A Survey of Executive Coaching Practices

PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
2009, 62, 361404

A SURVEY OF EXECUTIVE COACHING PRACTICES
JOYCE E. BONO
Department of Human Resources and Labor Relations
University of Minnesota
RADOSTINA K. PURVANOVA
Department of Psychology
University of Minnesota
ANNETTE J. TOWLER
Department of Psychology
DePaul University
DAVID B. PETERSON
Personnel Decisions International
Despite the ubiquity of executive coaching interventions in business
organizations, there is little uniformity in the practices (e.g., assess-
ment tools, scientic or philosophical approaches, activities, goals, and
outcome evaluation methods) of executive coaches. Addressing the on-
going debate about the role of psychology in executive coaching, we
compare the practices of psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches, as
well as the practices of coaches from various psychological disciplines
(e.g., counseling, clinical, and industrial/organizational). Results of sur-
veys completed by 428 coaches (256 nonpsychologists, 172 psycholo-
gists) revealed as many differences between psychologists of differing
disciplines as were found between psychologist and nonpsychologist
coaches. Moreover, differences between psychologists and nonpsychol-
ogists were generally small (average d = .26). Our survey also revealed
some differences in the key competencies identied by psychologist and
nonpsychologist coaches.
Executive coaching is a custom tailored, individual training inter-
vention that has become increasingly popular in corporations over the
past several decades (Hall, Otazo, & Hollenbeck, 1999; Smither, Lon-
don, Flautt, Vargas, & Kucine, 2003). It has been estimated that there are
at least 30,000 coaches worldwide (International Coaching Federation,
2007a), and membership in the International Coaching Federation (ICF)
has doubled in the past 5 yearsfrom 5,500 members in 2002 to 11,000
members in 2007 (ICF, 2007b). The Economist (2003) estimated the
We thank John Scott for his comments on an early draft of the survey and Abby Miller
and Theresa Ascheman for their assistance with data collection.
Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Joyce E. Bono, 321 19
Avenue South, Department of Human Resource and Labor Studies, University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis, MN 55455; [email protected].
C
2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
361
362 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY
market for executive coaching at one billion dollars worldwide and rapidly
growing. Peterson and Hicks (1999) report that 93% of U.S.-based Global
1000 companies use executive coaching, as do 65% of the Global 1000
outside the United States.
Despite the widespread use of executive coaches in corporations, much
of the process and practice of executive coaching remains shrouded in mys-
tery. Lowman (2005) suggested that executive coaching has caught on
more as an area of practice than as one of theory or research (p. 90), but
a small and growing literature has emerged in three disciplines: manage-
ment, psychology, and training (Kampa-Kokesch &Anderson, 2001). One
common theme that can be found in this literature is an ongoing debate
about who should be conducting executive coaching and what training,
experience, and credentials these individuals should have. Accordingly,
the primary purpose of our study is to provide a snapshot of the eld of
executive coaching, similar to broad surveys that have been conducted
on topics such as individual assessment (Ryan & Sackett, 1987), man-
agement training (Saari, Johnson, McLaughlin, & Zimmerle, 1988), and
assessment centers (Spychalski, Quinones, Gaugler, &Pohley, 2001). Our
aim is not to develop theory or to test scientic hypotheses related to ex-
ecutive coaching. Rather, given the debate about what executive coaching
involves and who is qualied to conduct it, we asked a broad sample of
coaches, from a variety of disciplines and educational backgrounds, to tell
us about themselves, the people they coach, the processes and tools they
use, and the outcomes they achieve.
State of the Literature
Despite the popularity of executive coaching in the business world,
rigorous peer-reviewed empirical work on executive coaching is hard to
nd, though much has been written about the topic. There are numer-
ous books and book chapters (e.g., Kampa & White, 2002; Peterson &
Kraiger, 2004) devoted to case studies, best practices, and individual
perspectives on coaching. We found over 400 publications on executive
coaching listed in Business Source Premier (1984present) and 197 in
PsychInfo (1887present). We identied only two articles on executive
coaching in top-ranked management or psychology journals (Feldman
& Lankau, 2005; Smither et al., 2003). We also found 48 articles on
executive coaching in Consulting Psychology Journal and 19 articles in
Harvard Business Review. Joos (2005) review of the coaching litera-
ture reports that 71% of published articles on executive coaching were in
