,,2
8se sensory language. 9o light on adjectives and adverbs.
1ook for ways to describe action.
7ay special attention to the sound and rhythm of wordsC use these when you can.
8se strong verbs and colorful adjectives in a descriptive paragraph
4erb 2xamples: run, leap, jump, shout, whisper
%djective 2xamples: smelly, disgusting, gorgeous, radiant, brilliant,
black, tall
)ample )entences with strong verbs and colorful adjectives:
JThe petite young girl merrily skipped around the blossoming,
fragrant bushes.J
J% strong, putrid odor flowed through the musty air outside the
garbage dumpster.J
#n these examples each sentence lets the reader see >and smellI? what is being
described.
2xamples of 0escriptive 7aragraphs.doc
S"%)le Descri)tive $"r"*r")hT,iction
#t was a tiny, grubby<looking pub. #f "agrid hadn.t pointed it out, "arry wouldn.t have
noticed it was there. The people hurrying by didn.t glance at it. Their eyes slid from the
big book shop on one side to the record shop on the other as if they couldn.t see the
1eaky +auldron at all. #n fact, "arry had the most peculiar feeling that only he and
"agrid could see it. Before he could mention this, "agrid had steered him inside. 5or a
famous place, it was dark and shabby. % few old women were sitting in a corner, drinking
tiny glasses of sherry. 3ne of them was smoking a long pipe. % little man in a top hat was
talking to the old bartender, who was uite bald and looked like a toothless walnut. The
low bu-- of chatter stopped when they walked in.
Sfrom *arry Potter and t!e SorcererEs Stone, by @. ;. &owling >)cholastic, ,HHH?
www.writersonlineworks!ops.com/continued.../t"pes-of-paragraphs/
A4 EG)ository $"r"*r")h
3ften this kind of a paragraph is used as a component of other types of writing. #t.s
written in order to clarify or explain problems and phenomena. 'riting exposition
paragraphs reuires strict focus on evidence and objective language. #t can contain
elements of comparison and contrast, or cause and effect writing as both facilitate
accurate exposition of the subject<matter.
'hen writing this type of paragraph, you provide information.
*ou write it in a logical seuence so your reader can follow the ideas.
,,3
Three parts of an 2xpository 7aragraph are: ,. topic sentence,2. supporting
sentences in a logical seuence, 3. concluding sentence
2xposition is explanatory writing
2xposition can be an incidental part of a description or a narration, or it can be the
heart of an article
%side from clarity, the key problem with exposition is credibility. 'hat makes your
explanation believable(
6ormally, writers solve this problem by citing authorities who have good
credentials and good reason to be experts in the subject.
2xamples of 2xpository 7aragraph
74 (r*u%ent"tive or $ersu"sive $"r"*r")h
This paragraph is of the kind of writing used widely in editorials and columns, and it uses
a direct, exhortatory approach: Believe !e and 0o #tI
% persuasive paragraph may also serve as the message of L3;, now get up and
actIJ
To persuade people to change their minds or take an action, more is needed than
your opinion or sense of conviction.
*ou need to supply them with the information, analysis, and context they need to
form their own opinions, make their own judgments, and take action.
E4 Deinin* $"r"*r")h
0efinition paragraphs are used in order to explain the meaning, origin and function of
things. They are used both in academic writing and fiction. To write a definition
paragraph, writers should concentrate on the role of its subject in the context of the essay
and account for evidence as well as examples accordingly.
0efining paragraphs demand more accuracy in presentation.
*ou can define in different ways such as using an authentic source such as
dictionaryC or you can define by characteristics.
Be careful of the danger that it may become monotonous when you define anything
by the Jaccording to 'ebster/sJ method. !eaning is found in the world, not in the
dictionaryC so relate it to real world as well.
)ometimes saying what something is 63T can help readersC but make a strong
effort to say what it #).
H4 Co%)"rison "nd Cl"ssiic"tion )"r"*r")h
There is a helpful techniue for writing a comparison. #f you follow it, your
comparisons will benefit.
,,=
Before writing a comparison, draw up a chart and fill it in, to make certain you have
all the elements necessary to write a comparison.
#f you do not make such a chart, there is a chance you will have loop< holes in your
comparison.
0evise a system of presenting comparisons.
%bove all tell at the beginning about that system.
The classification paragraph is usually expository and is a process of grouping
terms or ideas that are related in some specific way.
'riting classification paragraphs reuires a more varied approach. #t should be
concentrated on defining as well as making relevant comparisons. #n other words,
writers should classify the subject of the paragraph in a specific context providing
comparisons to corresponding ideas. +lassification can be performed on multiple
levels P semantic >comparing different meanings of things?, linguistic >using
vocabulary to show contrast?, and more.
<4 $rocess (n"lysis $"r"*r")h
2xplain how something works, step by step. 7erhaps follow a seuenceSfirst, second,
third. 'riting about a )rocess is " rhetoric"l str"te*y th"t re)orts " se9uence o
actions by which something is done or made. % process usually proceeds chronologically
Sfirst do this, then do that.
#n describing how a process happens or how to perform a series of actions, always
think of your readers: can they follow this(
%naly-e the process into a series of steps. 7ut the steps into seuence.
Then isolate the steps: number them or give a logical seuence
8se illustrations keyed to the steps when appropriate: people can often read
diagrams better than they can read lists of steps
%lways ask an outsider to read your process analysis to see if it can be followed.
3nce you are close to a subject, it is difficult to know when you have left something
out.
34 Ev"lu"tive )"r"*r")h
The basis of an evaluative paragraph or essay is to put a value on something
>literature, drama, objects, food, movies, etc.? To begin an evaluation the writer
must first set the criteria on which the object is being judged.
E.ERCISE: &rite one )"r"*r")h st"rtin* #ith e"ch o the to)ic sentences4
,. 4isitors love ;arachi for four reasons.
2. Telling lie causes several problems.
,,A
3. )chools are like prisons for three reasons.
=. 'earing wrist watch has many advantages.
A. There are some major moral issues in the existing society.
E. Television is affecting badly two groups.
F. 7eople are learning 2nglish for many reasons.
G. Two classes are suffering from unemployment.
H. # do not read newspaper for a few reasons.
,K. # usually work harder at weekends than # do during the week
,,. $(RT 5: &RITI?+ (? OUTLI?E
(?D
$(RT 1: USI?+ ( DICTIO?(RY
0r. )arwet &asul
&h"t is "n Outline'
%n outline is a way of formally arranging and developing your ideas. Though
formal in form, there is a great amount of flexibility in how you might approach making
an outline. #t can be made either before you.ve written a single word on the topic or after
a draft or two. #t can uickly cover the main ideas or become a detailed, in<depth
undertaking.
The purpose of an outline is to help you organi-e your paper by checking to see if
and how your ideas connect to each other, or whether you need to flesh out a point or
two. 6o matter the length of the paper, from a 3<page weekly assignment to a AK<page
senior thesis, outlines can help you see the overall picture.
Besides the basic structure >&oman numerals followed by capital letters followed
by %rabic numerals, etc?, there is no right or wrong way to make an outline. *ou can do a
combination of short phrases with long sentences, or stick with one or the other.
http:$$writing2.richmond.edu$writing$wweb$outline.html
Ty)es o outline
#. 'hat is it(
%. 5orm
B. 7urpose
##. !acro
%. 7hrases
B. 2xample
,. 2xplanation
2. %nalysis
###. !icro
%. 0etails
B. Quotations
,,E
+. 2xample
,. 2xplanation
2. %nalysis
#4. +rafting an outline
%. #dentify Topic
B. !ain 7oints
+. 3rder
0. )ub<points
2. 2valuate
4. 3utline to 7aper
%. 'here to start
B. +hanging outline
+. &etro<outlines that could be ordered in any number of ways.
/"cro Outlines
!acro outlines, also known as topic outlines, help you to see the larger picture through a
series of short phrases. #t is particularly helpful when you are writing about a variety of
ideas or issue. %s you can see, each part of the outline consists of just a few words, and
conveys the basic idea of what belongs there, without going into too much detail. #t is
very easy to uickly look over and see the big picture, making sure you.ve covered all the
points that you want to discuss. #n addition, you can easily rearrange any section simply
by copying and pasting, without getting too bogged down.
!acro outlines tend to work well in conjunction with clustering, as the short
phrases from a clustering exercise can translate uickly to a macro outline.
+lustering is a type of prewriting that allows you to explore many ideas as soon as
they occur to you.
1ike brainstorming or free associating, clustering allows you to begin without clear
ideas.
