Chapter 3

Techniquesof Integration
3.1 Integration of Rational Functions
A function of the form P(x)/Q(x), where P and Q are polynomials is called rational function.
We have already considered integrals of simple rational functions. Now we shall consider in
details about integration of rational functions.
3.1.1 Integration of the form
,
2
dx
c bx ax
q px

+ +
+
(p, are constants)
!o evaluate this integral determine M and N such that
N b ax M N c bx ax
dx
d
M q px + + = + + + = + ) 2 ( ) (
2
"euate the coefficients of li#e powers of x and solve the resulting simultaneous euations.
!hen evaluate the integrals as follows$

+ +
+
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
dx
c bx ax
N dx
c bx ax
b ax
M dx
c bx ax
q px
2 2 2
% 2
dx
c bx ax
N c bx ax M

+ +
+ + + =
2
2
%
ln
!he second integral can be evaluated by completing the suare. !his is e&plained through an
e&ample.
Example :"valuate dx
x x
x

+
+
'( %2
' )
2
Solution: *et us ta#e
B x A x + = + ) %2 2 ( ' )
"uating the coefficients of x and independent tems, we have
2 / ) or ) 2 = = A A
'' ) 2 / ) ( %2 ' ' %2 = + = = + B or B A
Thus
dx
x x
dx
x x
x
dx
x x
x

+
+
+

=
+
+
'( %2
%
''
'( %2
%2 2
2
)
'( %2
' )
2 2 2
dx
x
dx
x x
x

+
+
+

=
% ) + (
%
''
'( %2
%2 2
2
)
2 2
( ) C x x x +

+ = + +
%
tan '' ln(
2
)
) '( %2
2
3.1.2 Integration of the form
,
) (
) (
dx
x Q
x P

using partial fractions.

,t is said to be proper fraction if the degree of P(x) is less than degree of Q(x), otherwise, it
is called improper fraction. An improper numerical fraction such as (/' may be written as
(/'- 2 . %/'. /imilarly, an improper fraction may be e&pressed, by division, as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction.
For example,
x x
x x
x
x x
x x
+
+ +
+ =
+
+ +
'
2
'
' 0
%
%
%
%
1roper fractions of the form N(x)/D(x) can often be e&pressed as the sum of simple
fractionswhich than can be integrated
Rules of artial Factions
2ere we shall state the rules by which partial fractions may be found.
%. 3or each non4repeated linear factor (x4 a) of D(x) include a fraction of the form
a x
A

where A is a non45ero constant.

2. 3or each non4repeated irreducible (i.e. which cannot be factori5ed) uadratic factor
) (
2
c bx ax + + of D(&) include a fraction of the form
c bx ax
B Ax
+ +
+
2
where AndB are
constants.
'. ,f D(x) contains the repeated factor
n
a x ) ( + , the corresponding partial fractions are
n
n
a x
A
a x
A
a x
A
) ( ) (
2
2 %

+ +

0. ,f D(x) contains the repeated factor

n
c bx ax ) (
2
+ + , the corresponding partial fractions
are
n
n n
c bx ax
B x A
c bx ax
B x A
c bx ax
B x A
) ( ) (
2 2 2
2 2
2
% %
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
3irst write down the partial fractions according to the above rules and then clear the fraction
by multiplying through by the denominator. !he resulting e&pression is an i!entit", i.e. it is
true for all values of x. !o find the values of the constants two methods are available. first
some selected values of x (usually 5eros of the denominator) will often give some of the
constants immediately. /econd, coefficients of li#e powers of & may be euated and the
resulting simultaneous euations solved. ,n some cases a mi&ture of these two method is
convenient.
Example: "valuate

+
+
dx
x x
x x
'
' 0
%
Solution: !he integral can be e&pressed as
dx
x x
x x
x dx
x x
x x

+
+ +
+ =
+
+
'
2
'
' 0
%
%
%
!he denominator factori5es into ) % (
2
+ x x . Now consider the partial fractions of the proper
fraction part as follows$
% ) % (
% %
2 2
2
'
2
+
+
+ =
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
x
C Bx
x
A
x x
x x
x x
x x
6learing the fractions give
x C Bx x A x x ) ( ) % ( %
2 2
+ + + = + +
/etting x - 7 yield %% = A . "uating the coefficients x
2
and x, we obtain
B A+ = %
C = %
which yields
2 % % % = = = A B
!hus
% , 2 , % = = = C B A
2
!he integral becomes
dx
x
x
x
x dx
x x
x x