practice journals, 15% in academic journals, and 14% in magazines, sup-
porting the notion that coaching has received more attention in the prac-
titioner community than among academics. Even within the academic
JOYCE E. BONO ET AL. 363
literature, empirical investigations are the minority (i.e., 18%; Grant,
2006).
Although various denitions of executive coaching have been offered,
there is some agreement about what the core of executive coaching is.
Kilburg (1996), for instance, dened executive coaching as a helping re-
lationship between a managerial-level client and a consultant that follows
a formally dened coaching agreement. Witherspoon and White (1996)
described executive coaching as a personal learning process that focuses
not only on interpersonal issues but on intrapersonal ones as well. Most
denitions converge on the notion that executive coaching is a process
that involves a series of one-on-one interactions between a manager or
executive and an external coach (McCauley & Hezlett, 2002, p. 321)
for the purpose of equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and op-
portunities they need to develop themselves and become more effective
(Peterson, 1996, p. 78). Sustained behavior change is the ultimate goal of
most executive coaching engagements (Brotman, Liberi, & Wasylyshyn,
1998).
Although behavior change is at the heart of most executive coaching,
the purpose of executive coaching varies across coaches, client organiza-
tions, and executives, and has varied over time as well. Historically, coach-
ing focused on remediation for derailing executives, but most coaching
today is focused on preparing high-potential employees for career ad-
vancement (McCauley & Hezlett, 2002). Despite a general trend toward
less coaching for problem managers, Fritsch and Powers (2006) survey
of Fortune 500 companies revealed that about one-third of companies still
use executive coaching for performance problems. As suggested by the
label, executive coaching tends to be reserved for those at the top of or-
ganizations; the American Management Association (2008) reported that
46% of North American companies use external coaching for executives,
compared to 27% who used them for managers, 13% for supervisors, and
only 5% who used coaching for all employees.
On area of diversity among coaches is in the processes and tools they
use. For example, though most coaches acknowledge the need for indi-
vidual assessment, they disagree widely on what should be assessed and
howassessment should be conducted (e.g., Diedrich, 1996; Kiel, Rimmer,
Williams, & Doyle, 1996; Levinson, 1996; Saporito, 1996; Tobias, 1996).
They also vary in whether they use the results of assessment to develop
insight (e.g., Diedrich, 1996; Tobias, 1996) or to facilitate goal setting or
action-oriented planning (e.g., Kiel et al., 1996; Peterson, 1996).
One thing about which there is considerable agreement is that indi-
viduals who participate in executive coaching nd it useful. A survey
conducted by the International Coaching Federation (1998) revealed that
98.5% of respondents said their investment in a coach was valuable or
very valuable. McGovern et al. (2001) examined the impact of coaching
on 100 executives and found that 86% of participants and 74% of other
stakeholders (e.g., human resource directors and immediate supervisors)
were very or extremely satised with the coaching process.
Given the popularity of executive coaching in business organizations,
surprisingly little can be found in the existing literature about who pro-
vides executive coaching. About 10 years ago, Judge and Cowell (1997)
surveyed 60 coaches about their qualications and backgrounds. Some of
the ndings were that (a) coaches held a variety of degrees, from drama
to psychology; (b) 90% had masters degrees in business and the social
sciences, and 45%had doctoral degrees; (c) most coaching was conducted
in the clients (52%) or coachs (25%) ofce, with only 15% of coaching
conducted by phone or electronic means; (d) some, but not all, coaches
were licensed to practice psychology; (e) most worked for smaller com-
panies or independently; and (f) approaches to coaching ranged from
behavioral to psychoanalytic in nature. One reasonable conclusion based
on the current executive coaching literature is that everyone is doing it,
and everyone is doing it differently. In the absence of formalized stan-
dards or licensure for executive coaches, services are being provided by
MBAs, attorneys, sports coaches, teachers, nurses, and health and beauty
consultants (Brotman et al., 1998; Peterson, 2002).
The Role of Psychology in Coaching
One longstanding debate in the coaching literature has been on the
role of psychology in executive coaching. An issue that has been at the
center of the debate has been the distinction between psychotherapy and
coaching. Many articles have been devoted to this topic (e.g., Brunning,
2006; Hart, Blattner, & Leipsic, 2007; Kilburg, 2004a; Levinson, 1996),