To begin to cluster, choose a word that is central to your assignment. 5or example,
if you were writing a paper about the value of a college education, you might
choose the word JexpectationsJ and write that word in the middle of your sheet of
paper. +ircle Jexpectations,J then write words all around it<<words that occur to you
as you think of Jexpectations.J 'rite down all words that you associate with
Jexpectations,J words that at first may seem to be random. 'rite uickly, circling
each word, grouping words around your the central word. +onnect your new words
to previous ones with linesC when you feel you have exhausted a particular avenue
of associations, go back to your central word and begin again.
,,F
/ore det"ils on: &h"t is Clusterin*'
5or example, JexpectationsJ might lead you to consider Jthe social aspects of
college,J which may lead you to consider Jcareer networking.J *ou may then find
yourself writing down words that compare the types of jobs you might get through
career networking. *ou may end up asking yourself uestions such as J'hat sorts
of jobs do # want( 6ot want(J "ave fun with this exerciseC even silly uestions can
open avenues to explore, such as J'hat if # ended up waiting tables at Buddy/s(J
J'ould # rather be a lion<tamer or an accountant(J J'hat about my brilliant career
as a stand<up comedian(J
)ome words will take you nowhereC with other words you may discover that you
have many related words to write. &andom associations eventually become patterns
of logic as you look over your work. %fter looking over the clustering exercise
above, you might conclude that you want an exciting career as a performer of some
type, rather than a job in the service sector or behind a desk.
,,G
6ow your sample paper$ essay about the value of a college education has some
focus: how you expect college to lead to an interesting career that involves
creativity, skill, and performance. *ou might then want to return to the phrase J@ob
)killsJ and develop that part of your cluster, noting the skills that you/d need to
reach your ideal career.
+lustering does not take the place of a linear, traditional outlineC but, as the example
shows, it allows you to explore ideas before committing them to a particular order.
/icro Outlines
% !icro 3utline, contrary to what its name might suggest, micro outlines can be
even longer than macro outlines. % micro outline >also known as a sentence outline?
goes into the little details of the paper, and is particularly useful when the topic you
are discussing is rather complex in nature. 5or this reason, it is often more useful to
create an outline using complete sentences, rather than the short phrases of the
macro outline.
#n addition, it can sometimes be useful to insert the uotations you may use and
subseuent analysis into your micro outline. This can help to ensure you have
enough support for your ideas, as well as a reminder to actually analy-e and discuss
uotations rather than simply insert them and move on.
S"%)le o /icro outline
#. 'hat is an 3utline(
%. %n outline is a formally arranging and developing your ideas
B. The purpose of an outline is to help you organi-e your paper, checking to see if
and how your ideas connect to each other, or whether you need to flesh out a point
or two
##. !acro 3utlines
%. !acro outlines, also known as topic outlines, help you to see the larger picture
through a series of short phrases
B. 2xample
,. 2ach part of the outline consists of just a few words, and conveys the basic idea
of what belongs there, without going into too much detail
2. #t is very easy to uickly look over and see the big picture, making sure you.ve
covered all the points that you want to discuss !ind maps
###. !icro 3utlines
%. % micro outline >also known as a sentence outline? goes into the little details of
the paper, and is particularly useful when the topic you are discussing is complex
,,H
in nature
B. #t can sometimes be useful to insert the uotations you may use and subseuent
analysis into your micro outline
+. 2xample
,. % micro outline tends to be much longer than the macro outline.
2. By using complete sentences, you are able to see exactly what you are writing
about instead of relying on key words to spark ideas
#4. +rafting an outline
%. #dentify Topic: put it in your own words to show your individual
understanding.
B. !ain 7oints: 'hat are the main ideas you want to convey or need to convince
your audience(
+. %rrange your main points in a logical order and list them in the outline.
0. +reate sub<points beneath each major idea
2. 2valuate your outline. 1ook over what you have written. 0oes it make logical
sense( #s each point suitably fleshed out( #s there anything unnecessary(
4. 3utline to 7aper
%. 3ne of the best things about an outline is that you can start at any point, and
still know what you need to discuss before and after that section.
B. #t may be that the act of writing these ideas out has spawned new ideas that
simply need to be added to your outline.
+. Try a retro<outline, which means creating an outline from the paper rather than
vice versa. This method is uite useful before handing in any paper, regardless of
whether or not you made an initial outline.
%s you can see from this example, a micro outline tends to be much longer than the
macro outline. "owever, by using complete sentences, you are able to see exactly what
you are writing about instead of relying on key words to spark ideas. )ome people also
find it easier to move from a micro outline to the paper, since there is so much already
written, and they can simply continue to expand on the ideas with further analysis rather
than trying to remember the reason why some point was included in the first place.
Sentence outline: )ource: *orkey, &. +. >,HG2?. )tudy )kills for )tudents of 2nglish. >2nd ed.?. 6ew *ork: !c9raw<"ill
/ovin* ro% the Outline to the $")er
3nce you have a satisfactory outline, you are ready to start writing the essay$ paper.
3ne of the best things about an outline is that you can start at any point, and still
know what you need to discuss before and after that section. Try to follow the flow
of the outline as much as possible, since that is its purpose.
%s you write, however, you may find yourself diverging from your outline. 0on.t
panic. #t may be that the act of writing these ideas out has spawned new ideas that
,2K
simply need to be added to your outline. 9o ahead and add them, but make sure all
the ideas still flow together well.
3n the other hand, moving away from the outline can also mean that you have lost
your focus. )o, be careful.
?OTES T(KI?+
Introduction
Deinition: 6ote<taking is the practice of recording information captured from another
source. By taking notes, the writer records the essence of the information, freeing his$ her
mind from having to recall everything.
&h"t is ?oteFT"kin*'
6ote taking involves making a permanent written record of main points and
supporting details to which one may refer later. %lthough note taking most
commonly is used to record oral presentations, note taking strategies may also be
used to record notes from written sources.
6ote taking involves recording ideas and facts that you learn in class to help you
remember and use them later. The five &.s of note
taking are as follows: &ecord, &educe, &ecite, &eflect, and &eview.
$ur)oses o ?ote t"kin* Str"te*ies
6otes are not just collections of information. The information must be recorded
correctly and in an organi-ed manner in order to be of use at a later time. 6ote
taking strategies, then, are designed to improve one/s ability to take more accurate,
more complete, and more organi-ed notes.
6ote taking strategies are not just for students. )ome of the strategies may be used
by instructors for the purposes of improving lecture structure and enhancing student
understanding of material. The strategies may also be applied in the workplace.
www.muskingum.edu/Gcal/database/general/notetaing.!tml
&hy notes t"kin* str"te*ies'
6ote taking skills help one to pay better attention to an oral presentation or written
document because they keep the individual active. #n academic context, good note
taking skills aid in understanding of material, effective preparation for exams, and
completion of assignments. They also improve reading comprehension.
6ote taking strategies are broadly applicable to a variety of tasks and subjects. 3nce
they are introduced and mastered, the strategies often become Jsecond natureJ to
the individual and therefore don/t reuire repeated work to use, unlike some of the
memory strategies.
www.muskingum.edu/Gcal/database/general/notetaing.!tml
,2,
?otes "s " study tool
The following list provides a few reasons why note taking is an important activity:
Taking notes will help you to extend your attention span >&owntree, ,HFE: ,,2?.
'hen reading or listening, your mind may tend to wander off. *ou might be
inclined to think about work, money, or relationships. #t is uite easy for other
aspects of your life to pop into your head while you are listening to a lecture or
while you are reading. Taking notes helps keep you focused on your subject area
and to the task at hand >;esselman<Turkel and 7eterson, ,HG2: 2?.
Taking notes will help you to remember what you have heard or read >;esselman<
Turkel and 7eterson, ,HG2: 3?. 'e learn more effectively when we use multiple
senses and multiple activities. 'hen note<taking we are using listening$reading and
writing skills and we are using our brain and muscles. %lso, by writing down notes,
you are paraphrasing the lecture or reading material into your own words and into a
format that you are more likely to understand when you review the notes. %nd as
an adult learner you are more likely to remember what you have heard or read if
you take an active part in your learning. &ather than being a passive listener or
reader, note taking makes you an active learner. The notes you produce are your
own work and are a visible reminder of the effort you have put into the course. This
in itself can be a motivational factor for your studyI
6ote taking helps you to organi-e the ideas you are learning about >;esselman<
Turkel and 7eterson, ,HG2: 3<E?. 9ood notes should arrange topics into easy<to<
review chunks of information that are clear and well referenced. This is important
if you are using your notes to review for an examination or for as a starting point in
an assignment >&owntree, ,HFE: ,,2?.