+
+
+ + =
+
+
%
% 2 %
%
%
2 '
' 0
dx
x x
x
x
x

+
+
+
+ =
%
%
%
2 %
%
2 2
K x x x x
x
+ + + + =
% 2
2
tan ) % ln( ln
2
Exercise 3.1:
1."valuate the following$
(a)

+ + ) 2
2
x x
dx
(b)

+ + % 2 2
2
x x
dx
(c)

+ + %' 8 2
2
x x
dx
(d)

+ +
+
dx
x x
x
%7 +
) 2
2
(e)

+
0
2
8 0
2
x x
dx
(f)

+ %8 (
2
x x
dx
(g)

+
+
dx
x x
x
0 ( 2
%( %%
2
(h)

+
+
dx
x x
x
( +
%( 0
2
(i)


dx
x x
x x
9
9 9 2
'
2
(:)
+ +
2
) 2 )( % ( x x
dx
(#)

+ +

dx
x x
x
) 2 )( % (
2
2
2
(l)
dx
x x
x
+
+
) 0 )( 2 (
) 0 2 (
2
(m)

+ +
dx
x
x x
%
% 2
2
2 '
(o)

0
2 ) ' )( 2 (
)
dx
x x
x
(p)
+ +
%
7
) %
2
)( % (
dx
x x
x
3.2 Integration of Trigonometric Functions:
Trigonometric I!entities:
%. ) 2 cos % (
2
%
cos
2
x x + = 2. ) 2 cos % (
2
%
sin
2
x x =
'. x x
2 2
tan % sec + = 0. . cot % csc
2 2
x x + =
'
Some Stan!ar! Trigonometric Integrals
%.

+ = C x dx x tan sec
2
'.
C x dx x x + =

sec tan sec

2.

+ = C x dx x cot csc
2
0.
C x dx x x + =

csc cot csc

!he above results may be verified by reversing the derivative formula.
Example: "valuate

xdx sec
!his integral can be evaluated as follows$

+
+
= dx
x x
x x
x xdx
tan sec
tan sec
sec sec

+
+
= dx
x x
x x x
tan sec
sec tan sec
2
C x x + + = tan sec ln
!hus

+ + = C x x dx x tan sec ln sec

/imilarly
C
C x x dx x
x
+ =
+ =

2
tan ln
cot csc ln csc
Exercise 3.2.1
%. "valuate the following$
(a) dx x

cos % (b)
dx x

+ sin %
(c)

+ dx x x ) cot (tan
2 2
(d)

' / 2
7
2 2
sec tan

dx
x x
(e)

dx
x sin %
%
(f)

+
2 /
7
cos %
%

dx
x
3.2.2 Integration of the form
dx x x
n m

cos sin
Example :"valuate
dx x x

) 0
cos sin
Solution:, -
xdx x x xdx x x dx x x cos ) sin % ( sin cos cos sin cos sin
2 2 0 0 0 ) 0

= =
*et,
dx x du x
dx
du
x u cos , cos , sin = = =
!hen, , -
C u u u du u u xdx x x + + = =

9 ( )
9
%
(
2
)
%
) % ( cos ) sin % ( sin
2 2 0 2 2 0
C x x x + + =
) ) )
sin
9
%
sin
(
2
sin
)
%
Exercise 3.2.2:
%. "valuate the following$
0
(a)

dx x 2 sin
2
(b)

0
7
'
cos

dx x (c)

dx x x
2 2
cos sin
(d)

2 /
7
2 '
cos sin

dx x x
(e)

dx x x
' )
cos sin
(f)

+ /
7
' 2
' cos ' sin

dx x x
3.2.3Integrals of the form
dx nx mx dx nx mx dx nx mx

cos cos , sin sin , cos sin
(i) ); sin( ) <sin(
2
%
cos sin + + =
(ii) ); cos( ) <cos(
2
%
cos cos + + =
(iii) ); cos( ) <cos(
2
%
sin sin + =
Example :"valuate
dx x x

' cos ( sin

Solution:, -
C x x dx x x dx x x + = + =

0 cos
8
%
%7 cos
27
%
; 0 sin %7 <sin
2
%
' cos ( sin
Exercise 3.2.3:
%. "valuate the following$
(a)

dx x x ' cos ) sin

(b)

dx x x ' sin ) sin

(c)