and most make distinctions between the two. For example, The Inter-
national Coaching Federation (2007c) Web site distinguishes between
coaching and therapy, in part, by contrasting time orientation (past vs.
future) and focus (person vs. work). Because there are no clear lines to
separate coaching from therapy, Grant (2001) suggests that one way to
think about the potential overlap between coaching and therapy is to think
about a distribution, in which one end represents a clinical population in
need of therapy and the other end represents a population of executives
who need business coaching, with some degree of overlap in the middle
of the distribution.
Because executive coaching blurs the line between traditional concepts
of mentoring, consulting, and psychotherapy (Dean &Meyer, 2002), much
journal space has been devoted to discussions of whether or not executive
coaches should have psychological training. On one side of the debate are
those who believe that psychological training is essential for executive
coaches (e.g., Berglas, 2002; Dean & Meyer, 2002). Taking the extreme
position, Berglas (2002) states, I believe that in an alarming number of
situations, executive coaches who lack rigorous psychological training
do more harm than good (p. 87). Dean and Meyer (2002) suggest that
psychological training will assure that the coach has the basic knowl-
edge and clinical skills needed to accomplish the objectives and goals
(p. 12) of coaching, which typically include some type of sustained be-
havior change (Brotman et al., 1998). If sustained behavior change is
the core product of executive coaching, then psychologists, with their
training in human development, learning and behavior, understanding
of psychological measurement, skill in handling relationship boundaries,
and understanding of client condentiality (Wasylyshyn, 2003), are likely
to be effective coaches. Although psychological training is not the only
place where such skills can be acquired, graduate training in psychology
or human development is a natural place to develop them.
In addition to their qualications to conduct coaching, psychologists
may also contribute to the coaching process in a number of other ways.
Berglas (2002) suggests that executives should undergo psychological
evaluation before coaching to screen out employees not psychologically
prepared or predisposed to benet from the process. Psychologists may
also be well positioned to advise organizations in the selection of executive
coaches (Brotman et al., 1998) and in the evaluation of coaching outcomes
(Berglas, 2002).
On the other side of the debate are those who speak out against psy-
chological background for executive coaches (e.g., Filipczak, 1998). In
their review of the coaching literature, Garman, Whiton, and Zlatoper
(2000) reported that only 31% of the articles they reviewed mentioned
psychological training at all. In articles that did address psychological
training, it was viewed as positive in 45% of the cases; in 36% it was seen
as having the potential to be positive or negative. In 18% of the articles re-
viewed, psychological training was seen as potentially harmful (p. 203)
for executive coaching. Filipczak (1998) notes that therapists, who lack
business experience, are jumping into executive coaching because of the
paucity of job opportunities in mental health. He goes on to suggest that
therapists may be unable to adapt to the role of executive coach because
they see corporate America as another dysfunctional family that needs
to be xed (Filipczak, 1998, p. 34).
The more common position among those who do not see psycho-
logical training as essential to executive coaching is that psychological
training can be valuable, but only in some situations. Kilburg (2004b) out-
lines a list of situations in which psychological interventions are relevant
for executive coaching, including situations when executives continue to
underperformdespite conscious stated intention and desire to improve and
do well, when knowledge, ability or skill may be insufcient to mas-
ter a challenge or solve a problem, and when relationship disturbances
are imperiling an executives career, and ability to do the job (p. 252).
Kilburg (2004b) also notes limitations to psychological approaches includ-
ing situations in which there is a conict of interest between an executives
need for long-term self-development and the organizations need for rapid
improvement in performance.
Even among those who advocate psychological training for executive
coaches, there is recognition that executive coaching is not the place for
psychologists with no particular interest in business (Foxhall, 2002, p.
53). Nancy Tippins, PhD, president of a consulting rmthat does executive
coaching, points out that it is important for coaches to communicate with
businesses about the types of problems they are qualied to address, such
as skill development, organizational strategy, or managing and motivating
employees (Foxhall, 2002). According to Sandra Shullman, PhD, chair of