#t may be tempting not to take notes and to just sit back and listen to an interesting
lecture or to become engrossed in an interesting reading. The disadvantage of these
strategies is that at the end of the lecture or reading you may only have a vague
recollection of the important and sometimes assessable issues. #n such cases the
reading may have to be re<read, which is time consuming and sometimes
tedious. The taking of effective notes while you are reading is an important
academic activity that helps you to concentrate, stimulates your ability to recall, and
helps you to be organi-ed. >http:$$education.exeter.ac.uk$dll$studyskills$noteRtakingRskills.htm?
(dv"nt"*es o noteFt"kin*
There are two main values of making notes.
5irst, note<taking reuires active participation in the learning process.
6otice the difference between note<taking and note<making.
To take notes suggests a passive procedure of recording words verbatim, like a
secretary taking dictation.
,22
To make notes demands your full attention.
*ou must be alert to the pattern of thought, its direction and development, and you
must distinguish between what is important and what is not.
This active involvement is what makes note<making difficultC it is also what makes
note<making valuable.
% second value of making notes is their use when the time comes to review the
material and relate it all together.
6otes help you recall and summari-e information, and help you understand the
material in the total context rather than as separate series of lectures or chapters.
>*orkey, ,HG2: p.,GA?
Others "lso su**est "dv"nt"*es o note t"kin* str"te*ies
6ote taking skills help one to pay better attention to an oral presentation or written
document because they keep the individual active. #n academic contexts good note
taking skills aid in understanding of material, effective preparation for exams, and
completion of assignments. They also improve reading comprehension.
>http:$$www.muskingum.edu$Wcal$database$general$notetaking.htmlVBackground?
Ti)s or t"kin* notes ro% re"din*s
8nderstand what you are looking for in the reading. %re you looking to gain a
general understanding or are you searching for specific information or support for
an argument(
% well structured reading, should begin by outlining the main premise, argument or
ideas in the first few sentences, and certainly in the first paragraph. 7ick out the
main premise and write it down.
#f you understand the premise, you may read the examples given to support it.
6ever include examples in your notes. 3nly include the facts, avoid experiences
and anecdotes where possible.
&owntree >,HFE: =K<E=? outlines what he calls the D)Q3&. approach to reading and
note taking from text. "e suggests that students should use the following activities
in order to get the most from a reading in the most efficient way.
)urvey P flip through the chapter or book and note the layout, first and last chapters
or paragraphs, look at the headings used, familiari-e yourself with the reading.
Question P %sk uestions about the way the reading is structured and think about
the uestions you will need to keep in mind while reading. Think about whether or
not you think the book is relevant or if it.s current and if it suits the purpose of your
study.
&ead P read actively but uickly, looking for the main points of the reading P don.t
take any notes P you might want to read through twice uickly.
,23
&ecall P 'rite down the main points of the reading and any really important facts,
and opinions that help support the main points. %lso record the bibliographic
details.
&eview P repeat the first three steps over and make sure you haven.t missed
anything. %t this point you might like to finali-e your notes and re<read your notes
or write down how the material you.ve just covered relates to your uestion or task.
http:$$education.exeter.ac.uk$dll$studyskills$noteRtakingRskills.htm
The ,or% o ?otes
The form in which you make notes depends upon the subject of the course and
whether they are from a book or a lecture. The most common and versatile form is
probably an outline, indicating logical divisions and developments of important
points. "owever, some students find a summary or a series of uestions and
answers is a satisfactory record of information. %lthough the outline form is
recommended, you may want to experiment to determine the kind that best suits
your personality and purpose.
>*orkey, ,HG2: p.,GA?
Ty)es o noteFt"kin*
Three types of 6ote<taking are:
the +ornell format,
the !indmap format, and
the standard organi-ed outline format.
*ou should choose the format that feels most comfortable and will allow you to record
the subject matter best.
>http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(urlXhttpN3%N25N25www.mayland.edu
N25aca,,,N256oteTaking!odule..pdf?
The Cornell or%"t
#t is based on the A &.s of 6ote Taking
&ecord, &educe, &ecite, &eflect and &eview
&ecord your information as normal
&educe ideas and facts on the left side of the page
&ecite your D&ecall. column
&eflect on the notes
&eview all notes for ,K minutes every week
>http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(
,2=
The /ind /") or%"t
!ind !aps are diagrammatic ways of organi-ing key ideas from lectures and texts which
emphasi-e the interconnection of concepts and illustrate the relative hierarchy of ideas
from titles, to main concepts, to supporting details. Because they are diagrammatic, they
have the potential to capture a lot of information on a single page. They help show the
conceptual links between ideas and allows for additional material to be added without the
need to crowd the page. %nd, because they typically feature key words and phrases, they
allow for the same kind of review that is facilitated by the +ornell notes.
>http:$$academic.udayton.edu$legaled$online$class$noteK,c.htm?
St"nd"rd or*"ni=ed outline or%"t
Title
#. 5irst !ain 7oint
%. 5irst )ub<point
, 5act
a. 0etail
b. 0etail
2. 5act
a. 0etail
b. 0etail
B. )econd )ub<point
,. 5act
2. 5act
a. 0etail
b. 0etail
##. )econd !ain 7oint
+ontinue in the same manner with differing numbers of sub<points, facts and details as
seen necessary. Then summari-e your notes.
>http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(?
/"kin* ?otes
The most important consideration in making notes is what to write down and what
not to. % few sketchy notes reflect a failure to fully understand the development and
organi-ation of the material.
3n the other hand, notes that are too complete fail to distinguish between essential
information and subordinate ideas and examples. This too makes review difficult.
#f you remember that the purpose of notes is to guide you carefully through the
course, to aid your thinking by setting out the main points, and to remind you at
later time of the development and relationship of essential ideas, you should have a
fairly adeuate guide to what should be recorded in your notes.
>*orkey, ,HG2: p.,GA?
#t is also necessary, especially during lectures, to decide and to write rapidly.
,2A
%s far as rapid writing is concerned, regular note<taking practice should stimulate
the use of some sort of abbreviation system. +ommon symbols, such as the
following , can be used:
e.g. for example
re concerning
T and
X is eual to
b greater than, or become
c less than, or came from
>*orkey, ,HG2: p.,GA,,GE?
Eective notes t"kin*: Eective ?otes t"kin* re9uires #h"t'
2ffective note<taking reuires:
recognising the main ideas
identifying what information is relevant to your task
having a system of note taking that works for you
reducing the information to note and diagram format
where possible, putting the information in your own words
recording the source of the information
>http:$$www.lc.unsw.edu.au$onlib$note.html?
?oteFT"kin* Str"te*ies
Source: http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(
Z>http:$$www,.chapman.edu$arc$goodnotes.html?Z http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(
"4 Re"d beore t"kin* notes4
'hile it is not necessary to read the entire chapter before taking notes, you must
finish titled sections or long paragraphs before selecting main ideas and
paraphrasing. #t is difficult to know what to record unless you have enough
information from which to choose.
7re<read: )kim read, look at the diagrams, captions, major concepts
b4 !e )re)"red
Be prepared with paper and writing instrument of your choice
c4 Reduce distr"ctions
P )it at appropriate place
P 2nsure you are not hungry
d4 DonIt t"ke notes just or notes s"ke
,2E
Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. 0on.t take
notes just to be taking notesI Take notes that will be of real value to you when
you look over them later.
e. Kno# #h"t to record4
#dentify major topics based on section headings. Try to pick out one major idea
per paragraph along with a few supporting details. 1ook for words in bold print
or italics.
0on.t write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the
main points. +oncentrate on the JmeatJ of the subject and forget the trimmings.
)tart a new page for each new topic
f. !e selective in #h"t you record4
6otes should consist of key words, or very short sentences. %s a speaker gets
side<tracked you can go back and add further information.
3mit descriptions and full explanations. ;eep your notes short and to the point.
+ondense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.
&emember that the goal of note taking is to produce a shortened version of the
reading. This is a skill that improves with practice.
*4 Use your o#n #ords4
#nformation should be paraphrased before it is recorded in notes. The time spent
trying to understand a passage and recording the main ideas in your own words is
the single most important investment of time you can make. The chances of
remembering are greater if the work is in your own words.
*ou should usually use your own words, but try not to change the meaning. #f you
uote directly from the author, uote correctly.
8se diagrams
h4 &ork 9uickly "nd eiciently4
6ote taking need not be, and should not be painful and time consuming. &ead,
think, write, and move on.
i4 Use "n "))ro)ri"te or% o or*"ni="tion4
)elect a form of organi-ation that will permit uick and active recall of the main
points. The form should also allow you to see associations among ideas. The
+ornell !ethod is a good choice.