0 /
7
) cos ' cos

dx x x
(d)

+ /
7
0 sin 2 cos

dx x x
3.2.#Integrals of the form
dx x x
n m

sec tan
Example :"valuate
dx x x

0 2
sec tan
Solution:, -
xdx x x xdx x x dx x x
2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2
sec ) tan % ( tan sec sec tan sec tan

+ = =
*et,
dx x du x
dx
du
x u
2 2
sec , sec , tan = = =
!hen, , -
C u u du u u xdx x x + + = + = +

' ) 2 2 2 2
'
%
)
%
) % ( sec ) tan % ( tan
2
. tan
'
%
tan
)
%
' )
C x x + =
Exercise 3.2.#:
%. "valuate the followings$
(a)

dx x x
2 2
sec tan
(b)

0 /
7
0
tan

dx x
(c)

dx x
'
tan
(e)

dx x
'
sec
(f)

dx x x
0 )
sec tan
(g)

dx x xsec tan
'
)
(h)

+
7
'
2 tan 2 sec

dx x x (i)

dx x
'
cot
(:)

dx x x
' '
csc cot
3.# Integration using Trigonometric Su$stitution
Expression in
the integran!
Su$stitution
2 2
x a
sin a x =
2 2
x a +
tan a x =
2 2
a x
sec a x =
Table: 3.2
%ote thatanintegration of the form

+ +
+
dx
c bx ax
q px
2
can be evaluated using any one of the above substitution.
Example1 :"valuate

2 2
0 x x
dx
2
x
Solution: *et,
d dx x cos 2 , sin 2 = =

and
2 2 2
cos 0 sin 0 0 0 = = x
2
0 x
/o,

d
d d
x x
dx

= = =

2
2
2 2 2 2
csc
0
%
sin 0
%
cos 0 sin 0
cos 2
0
.
0
0
%
cot
0
%
2
C
x
x
C +

= + =
Example2 :"valuate

+ +
+
dx
x x
x
%7 2
) 0 (
2
Solution:, -

+ +
+ +
+ + +
+
+ +
+
= = dx dx dx
x
x
x x
x
x x
x
2 2 2 2
' ) % (
' %
9 % 2
) 0 (
%7 2
) 0 (
*et,
d dx x
2
sec ' , tan ' % = = +
/o, , -

+
+
9 tan 9
sec ' ) ' tan ' (
2
2

d
%7 2
2
+ + x x
d

+ = sec ) tan % ( ' % + x

c + + + = sec ' ) tan ln(sec '
'
c
x x x x x
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
=
'
%7 2
2
' )
'
%
'
%7 2
2
ln( '
Exercise 3.#:
+
1. "valuate the following$
(a) dx
x
x

2
2
%+
(b) dx x

2
0 % (c)
dx
x
x

+
+
2
0
2
(d)

+
2 2
2) x x
dx
(e)

%+
2 2
x x
dx
(f)

%
7
2 '
% dx x x
(g)
dx
x
x

0
2
(h)
+ 8 2
2
x x
dx
(i)
dx
x x
x

+
+
%
2 / %
2 0 0
% 2
2
(
3.&Integrals of the form
.
sin cos

+ + c x b x a
dx
Instruction:Write down
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
sin cos cos sin 2 sin cos sin cos
x x x x x x
c b a c x b x a + + + = + +
and then divide numerator and denominator by
2
2
cos
x
to convert a tangent function.
!he method is e&plained through an e&ample.
Example: "valuate

+ x
dx
cos ) 0
Solution: ,-
( ) ( )

+ +
=
+
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
sin cos ) sin cos 0 cos ) 0
x x x x
dx
x
dx
dx
x
x

=
2
tan 9
2
sec
2
2
<dividingumerator and denominator by ) 2 / ( cos
2
x ;
*et, du dx
x
u
x
2
2
sec ,
2
tan
2
= =
/o, , -
C
x
x
C
u
u
du
u
+

+
= +

+
=

2
tan '
2
tan '
ln
'
%
'
'
ln
) ' ( 2
2
9
2
2
Exercise 3.&:
%. "valuate the followings$
(a)

+ + x x
dx
cos sin %
(b)

+ x
dx
cos ) '
(c)

+ x
dx
cos 2 '
(d)

+
2 /
7
cos 0 )

x
dx
(e)

+
2 /
7
sin ) 0

x
dx
(f)

+ +
2 /
7
cos sin 2 '

x x
dx
8