APAs Executive Coaching Work Group, No one specialty in psychology
may fully prepare someone to do executive coaching (Foxhall, 2002).
According to these psychologists (i.e., Shullman and Tippins), coaches
with education and experience in industrial-organizational psychology
may not be qualied to counsel executives on psychological problems,
and clinical or counseling psychologists may not be able to offer advice on
how to design a more efcient organization. Furthermore, a coach without
psychological training may not be qualied to administer and interpret
psychological assessments or to help an executive sustain behavior change
over the long run.
Despite the popularity of executive coaching in the business and train-
ing worlds, there are many unanswered questions about how coaches
educational background and training might impact their coaching prac-
tices. In part, lack of clarity around executive coaching is understandable
as coaching can be used to address a variety of issues fromderailment (e.g.,
an executives inability to get along with others), to career and retirement
planning, to employee development (e.g., preparing a high-potential em-
ployee for promotion and new responsibilities). Furthermore, over time,
having an executive coach has been seen both as a signal that a manager is
in trouble and as a status symbol (Johnson, 2007). Nonetheless, the lack of
standardization or clarity about coaching practices, training, and outcomes
has caused frustration in organizations, as they struggle with how to select
a competent coach. Talk with anyone who has implemented a coaching
process and theyll have at least one bad story to tellgenerally about
matching an executive with the wrong coach, says Liz Thatch (Thatch &
Heinselman, 1999).
Given the ubiquity of executive coaching in large organizations and
the ongoing debate about the role of psychology, there is practical value in
understanding differences, if any, between psychologist and nonpsychol-
ogist coaches. Accordingly, we have three central goals in this research.
(a) Identify the background and training of executive coaches. (b) Link
coach background and training to coaching practices, including type of
client, topics addressed, scientic or philosophical approach to coaching,
use of assessment tools, and methods of assessing success. Specically, we
compare both the practices of psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches
and the practices of psychologists fromdiffering disciplinary backgrounds
(e.g., industrial and organizational psychology, counseling psychology,
and clinical psychology). (c) Identify the key competencies of executive
coaches, as perceived by coaches from psychological and nonpsycholog-
ical backgrounds. We focused on a comparison between psychologist and
nonpsychologist coaches because there has been active debate surrounding
the issues of whether psychologists are better equipped to provide qual-
ity coaching services than are nonpsychologists. Implicit in this debate
is the notion that organizations should consider a coachs education and
training in making selection and assignment decisions because coaches
training will be linked to their practices. Our research makes an important
contribution by empirically examining the validity of this assumption.
Method
Participants and Procedures
We identied executive coaches through a survey of the membership
of three large organizations with which executive coaches tend to be
afliated: International Coaching Federation, Society of Consulting Psy-
chology, and the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
We also included in our survey some international (e.g., coach-to-coach),
regional (e.g., Minnesota Professionals for Psychology Applied to Work),
and national (e.g., Professional Coaches Association) groups with which
coaches tend to be afliated. We sent an initial screening e-mail to 6,961
members of these organizations, asking recipients to identify themselves
as either (a) an executive or business coach, (b) a personal or life coach, (c)
a human resource (HR) professional or manager who hired an executive
coach for an employee, (e) an individual who has used the services of
an executive or life coach, or (f) an individual who has had no involve-
ment with executive or life coaching. We also contacted representatives
of coaching organizations in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, Australia,
France, and Germany, asking these individuals to distribute our screening
survey to the coaches on their list-serves.
Two thousand forty-eight (29%) individuals responded to the screen-
ing survey. Sixty-two percent of respondents (N = 1,260) identied
themselves as executive coaches. In addition, 867 respondents were per-
sonal/life coaches, 202 were HR professionals who had obtained a coach
for a third party, 858 had used the services of a coach, and 814 had no in-
volvement in coaching. Responses to our screening survey questions were
not mutually exclusive as some individuals reported conducting both ex-