,2F
j. @"ve " unior% syste%
"ave a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to you.
#f you use a skeleton outline, show importance by indenting.
k. Le"ve s)"ce

1eave lots of white space for later additions so that you can go back and add
information as and when necessary.
0on.t worry about missing a point. 1eave space and try to pick up the material you
miss at a later date, either through reading, uestioning, or common sense.
6ote any concepts you aren.t sure of.
l. Kee) order
0on.t keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. ;eep notes in order and in one
place.

'hen possible, write down page numbers and book titles for you to reference if
needed.
3nly take notes on one side of the paper.
m. Revie# "ter so%e ti%e

)hortly after making your notes, go back and rework >not recopyI? your notes by
adding extra points, spelling out unclear items, etc.. &emember, we forget uickly.
Budget time for this vital step just as you do for the )T80* itself.
&eview your notes periodically. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.
Re"din* ?otes
5or practice in note<making, outlining written material is the best way to begin. *ou have
the text before you so that you can see the topic sentences, references, connectives, and
transitions. *ou have time to consider the relative importance of ideas, and you can refer
forward or backward in the text<all of which is impossible while listening to a lecture.
$RESE?T(TIO? SKILLS
&h"t is " $resent"tion'
,2G
% presentation is a means of communication which can be adapted to various
speaking situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a
team.
To be effective, step<by<step preparation and the method and means of presenting
the information should be carefully considered.
>www.skillsyouneed.co.uk$7resent$whatRisRaRpresentation.html?
% presentation is a reflection of you and your work. *ou want to make the best
possible impression in a short amount of time given to you.
&h"t is " *ood )resent"tion'
9ood preparation is the key to confidence, which is the key to being relaxed. 9ood
preparation and rehearsal reduces your nerves, decreases the likelihood of errors
and communicates to your audience that they are important.
7reparation and knowledge are the pre<reuisites for a successful presentation, and
confidence and control will flow from good presentation.
% great presentation does not just happen. #t is planned, rehearsed then delivered
with flair. % good presenter is one who learns the skills of presenting<not one who
hopes for talent to carry them through.
7ublic speaking is a skill not a talent. *ou can be a good presenter if you learn the
skills for presentational success.
>!attiske,2K,,?
Ty)es o )resent"tions
Inor%"tive $resent"tions
The purpose of an informative presentation is to co%%unic"te inor%"tion0 "cts
"nd d"t". ;eep an informative presentation brief and to the point. )tick to the facts
and avoid complicated information.
Instruction"l $resent"tions
The purpose of an instructional presentation is to *ive s)eciic directions or
orders. *our presentation will probably be slightly longer, given that it has to cover
your topic in detail. #n an instructional presentation, your listeners should come
away with new knowledge or a new skill.
(ttention +r"bbin* $resent"tions
The purpose of an attention grabbing presentation is to %"ke )eo)le think "bout "
cert"in )roble% or situ"tion. *ou want to arouse the audience.s emotions and
intellect so that they will be receptive to your point of view. 8se vivid language in
an attention grabbing presentation to project sincerity and enthusiasm.
$ersu"sive $resent"tions
,2H
The purpose of a persuasive presentation is to convince your listeners to accept your
proposal. % convincing persuasive presentation offers a solution to a controversy,
dispute, or problem. to succeed with a persuasive presentation, you must present
sufficient logic, evidence, and emotion to sway the audience to your viewpoint.
DecisionF%"kin* )resent"tions
The purpose of decision<making presentation is to %ove your "udience to t"ke
your su**ested "ction. % decision<making presentation presents ideas, suggestions,
and arguments strongly enough to persuade an audience to carry out your reuests.
>!attiske, 2K,,?
$l"nnin* your )resent"tion
#t is important to plan your presentation and think about how long it will take you to
prepare.
>http:$$library.leeds.ac.uk$skills<presentationVactivate<planningRyourRpresentation?
% few steps for planning a presentation are:
&esearching the audience
+hoosing the title
'riting the talk
7reparing the slides
5inding suitable images
'riting prompt notes$cards
&esearching the venue
7racticing
)etting up the room
Re%e%ber the "udience
6ever take your audience for granted. 7eople have very short attention span. 6ot more
than ,AN of their brain power is reuired to understand the language and grasp what you
mean. 0on/t let the remaining GAN of their brain to do daydreaming. To keep your
audience with you, you must build in new devices P make your message visual, build
anticipation, create a conversation cycle, use role<play practices P to keep your listener/s
mind ,KKN occupied.
>http:$$www.,KKKventures.com$businessRguide$crosscuttings$presentationsRmain.html?
$re)"rin* to )resent
G? Objectives
'hy are you giving this talk(
'ho will you be talking to(
"ow much do they know about the subject already(
,3K
'hat effect do you want your presentation to have(
14 Li%it"tions
"ow long have you got(
0o you have to follow a certain format(
'here will you be giving your presentation(
+an you change the room around to suit your preferences(
A4 /"in )oints
0ecide on your main points: no more than three points in a ,K<minute talk
#s there a logical connection between these points(
'hat evidence can you produce to support your points and make your case clear(
H? !e*innin*
Briefly introduce yourself
+heck that they can all see and hear you
1et them know if you are going to take uestions as you proceed or invite
discussion at the end(
*ou may want to give an outline of the structure of the talk, so the audience know
where it is going
*ou.ll need to gain the audience.s attention, so think carefully how you will
introduce your topic P for example, you could start with an anecdote, a uestion or
some contradictory statements
,K? /iddle
7repare your talk so you lead the audience through your main points in a logical and
interesting fashion. #t helps if you plan for variety in the ways you present your
case.
'here they are appropriate, you could plan to use:
,3,
examples, anecdotes and case histories
charts and graphs
handouts >will you issue them at the start( #n the middle( %t the end(?
slides
video clips
artifacts which people can pass round.
,,? End
)ummari-e what you have said: H"n t!is talk we !ave discussed...E
!ake your conclusions: H"t is clear t!at...E
7lan to leave the audience a parting shot to stimulate their thoughts.
,2? (nd then444
'hen you have written your presentation, look it over carefully, from the viewpoint
of your intended audience.
0oes it meet the objectives(
#s the structure as logical as can be(
#s the content right for the audience(
#s it too long(
Then revise the presentation.
,3? Bisu"ls
7repare your visuals >7ower7oint slides, 3verhead 7rojector foils, etc?.
!ake sure they are clear, and that any text is big enough >2= points or larger?.
)ource : >http:$$www.studyskills.soton.ac.uk$studytips$presentations.htm?
&ritin* your Content
Structure
*our presentation should have a clear structure. The following is a good rule of
thumb:
Tell them what you.re going to tell them >introduction?
Tell them >main body?
Tell them what you told them >conclusion?.
,32
The points within the main body of your presentation should have a logical flow.
>http:$$library.leeds.ac.uk$skills<presentationVactivate<writingRyourRcontent?
Bisu"l "ids
54 8se acetates on an overhead projector. 8se only a few lines of text in large print
or a simple diagram for each acetate.
14 #f you are confident the technology will work, you may prefer to use 7ower7oint.
"owever, ensure you have acetate back<ups.
A4 #f you use 7ower7oint or similar software, avoid gimmicks such as jingles,
animation, or sound effects that either distract attention or slow down the
presentation. #f you Dfly in. text, make sure you use the same method throughout the
presentation.
74 ;eep it simple. 8se technology as a tool where it helps, rather
than for the sake of it.
>http:$$www.palgrave.com$skills=study$studyskills$personal$presentation.asp?
Usin* $o#erF)oint0 Overhe"d $rojector or ,li) Ch"rt
*ou may be allowed to use an overhead projector >3"7?, data projector, or flip
chart as part of your talk, #f you think that you might like to use one, then it.s wise
to try to practice on one beforehand so you know what you are doingI
Before you start check the co%)uter "nd the li*htin*: make sure no bright lights
are illuminating the screen.
St"nd to one side of the projector$flip chart, so the audience can see the material.
,"ce "nd s)e"k to your "udience0 not the screen4 #nexperienced 7ower7oint
presenters have their backs to the audience most of the timeI
(ll too oten the slides "re just " security bl"nket or the s)e"ker, not visual aids
for the audience.
>http:$$www.kent.ac.uk$careers$presentationskills.htm?
Usin* $o#erF)oint0 Overhe"d $rojector or ,li) Ch"rt
DonIt use too %"ny slides: three or four should be sufficient for a short
presentation. 5or a ,A minute session G would be the absolute maximum and
probably less. 0on.t have too much text on each slide P no more than about =K
words. 2ach slide should last for at least 2 minutes. The more slides and the more
words on each slide, the less the audience will listen< whereas the less and simpler
slides you have, the better you will communicate. 7lan your presentation carefully
and only use slides where they will clarify points.