ecutive and personal coaching, as well as using the services of a coach
themselves.
As our focus was on the practices of executive coaches, we e-mailed
an invitation to participate in our study to only the 1,260 individuals who
identied themselves as executive coaches. The e-mail invited coaches
to complete an extensive Web-based survey including questions about
their background, their clients, and their practices. Of the 1,260 invitation
e-mails we sent, 35 were undeliverable, thus 1,225 business and executive
coaches were invited to participate in our research. Four hundred eighty
coaches (39%) completed a survey, however, 52 surveys were deleted
from subsequent analysis due to a substantial amount of missing data
(nal N = 428).
Measures
In the development of our survey, we consulted the existing literature,
as well as several practicing coaches, in an effort to include all the major
elements of a coaching practice (e.g., activity, philosophy, methodology)
and to be certain that our survey items were written in a way that would
make sense to executive coaches. The nal version of our survey contained
four major sections: coaching practices (Section 1), coaching outcomes
(Section II), coach background (Section III), and a section with an open-
ended question about coach competencies (Section IV).
Section I, coaching practices, consisted of 46 questions in the fol-
lowing categories: assessment tools utilized by the coach (e.g., inter-
views, cognitive inventories, performance appraisal), reasons for referral
to the coach (e.g., promotion, job performance, retirement), approaches
to coaching (e.g., behavioral modication, goal setting, neurolinguistic
programming), methods of communication with client (e.g., telephone,
face-to-face), nature of the coaching engagement (e.g., number of ses-
sions), and hierarchical level of individuals being coached (e.g., CEOs,
midlevel managers). Most items were framed in terms of the frequency
with which a coach engaged in each practice, using a 5-point scale: 1 =
rarely/never, 2 =occasionally, 3 =sometimes, 4 =often, and 5 =always.
Section II, coaching outcomes, consisted of 23 questions grouped into
the following categories: outcomes typically achieved (e.g., improved
self-understanding, improved performance), methods of assessing suc-
cess (e.g., satisfaction with outcomes, attainment of goals), and source
of success information (e.g., coaching participant, participants boss,
coach). The same frequency-based response scale in Section I was used in
Section II.
Section III, the coach, consisted of 21 questions grouped into the fol-
lowing categories: level and area of education, age and ethnicity, number
of individuals coached, percentage of income derived fromcoaching, fees,
preferred title, employment status, formal training and credentials, and af-
liation with professional organizations. Finally, in Section IV, we asked
coaches to list the three competencies they considered most essential to
be an effective coach.
Results
Comparing Psychologists and Nonpsychologists
In Tables 14, we report the means and standard deviations for psychol-
ogist and nonpsychologist coaches on aspects of their practices, clients,
methods, assessment tools, activities, and methods of evaluating effective-
ness. We also report correlations along with p values for the associations
between type of coach (1 = nonpsychologist and 2 = psychologist) and
practices. A positive correlation indicates that psychologists have a higher
mean on the variable of interest than do nonpsychologists. Table 1 presents
descriptive information about the coachs background and clients. Results
indicate that compared to nonpsychologists, psychologist coaches were
more highly educated (40% of nonpsychologists have a bachelors degree
or less, as compared with 7% for psychologists, and 83% of psychologists
have a PhD, as compared to 13% of nonpsychologists), and had been
conducting executive coaching longer (mean 11.6 and 7.5 years for psy-
chologists and nonpsychologists, respectively). Psychologists also tended
to charge more, were more likely to be licensed and less likely to be certi-
ed, more likely to carry liability insurance, and derived a smaller portion
of their overall income from executive coaching (55% of nonpsycholo-
gists and 29% of psychologists earn 50% or more of their income from
coaching). Psychologist coaches reported being more likely than nonpsy-
chologists to get coaching referrals fromorganizational sources (managers
and HR departments), and nonpsychologist coaches were more likely to
initiate direct contact with a coaching participant. Most coaching was done
at the level of vice president, director, and middle manager, with nonpsy-
chologists coaches providing slightly more coaching at the mid-manager
level.
TABLE 1
Descriptive Information Comparing Psychologist and Nonpsychologist Coaches
Psychologists Nonpsychologists
Variable Mean SD Mean SD r
Coach demographics
Age 47.92 10.47 48.94 8.96 .05
Education 4.63 .69 3.61 .90 .52
Race .91 .28 .86 .34 .08