DonIt try to #rite too much on each slide: 3K to =K words in a large font si-e is
ample for one transparency. 8se note form and bullets rather than full sentences. #t
is very hard for a member of the audience to read slides and listen simultaneously P
they are unlikely to do doing either well. The best slides cont"in just " e# #ords4
,33
Slides c"n cont"in )ro%)ts to remind you of what you will say next.
>http:$$www.kent.ac.uk$careers$presentationskills.htm?
$ress # to bl"nk the screen or b to black it out >pressing any key restores the
slides? when talking about a point which does not reuire a slide thus reducing the
distraction for the audience. 0ark blue on white or cream gives a good contrast,
whereas red text on a green background is harder to read
Use " l"r*e :"bout 17 )oint; S(?S ont such as 4erdana or 1ucida )ans. 036.T
78T 242&*T"#69 #6 8772& +%)2 %) T"#) 133;) +&802. +heck that the
slides are easy to read from a distance.
Use colour "nd bold or e%)h"sis but don.t use too much colour. "ave a good
contrast e.g. dark blue text on a cream background.
$ictures0 es)eci"lly t"bles0 di"*r"%s "nd ch"rts are good. 7ower<point is
excellent for the delivery of pictures and diagrams and they will help to break up
and add variety to the long streams of text seen in many >badI? presentations. The
average 7ower7oint slide contains =K words.
% little hu%our can grab the attention of the audience.
DonIt *et c"rried "#"y #ith l"shy $o#er$oint tr"nsition eects as these may
distract attention form the content.
#f using $o#er$oint write do#n your %"in )oints on " )ostc"rd si=ed )iece o
c"rd as a prompt and also as a backup in case the technology failsI
Too %"ny bullets c"n %"chine *un your "udience to slee)M 9ood presentations
will have a variety of slides: some with bullets, some without and many with
images and charts. Twenty slides with A bullets on each means you are trying to get
across one hundred points, whereas the average person will absorb at most A points
from a presentation.
>http:$$www.kent.ac.uk$careers$presentationskills.htm?

On the d"y
54 %rrive first.
14 %rrive early enough to check the euipment and seating are as you want them.
A4 "ave water to hand.
74 %ct confident no matter how you are feeling.
E4 !ake eye contact with the audience.
H4 )mile.
>http:$$www.palgrave.com$skills=study$studyskills$personal$presentation.asp?
St"rtin* " $resent"tion
,3=
#n modern 2nglish, 7resentations tend to be much less formal than they were even
twenty years ago. !ost audience these days prefer a relatively informal approach.
"owever, there is a certain structure to the opening of a 7resentation that you
should observe.
9et people.s attention
'elcome them
#ntroduce yourself
)tate the purpose of your presentation
)tate how you want to deal with uestions
+et )eo)leIs "ttention
#f # could have everybody.s attention.
#f we can start.
7erhaps we should begin(
1et.s get started.
&elco%e the%
'elcome to OO..
Thank you for coming today.
9ood morning, ladies and gentlemen.
3n behalf of OO, #.d like to welcome you.
Introduce yoursel
!y name.s OO... #.m responsible for travel arrangements.
5or those of you who don.t know me, my name is OO..
%s you know, #.m OOOOOO.
St"te the )ur)ose o your )resent"tion
This morning #.d like to present OOO...
Today #.d like to discuss OOOO..
'hat # want to do this morning is to talk to you about OOOOOO
St"te ho# you #"nt to de"l #ith 9uestions4
#f you have any uestions, #.ll be happy to answer them as we go along.
5eel free to ask any uestions.
7erhaps we can leave any uestions you have until the end(
There will be plenty of time for uestions at the end.
>http:$$www.effective<public<speaking.com$starting$menu.php?
,3A
S)eed "nd )"cin*
!any presentations, even those by professionals, may go wrong because people try
to cover too much information in the time available. They then try and gabble their
way through a set of bullet points at top speed even though people cannot take in
what is being said.
+ut out unnecessary information P and even information you think is valuable if it
does not fit into the time allowed. *ou must be able to deliver the whole
presentation at a speed slower than your normal talking speech. This is necessary so
that people can take in what you are saying and jot down some notes.
Talk more slowly than you feel is necessary. Take a moment or two to breathe
between each point.
Le"ve ti%e or 9uestions

Treat your audience with the respect you would like to have shown to you. %nswer
their uestions directly and honestly.
1isten carefully to any uestion and, if the audience is large, repeat it to ensure
everyone in the audience has heard. %nswer briefly and to the point.
#f you do not know an answer then say so and offer to find out and ensure that you
do so. L)orry, # don.t knowM is a very acceptable answer to some difficult
uestions. &elax and do not feel as if you do have to know everything.
#f you are asked a uestion and you feel you should know the answer, consider
saying: LThank you. That.s a very interesting uestion. +an # get back to you on
that(M
Questions can be neutral, friendly or hostile. #f a uestion is provocative, answer it
directly. 6ever be rude to the uestioner or show you are upset. 0o not
compromise yourself but maintain your point of view and never lose your temper.
>http:$$www.skillsyouneed.co.uk$7resent$dealingRwithRuestions.html?
@o# to I%)rove Your $resent"tion Skills
Berb"l Delivery
!e !rie P % 2KKA study by the "elsinki institute found that the average adult was
able to focus on a loading web page for only four to eight seconds before looking
,3E
somewhere else. %ttention spans are shortC don.t dwell on a specific subject too long.
(sk 9uestions to kee) the "udience en*"*ed P This can be something as simple
as pausing to ask if your audience understands everything you.ve presented thus far.
S)e"k to your de%o*r")hic P !atch the semantics of your audience as closely as
possible. )peak their language. D#f you.re selling a skateboard, for instance, your
semantics are going to be a lot different than if you.re working with a litigation attorney,.
7arnell says.
&ork on your tone P 2volutionary psychology suggests that people of both sexes
respond better to deep male voices and high female voices, 7arnell says. #t takes practice
to change the tone of your voice, but it can be done.
(void s)e"kin* sotly or other s)eech )"tterns th"t %"ke you see%
unconident P 5or example, avoid ending sentences in an escalating tone that suggests
every sentence you speak is a uestion.

You should0 U%%0 "void0 Uh0 ill #ords P %guilera offers one strategy for
kicking a fill<word habit: )ay the offending word and concentrate on it..Then tell
yourself, Dthis is a fill word, #.m avoiding this,.. he says. D'hen you say this, it creates
that pattern of changing it so that you.ll catch yourself when you start saying it.D
DonIt use #ords like donIt P 0on.t think about elephants. 3k, now what are you
thinking about( %guilera says that is why it.s important to avoid phrases like Ddon.t
worry.. Tell your audience what they should do instead. )imilarly, don.t say D# hope you
will enjoy this presentation.. )ay, D# am confident that you will enjoy this presentation..
http:$$www.inc.com$guides$how<to<improve<your<presentation<skillsRpagenR2.html?

1; !ody L"n*u"*e
St"nd "t " co%ort"ble dist"nce P 7arnell suggests remaining within 2.A P F feet of
your audience. This presupposes >at a subconscious level? a personal to social
relationship.
Eye cont"ct P 0on.t surf the audience with your eyes. &ather, make eye contact with
one person at a time.
())e"r conident:
a? )houlders back
b? %rms at your sides or held in front of your body when making gestures
c? "ands open or only slightly closed
d? )mile slightly or keep your face neutral.
e? Take long strides
f? !ake every movement purposeful and decided
g? Treat props >like your resume or a handout? as though they are of value.
h? 0on.t let a paper in your hand flap back and forth carelessly.
,3F
A; $o#erF)oint
( +ood $o#erF)ointJ
a? &elies heavily on images.
b? "as only one or two sentences per slide.
c? 2ntertains.
d? 2nhances your presentation, but doesn.t summari-e it.
( !"d $o#erF)ointJ
a? +ontains font smaller than 32pt.
b? "as more than five or six lines of text per slide.
c? 0isplays a logo on every slide >your audience won.t forget
who you are?.
d? #s printed and distributed as a handout.
>http:$$www.inc.com$guides$how<to<improve<your<presentation<skillsRpagenR2.html?

$resent"tion skills success
$re)"r"tion
+ettin* st"rted
9ive yourself a starting date for the project.
0o a little everyday.
Think about who will you be speaking to(
Think about what LhardwareM will you use(
Rehe"rs"l
Dos o rehe"rs"l:
8se short sentences
8se short words
8se the active tense
8se lively language
Be precise
7roject your voice
DonIts o rehe"rs"l:
8se long complicated sentences
8se long abstract words
8se passive tense
,3G
8se ,3Hlichds
Lhum and hawM
Be monotonal
(ntici)"te the >uestions
Try to anticipate the uestions
;now your subject
)tand over your data
)tay calm, Breathe
Tell the truth
#f you don.t know, say so
Break long uestions into smaller units
0on.t be intimidated
>9race?

DOI?+ RESE(RC@
0r. )arwet &asul
Introduction to Rese"rch:
It is "n indis)ens"ble co%)onent o university educ"tion
In n"tur"l "nd )ure sciences is dierent but is e9u"lly i%)ort"nt
&h"t is rese"rch'
)tudious inuiry or examinationC especially : investigation or experimentation
aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or
laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.
>http:$$www.merriam<webster.com$dictionary$research?
&esearch is also called a process of constant exploration and discovery
LThe systematic study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and
reach new conclusion.M
>3xford 2nglish 0ictionary, 2KK2?
L% systematic process of collecting and analy-ing information >data? for some
purpose.M
>!c!illan and )chumacher, ,HHF?,
,3H
L)ystematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among
such phenomena.M
;erlinger >,HGE?
So%e other deinin* )hr"ses:
% 5ormal 0ocument
;nowing a )ubject Thoroughly
2xpression of your 8nderstanding about the Topic
3utcome of +ritical Thinking
#nvestigation
2xamination of #nformation
+areful Questioning
Rese"rch is:
&esult of your #ntellectual +uriosity
#nformation about your 5indings
0emonstration of your %nalytical capabilities
2xplanation of your personal #nsights and 2xperiences
#ntegrated 1earning and Thinking
%nalysis and )ynthesis of different sources
+areful 2valuation of 2vidence
% &easonable, Bias free conclusion
It is "lso i%)ort"nt to kno# th"t rese"rch is not:
@ust gathering information.
&earranging facts.
+ombining a paragraph from an encyclopedia with a couple of paragraphs from
'ebsites. That/s plagiarism.
&ewording each phrase and citing each source. That/s just a summary of facts with
someone else/s name on them.
>http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(?
I%)ort"nce o rese"rch
&esearch is very vital to our everyday decision making.
#t helps you identify wrong information, and saves time and money.
#t is important to your success in academics.
&hy rese"rch is conducted'
'e may like to call this process >research? as a person.s thinking game or whole
brain activity, which the psychologists call as right and left brain attributes.
>+herry et.al. ,HH3?
&here rese"rch is conducted'
&esearch is conducted in many settings:
2ducational institutes,
,=K
laboratories,
classrooms,
libraries,
the city streets
foreign cultures, etc.
2very research differs in time duration, funding, effort involved etc.
(ttributes o " *ood rese"rch
&esearch
is based on the work of others
can be replicated
is generali-able to other settings
is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory
is doable
generates new uestions or is cyclical in nature.
is incremental
is an apolitical activity that should be undertaken for the betterment of
society
Ste)s in rese"rch )rocess
%sking the uestion e
#dentifying the important factorse
5ormulating the hypothesise
+ollecting relevant informatione
Testing the data e
'orking with the hypothesise
'orking with the theorye
Back to new uestions
E(C@ STE$ SETS ( ST(+E ,OR T@E ?E.T STE$
Key st"*es in rese"rch )rocess
)election of a research problem
&eview of relevant literature
)election of an appropriate study design or strategy
9aining ethics approval where indicated
0evelopment of data collection tools
#mplementation of study
%nalysis of data
'riting up findings
&epresentation of research process
,=,
/(8OR DESI+?S O, RESE(RC@
The 9u"lit"tive rese"rch:
is conducted to have a better understanding of not only about the current
situation is but also why it is so
is much broader in scope than the historical research
is more open and responsive to the research participants
uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies
is characteri-ed as multi<method
offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies
>u"ntit"tive rese"rch ocuses on:
collection of numerical data
statistical data analysis
description of data, finding out the relationship among uantifiable
variables and inferring of results
>u"lit"tive vs4 >u"ntit"tive Rese"rch
>u"lit"tive >u"ntit"tive
Over"ll )ur)ose
EG)l"in "nd *"in insi*ht "nd
underst"ndin* o )heno%en" throu*h
intensive collection o n"rr"tive d"t"
Revie# o rel"ted Liter"ture
Li%ited
Does not si*niic"ntly "ect
)"rticul"r study
Rese"rch settin*
Over"ll )ur)ose
EG)l"in )redict or -"nd control
)heno%en" throu*h ocused collection o
nu%eric"l d"t"
Revie# o rel"ted Liter"ture
EGtensive
Does si*niic"ntly "ect
)"rticul"r study
Rese"rch settin*
,=2
?"tur"listic to the de*ree )ossible
S"%)lin*
S%"ll
?ot necess"rily re)resent"tive
In order to "c9uire in de)th
underst"ndin*
D"t" Collection Str"te*ies
P Docu%ent collection
P $"rtici)"nt observ"tion
P Unstructured0 inor%"l
intervie#s
P T"kin* eGtensive0 det"iled
ield notes
D"t" (n"lysis
R"# d"t" "re #ords
Essenti"lly on*oin*
Involves synthesis
Controlled to the de*ree )ossible
S"%)lin*
R"ndo%
L"r*e
Re)resent"tive s"%)le in order to
*ener"li=e results to " )o)ul"tion
D"t" Collection Str"te*ies
P ?on )"rtici)"nt
observ"tion
P Se%iFstructured0 or%"l
intervie#s
P (d%inistr"tion o tests
"nd 9uestionn"ires
D"t" (n"lysis
R"# d"t" "re nu%bers
$eror%ed "t end o study
Involves st"tistics
Ty)es o >u"lit"tive Rese"rch
C"se Studies
The study of an individual$ institution in a uniue setting or situation in an intense
and detailed manner
0ifferent methods for data collection
0ata collected can lead to the formation of the theories
+hance of researcher.s own bias
&esults can not be generali-ed
Time consuming type of research
Develo)%ent"l Rese"rch
The developmental research is conducted to understand changes that occur
throughout the process of development.
Two main types of the developmental research are:
2. 1ongitudinal
3. +ross< sectional
,=3
Lon*itudin"l
%ssessment of the changes in behaviour of one group at more than one point
)ame people are studied at more than one time
2xtended over a long period of time
#s expensive
7eople may drop out from the studies
Cross Section"l
)tudy of many people at one point in time
#nvolves limited time period and cost, as compared to the longitudinal method
0rop out of people does not occur
0escribes the linear relationship between the variables through correlation
coefficient
The relationship between the variables can be positive or negative
@istoric"l Rese"rch
&elated to the interpretation of the events occurred in the past
1onger than other researches
0oes not focus on highly developed or one single methodology
!aterial is studied, information is synthesi-ed, facts are analy-ed and the results
are drawn
0ata is collected through:
the primary sources or the original sources
the secondary sources or second<hand sources
%ccuracy in selection of the documents counts a lot in producing the authentic
results
"elps in decision making in current situation in the light of what has been done in
the past
7rediction of future possibilities
Ethno*r")hy
% field research deals with the origins, development and characteristics of
humankind
Basically associated with anthropology
0ata is collected through observing the naturally occurring behaviour within a
social group in natural settings or using triangulation
#t uses multiple data sources ualitative and uantitative
+an be called inductive, interactive and recursive data collection
8ses concept of culture as a lens for interpretation of results
0ata is interpreted according to the situation from which it has been gathered
3n the basis of these interpretations the results are drawn
Survey rese"rch
)urvey can also be referred to as L5ield &esearchM conducted to get the opinion of
people about some issue
,==
2xtended over a long period of time conducted on a large sample and extensive
data collection >ualitative and uantitative? is involved
!ost important methods for data collection are the Questionnaires and the
#nterview
Ty)es o >u"ntit"tive Rese"rch
There are two main types:
EG)eri%ent"l Rese"rch
#t checks the cause and effect
3ne variable is manipulated in determining its effect
The control is in the hands of the researcher
7ilot testing of the instrument to find out the reliability
5ormulation of control and treatment groups
%dministration of pre and posttest
"ypothesis testing
?onFeG)eri%ent"l rese"rch
6on<experimental research methods describe relationships between variables

6on<experimental research methods are descriptive, historical and correlational
(ction rese"rch
Deinition: %ction research is small<scale intervention in the functioning of the real world,
and a close examining of the effects of this intervention.