Gender 1.52 50 1.60 .49 .08
Management experience 1.93 .25 1.95 .21 .04
Years coached 11.62 8.52 7.46 6.31 .27
Coach practice information

Hourly fees $259 $218 $214 $124 .13
Percentage of income from 1.99 1.10 2.62 1.15 .26
coaching
Liability insurance 1.56 .50 1.38 .49 .18
Licensed psychologist .44 .50 .04 .19 .50
Certied coach .15 .36 .56 .50 .40
Percent coaching practice in U.S. 77% 37% 58% 46% .21
Participants job roles

a
CEO/president 3.37 1.41 3.34 1.40 .01
VP/director 4.31 1.22 4.18 1.20 .05
Midlevel manager 4.19 1.07 4.43 .94 .12
Entry-level or supervisor 3.07 1.40 3.29 1.33 .08

Entrepreneur 3.04 1.45 3.87 1.24 .29
Source of participant referral

b
Direct contact from participant 3.22 1.17 3.71 .93 .23
Participant referred by manager 3.08 1.11 2.71 1.31 .16
Participant referred by HR 3.12 1.17 2.65 1.24 .19
Coach contacted Participant 1.90 1.10 2.56 1.23 .27
Note. N = 428 for all except demographic variables, where Ns range from 391 (hourly
fees) to 424 (gender); N = 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Psychologist
coded 1 = nonpsychologist, 2 = psychologist. r = correlation coefcient, where a positive
value indicates a higher mean for psychologists than nonpsychologists. Education coded:
1 = high school, 2 = associate degree, 3 = bachelors degree, 4 = masters degree,
5 = doctorate. Gender coded: 1 = male, 2 = female. Race coded: 1 = not Caucasian,
2 =Caucasian. Percentage of income from coaching coded: 1 =025%, 2 =2550%, 3 =
5075%, 4 =75100%. Management experience, liability insurance, licensed psychologist,
certied coach coded: 1 = No, 2 = Yes.
a
1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = sometimes, 5 = often, 6 = always.
b
1 = rarely, 2 = occasionally, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always.
p < .05.

p < .01.

p < .001.
In Table 2, we compare coaching methods for psychologist and
nonpsychologist coaches. Results indicate that psychologists were more
likely than nonpsychologists to conduct coaching in a face-to-face set-
ting, and less likely to coach by phone. Generally psychologists reported
fewer coaching sessions with the average coaching participant than did
nonpsychologists (e.g., 38% of nonpsychologist coaches reported often
TABLE 2
Coaching Methods for Psychologists and Nonpsychologists
Medium
Telephone 3.37 1.13 3.70 1.17 .14
Face to Face 4.15 1.01 3.70 1.21 .19
E-mail 3.01 1.25 2.96 1.18 .02

Web site/Chat 1.16 .53 1.28 .70 .09
Videoconference 1.22 .60 1.17 .49 .05
Traditional mail 1.31 .67 1.31 .60 .00
Typical number of sessions
5 or fewer 3.25 1.53 2.66 1.34 .20
610 3.63 1.36 3.62 1.36 .01

1120 3.44 1.50 3.88 1.35 .15
2130 2.68 1.63 3.48 1.64 .24
Scientic or philosophical approach

Behavior modication 2.95 1.43 3.39 1.42 .15
Cognitive behavioral 3.83 1.13 3.64 1.24 .08

Process/facilitation oriented 3.99 .94 4.00 1.02 .00
Goal setting 4.40 .74 4.42 .83 .02
Neurolinguistic programming 2.22 1.87 3.06 1.97 .21
Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic 2.39 1.83 2.84 2.14 .11
Skill training 3.31 1.25 3.34 1.26 .01

Note. N=428; 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Nonpsychologist is coded 1
and psychologist is coded 2. r = correlation coefcient; positive values indicate a higher
mean level for psychologists than nonpsychologists. Responses were coded using the
following scale: 1 = rarely, 2 = occasionally, 3 = sometimes, 4 = often, 5 = always.
p < .05.

p < .01.

p < .001.
holding 2130 sessions with a client as compared to 19% of psycholo-
gists). In comparing the scientic or philosophical approaches of psychol-
ogist and nonpsychologist coaches, we found that nonpsychologists were
more likely than psychologists to use behavior modication, neurolin-
guistic programming, and psychoanalytic or psychodynamic techniques.
There were no differences between the two types of coaches in their use
of cognitive-behavioral or goal-setting approaches.
Table 3 presents results comparing the assessment tools and activi-
ties used by psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches, along with the
topics they address in coaching. Results indicate that nonpsychologists
were signicantly less likely to interview the client (or his or her super-
visor or peers) than were psychologist coaches. Psychologists were also
more likely to use aptitude or ability tests and multisource ratings than
nonpsychologists, and less likely to use interest inventories. Psycholo-
gists were also more likely to have access to performance data on the
individual being coached than were nonpsychologists. We found no
TABLE 3
Assessment Tools, Activities, and Topics for Psychologists and Nonpsychologists
Assessment tools
Interview with client 4.80 .60 4.64 .89 .10
Interview with supervisor 3.61 1.32 3.17 1.35 .16
Interview with peers 3.19 1.21 2.75 1.27 .17
Interview with family 1.54 .91 1.46 .80 .05