Ch"r"cteristics:
(ction Rese"rch is Situ"tion"l: To diagnose a problem in a specific context, and
to solve it in that context
(ction Rese"rch is Coll"bor"tive: Teams of researchers$ practitioners work
together on a project
(ction Rese"rch is )"rtici)"tory: Team members themselves take part, directly
or indirectly, in implementing the research.
(ction Rese"rch is ,leGible: #t is adaptable in different situations or changes in a situation
(ction Rese"rch is SelF ev"lu"tive: !odifications are continuously evaluated within the
ongoing situation with the ultimate objective to improve practice in some way or the other.
St"rtin* rese"rchJdeine your to)ic
St"te your to)ic "s " 9uestion
2xample:
Use your 9uestion to look or inor%"tion
Think about the JkeywordsJ associated with your uestion. These keywords are
the '"3, '"%T, '"2&2, and '"26 of your uestion.
,=A
Deinin* the To)ic
% well<defined research topic gives focus, sets boundaries and provides direction. #t:
i. 0efines and identifies the focus of the research.
ii. 0efines the nature of the research endeavor< whether the aim is to discover,
explore, explain, describe or compare.
iii. 0efines the areas of interest< whether the interest is why, when, where, what or
how.
iv. #ndicates if a relationship is foreseen between concepts being explored< whether
looking for impacts, decreases, causes, correlations, etc.
Develo)in* "n Eective Rese"rch >uestion
The best research begins with a uestion becauseO
Questions help you to find direction.
Questions help you to narrow your scope.
I%)ort"nce o " *ood rese"rch 9uestion
% good research uestion:
P 0efines the investigation
P )ets boundaries
P 7rovides direction
5or 2xample:
,. 0o children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more
developed skills(
2. 0o children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more
developed language skills(
Your Resources
There are a variety of information resources which can help you find basic and
background information.
3ften called reference works, these resources will also help you find keywords which
you can use later when you are planning your search strategy.
&eference works can help you find:
definitions < dictionaries
short essays < encyclopedias
short biographies < biographical dictionaries
statistics < government publications
Ev"lu"te inor%"tion
*ou wouldn/t buy a car just because the salesman told you it was a terrific deal
and a great car. 5or the same reasons, you shouldn/t accept information without
evaluating it in some way. There are a number of issues to consider when
evaluating information which are relevant whether you found the information in a
printed source or on the #nternet:
(uthority << 'ho wrote the piece(
,=E
(ccur"cy << 'hile you don/t want to spend all of your time checking sources, if
something doesn/t seem right or contradicts what you have read elsewhere, be
sure to check it out.
(i% << 0oes the author have a special purpose and if so, what is it(
>http:$$www.library.okstate.edu$infolit$step=.htm?
$ri%"ry Rese"rch
7rimary research is any type of research that you go out and collect yourself.
2xamples include surveys, interviews, observations, and ethnographic research. %
good researcher knows how to use both primary and secondary sources in her
writing and to integrate them in a cohesive fashion.
+onducting primary research is a useful skill to acuire as it can greatly
supplement your research in secondary sources, such as journals, maga-ines, or
books. *ou can also use it as the focus of your writing project. 7rimary research is
an excellent skill to learn as it can be useful in a variety of settings including
business, personal, and academic.
>http:$$owl.english.purdue.edu$owl$owlprint$AAH$?
Second"ry Rese"rch:
)econdary sources consist of data that has already been produced and can be
contemporary or historical, ualitative or uantitative. )econdary sources include
0ocuments, 1etters, 0iaries, %utobiographies, &eferencing other forms of research and
using uotes.
The benefits of the use of secondary sources include:
)ave time and money
!ay provide information and access to historical data
!ay be used to prove or disprove an argument or theory
!ay be used to offer general background information
+an be used to set the scene of the research and its findings
!ay be useful for putting the research into context
&esearchers must always carefully consider the reliability and validity of
secondary sources.
/"n"*in* Dist"nce Le"rnin*
I?TRODUCTIO?
0istance learning has become a pervasive and growing phenomenon.>p.3?
0istance learning is any learning system where teaching behaviors are separated
from learning behaviors. The learner works alone or in a group, guided by study
material arranged by the instructor in a location apart from students. )tudents
have the opportunity to communicate with an instructor with the aid of a range of
media >such as text, telephone, audio, video, computing and #nternet technology,
etc?.
0istance learning may be combined with various forms of face<to<face meetings.
>p.=?
>http:$$www.pdfdownload.org$pdf2html$viewRonline.php(?
,=F
0istance learning can be referred to by a variety of terms, such as distance
education, online learning, e1earning, e<instruction, and web<based instruction
>'B#?.
2xpressions ?pen learning and ?pen Fniversity are also popular.
>5enton T 'atkins, 2K,K: p.vii?
/odels o Dist"nce Le"rnin*
The two basic models of distance education are synchronous and
asynchronous modes of interactivity.
#n synchronous learning, the teacher and the student interact in real time, similar
to traditional classroom settings, but this method decreases flexibility. #t reuires
all students to be online, in a videoconference, or in a virtual classroom at the
same time.
(synchronous le"rnin* occurs when individuals access the educational materials
independently and at times and places of their choice. %synchronous activities
allow students to take as much time as they want to read the materials and
compose responses or messages. #t also allows time for reflection and may result
in thoughtful discussion. >6ovotny and 'yatt, 2KKA: p A?
&h"t "re the "dv"nt"*es o synchronous le"rnin*'
)ynchronous communication has the obvious advantage of providing immediate access
and feedback from the instructor. This face<to<face >real or virtual? access to the
instructor has a cost to the learning measured in commitment to a schedule and
sometimes even to a location depending on the technology used. )ynchronous
communication is advantageous when the benefit of the JliveJ interaction is greater than
the drawbacks of commitment to schedule and$or location.
>http:$$www.grayharriman.com$distanceRlearning.htmVA?
&h"t "re the "dv"nt"*es o "synchronous le"rnin*'
%synchronous communication has the advantage providing the learner and instructor
with a choice of location and time. 'hile it is this flexibility which is often the focus of
interest, there are a number of hidden advantages to asynchronous communication.
The physical distance that is often seen by many as a disadvantage can have positive
effects by making learners and instructors more objective, less fearful of comment or
criticism, less prone to cultural barriers >especially as a world<wide online culture
develops, and more inclined to think through problems before responding. #t is the time
for learners to reflect, and even check their facts, before responding to comments.
>http:$$www.grayharriman.com$distanceRlearning.htmVA?
Deinin* /"n"*e%ent !anagement is the process of doing or getting activities done
efficiently and effectively making decisions on what to do and how to do it and then
checking that it is done the way it is planned.

&h"t does /"n"*in* Dist"nce Le"rnin* /e"n'
,=G
&esponsibility lies with you.
6o immediate feedback.
+hances of lapses are always there.
#ssues of time and stress management are faced.
@o# Dist"nce Le"rnin* &ill !e Eective ,or You'
0istance 1earning can be effective, and it can be as effective as traditional instruction.
"owever, how effective it is depends largely on the methods and technology used and
their appropriateness in relation to the instructional tasks$objectives.
2ffectiveness is also affected by student<to<student and student<to<instructor
interactions. 6ot only is this true because of the needed exposure to new ideas and
feedback but because of the affective dimension of learning.
)o, #dentify your role(
>http:$$www.grayharriman.com$distanceRlearning.htmV2a?
Role o the Dist"nce Te"cher #f media used effectively, teachers can Lbecome
facilitators of learning, rather than communicators of a fixed body of information.
The learning process proceeds as knowledge building among teachers and
studentsM.
0istance learning allows students to hear and perhaps see teachers
Role o the Dist"nce Student The primary role of the student is to learn. 8nder
the best of circumstances, this challenging task reuires motivation, planning,
and the ability to analy-e and apply the information being taught.
!any distance<education students are older, have jobs, and families. They must
coordinate the different areas of their lives which influence each other, their
families, jobs, spare time, and studies.
0istant students have a variety of reasons for taking courses. )ome students are
interested in obtaining a degree to ualify for a better job. !any take courses to
broaden their education.
Role o the Dist"nce Student #n distance education, the learner is usually
isolated. The motivational factors arising from the contact or competition with
other students is absent. The student also lacks the immediate support of a teacher
who is present and able to motivate and, if necessary, give attention to actual
needs and difficulties that crop up during study.
0istant students and their teachers often have little in common in terms of
background and day<to<day experiences and therefore, it takes longer for student<
teacher rapport to develop. 'ithout face<to<face contact distant students may feel
ill at ease with their teacher as an JindividualJ and uncomfortable with their
learning situation.
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#n distance education settings, technology is typically the conduit through which
information and communication flow. 8ntil the teacher and students become
comfortable with the technical delivery system, communication will be inhibited.
>http:$$www.uiweb.uidaho.edu$eo$distG.html?
!"sic Dist"nce Le"rnin* Skills
,. !e %otiv"ted
%s a distance student you.ll need to be a self<directed learner. To ensure that you
can do this, you need to be highly motivated. The best way to stay sharp is to have a clear
goal in mind for what you want to achieve through your education. #f you are working
toward a degree, your goal may be to finish your degree and improve career.
14 !e conident
Before you take a distance learning program prepare yourself for it as it will give
you confidence to handle the courses. *ou should be confident of the skills that are
involved in university learning, such as reading university<level textbooks and writing
research assignments.
A4 Le"rn ti%e %"n"*e%ent
Time<management skills are essential in distance learning. Before signing up for
your distance course, ensure you have enough time to spend on the course. % general rule
is to allow two hours of study for every hour of class. 5or example, if you have 2 hours of
class time a week, you should plan to spend about = hours studying, approximately E
hours per week. 3nce you know how much time you need to spend, create a schedule.
74 Set *o"ls
% good way to stay on top of your work is to set goals. The more you do now, the
easier it will be at the end. Break large tasks down into smaller parts. Breaking down
your ultimate goal into small, manageable steps is the best way to make regular progress
whilst feeling like you.re actually achieving something. *our tutor will help you set a
timetable which breaks down the course elements, but it can help to break these down
even further when it all starts to feel like too much.
#f you have a paper due at the end of the course, break it down so you do part of it
each week. 2nsure that you accomplish the goals you set for yourself by the end of each
week. 'hen it comes time to pass in the paper, you.ll be glad you did this.
E4 +et to kno# your course %"teri"lsJ
*our course materials and textbooks are designed to give you the basic knowledge
and information you need to get through the course, so make sure you.re familiar with
them. #f your textbooks are still in their wrappers, it.s time to get readingO
H4 Jbut donIt stick to the% eGclusively
&eading around your chosen subject will give you a greater breadth and depth of
knowledge, so extra reading and research can really help your studies. *our tutor will be
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able to suggest good resources, and will be able to offer you extra advice based on their
own experience as well.
F. &eview your courses
3ne great advantage of distance courses is that you are able to view and replay
them all or in part as many times as you wish which will allow you to customi-e your
notes and review more challenging information as often as you like.
34 C"ter or your le"rnin* style
#f you don.t already know it, now is an excellent time to find your learning style
and use it to your advantage. Try to convert the topic or subject you are studying into a
format that helps you to learn best, whether that is reading, listening, looking or doing.
64 Cre"tin* Su))ort
Telling your family, friends, colleagues or even your boss about your studies is a
great way to stay motivated on your course and get some much<needed encouragement
and praise as you achieve your goals. 2nlisting others to help give you a push can be a
good way to ensure you study at the times you have set aside, and the watchful eye of
these people might help stave off any thoughts of slacking offI
524 ,ind other students
9etting in touch with other students on the same course as you can be a great way
to swap ideas and make friends, and can make your course a lot more enjoyable. 5orums,
social networks etc. can all be great ways to meet up with other people studying the same
course as you.
554 Tre"t yoursel
%ll work and no play can make it difficult to succeed on a distance learning
course, so don.t be afraid to reward yourself for your achievements. Treating yourself for
achieving goals will help to motivate you and give you a sense of progress and
achievement on your course, so planning rewards for milestones such as submitting work
or completing units can be a useful way to keep your spirits high as you study.
Ti%e /"n"*e%ent in Dist"nce Le"rnin*
0istance learners need to set up a system to succeed. 1earn how to successfully
manage your time, create schedules for yourself,
balance your academic work with real life, and keep yourself motivated.
Time management is crucial for distance students because of the flexible nature of
distance study, the fact that distance study is fitted into an already existing busy
life, and the distance from class and other students who can indirectly help each
other keep up<to<date. #t is important that distance students use their time wisely.
>http:$$owll.massey.ac.n-$study<skills$time<management<for<distance<students.php?
Or*"ni=e Your Study "round Other Co%%it%ents
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*ou have already made fixed time commitments to your family, your work and
your friends. Try to set up a study schedule that recogni-es these time commitments.
"owever, you set up your study schedule, treat that time as seriously as you do your job
or your sleep time.
!e Re"listic (bout Your Study Schedule
Try to be realistic in planning your study time. *ou probably will have to give up
some of the things you do to make time for study. "owever, almost everybody needs
some down time for recreation and leisure activities. *ou will find it easier to stick to a
study schedule if it includes some time to relax.
Try To +et So%e Study Done Every D"y
)tudy is easier if you can spread the work out, rather than trying to cram it all into
a few days. &esearch with university students has shown that you learn better and
remember more if you spread out your study.
>http:$$distance.uvic.ca$students$time.htm?
Set Re"listic +o"ls
)et goals for yourselfI 2ach time you begin a period of study, decide what it is
you want to accomplish in the time you have. %nd make sure that your goal is a realistic
one. #f you have set aside 3 hours for study, your goal might be to read two assigned
chapters in your text and make summary notes, or it might be to write several pages of an
essay.
!e Re"listic "bout Your Concentr"tion S)"n
!ost people find it difficult to concentrate for long periods. #n fact, many people
find that their attention begins to wander after 2K minutes. #f you plan to read or write for
long periods of time, break up your study with short breaks for a stretch or walk around
and you.ll find it easier to stay focused.
)tress is your body.s reaction to the demands that are placed on it. #t occurs when
we feel that we can not cope with what our lives demand from us.
Believe it or not, a moderate level of stress can actually be good for you. #t can
pump you up and increase your attention level. 7eople perform at an optimum
level when stress is moderate. "owever, too much stress doesn.t have the same
effect.
2veryone is bound to feel stressed out sometimes. *ou can.t really escape stress,
but there are some things you can do to reduce it and better manage it.
Stress /"n"*e%ent in Dist"nce Le"rnin*
54 St"y he"lthy
#ronically, in times of stress we neglect the things we need to do to help us
properly manage stress. 6o matter what is going on around you, your first priority should
,A2
be to take care of your body. *ou need to eat nutritious food and get good sleep. 2xercise
keeps your body healthy and also gives you an outlet for your stress.
14 !eco%e "#"re o your stressors
&ecogni-e the situations and people who are stressing you out so you can avoid
them if possible. *ou may be making yourself susceptible to unnecessary stress.
A4 Le"rn ti%e %"n"*e%ent
Time management is a great way to reduce stress. #t keeps you organi-ed and
ensures that you get everything done on time.
74 T"ke " bre"k
*ou need to allow yourself to take a break on your study schedule. #t is important
that you get your work done, but you also have to take breaks.
E4 $r"ctice "cce)t"nce
)ometimes you have to accept the things that can not be changed. 1earn to ignore
what is beyond your control and be positive about things you can control. #f there is
nothing you can do about whatever is causing you stress, try to put it out of your mind
and move forward.
H4 S"y no
#t is good to reali-e you have limits. )ometimes you have to say no to certain
reuests so you do not increase your stress level. %t times this may be tough to do, but it
is important.
<4 +et hel)
Talking to friends or family members may also help put things in perspective. #f
stress is a constant problem for you, make an appointment to speak to a professional.
>http:$$www.msvu.ca$en$home$studentservices$academicadvisingsupport$studyskills$stressmanagement.aspx?
/ediu%s Used in Dist"nce Le"rnin*
$rint %ediu%
7rint is the most common medium used in distance education. 5orms of print are
textbooks, manuals, course notes, and study guides.
(udioF "nd Bideoc"ssettes:
)ometimes distance learning programmes provide what is called Jvideo<based
instructionJ. #n such a program, video tapes are the main medium of delivery of
information to the learner.
%udio< and videotapes have come to play an increasingly important role as media
for distance education. These technologies are convenient and cost<effective.
!ost people have 4+&s in their homes, and videotapes are easy and inexpensive
to distribute.
These media can be used to present the views of experts, which would increase
the credibility of and interest in the materials. !aterials that cannot be
communicated by print could be communicated this way. 4ideo is a powerful
,A3
medium in terms of capturing attention, and conveying a lot of information
uickly.
7roducing audio< or videotape helps keeping students in track, and get people
involved.
% distant learner has to learn how to deal with these materials.
0ealing with these materials includes:
identifying them,
understanding them
organi-ing them and >related euipment?
storing them
utili-ing them
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