Ability or aptitude test 2.34 1.38 1.96 1.18 .15
Interest inventory 2.26 1.19 2.71 1.35 .17
Personality inventory 3.12 1.39 3.23 1.29 .04

Multisource ratings
(management or leadership
behavior)
3.48 1.17 2.84 1.20 .26
Role plays 2.73 1.18 2.67 1.28 .02

Access to performance data 3.07 1.21 2.55 1.29 .20
Activities
Building rapport 4.65 .78 4.41 .97 .13
Increasing motivation 3.55 1.21 3.76 1.11 .09

Developing insight 4.47 .83 4.46 .75 .00
Teaching a new skill 3.60 1.11 3.54 1.05 .03
Assisting with application of
skill
4.35 .83 4.16 .95 .10
Holding participant accountable 4.26 1.00 4.21 1.06 .03

Setting goals for behavior
change
4.34 .85 4.15 .83 .11
Topic addressed in coaching

Interpersonal skills 3.91 .72 3.78 .83 .08
Stress management 2.73 1.14 3.20 .98 .21
Strategic thinking 3.08 1.01 3.10 .99 .01

Time management 2.69 1.02 3.22 1.00 .25
Conict management 3.32 .83 3.28 .88 .02

Stafng 2.18 1.00 2.20 1.00 .01
Management style 3.83 .89 3.59 .84 .14
Leadership 3.92 .88 3.86 .75 .04

Communication 3.74 .90 4.03 .73 .17
Adaptability/versatility 2.97 1.12 3.21 1.00 .11
Motivation 2.36 1.21 2.86 1.19 .20
Delegation 2.85 1.05 2.86 .98 .00

Planning 2,75 .99 2.98 1.07 .11
Sales or nancial performance 2.02 1.04 2.34 1.11 .15
Mentoring 2.41 1.10 2.71 1.10 .13
Note. N=428; 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Nonpsychologist is coded 1

and psychologist is coded 2. r = correlation coefcient; positive values indicate a higher
p < .05.

p < .01.

p < .001.
TABLE 4
Methods to Evaluate Effectiveness Used by Psychologists and Nonpsychologists
Client reports
Satisfaction with process 4.16 .98 4.44 .72 .17
Satisfaction with outcomes 4.24 .84 4.40 .70 .10
Attainment of coaching goals 4.16 .90 4.27 .77 .06

Increased condence 3.60 1.21 4.12 .84 .25
Increased self-understanding 3.84 1.25 4.33 .80 .23
Boss reports
Satisfaction with process 3.17 1.24 3.15 1.40 .01
Satisfaction with outcomes 3.53 1.27 3.35 1.37 .07
Attainment of written goals 3.25 1.32 3.12 1.41 .05
Attainment of implicit goals 3.11 1.29 3.09 1.32 .01
Behavior change 3.44 1.21 3.24 1.28 .08
Learning or skill development 3.08 1.25 3.05 1.31 .01
Others reports (peer, HR)
Behavior change 2.87 1.26 2.60 1.31 .10
Learning or skill development 2.63 1.21 2.40 1.25 .09

Objective reports
Business outcomes (nancial, sales) 2.33 1.26 2.44 1.24 .04
Promotion 2.45 1.14 2.45 1.15 .00
Reduced complaints 1.97 1.10 1.91 1.05 .03
ROI based on utility analysis 1.77 1.19 1.81 1.08 .02
Organizational surveys
Attitude change 2.21 1.11 2.03 1.21 .08
Coaches assessment
Efcacy of coaching process 4.17 1.02 4.35 .89 .09
Efcacy of coaching outcomes 4.20 .99 4.31 .90 .06
Attainment of written goals 3.97 1.10 4.06 1.03 .05
Attainment of implicit goals 3.97 1.08 4.11 .96 .07
Increased self-understanding 4.09 1.12 4.41 .80 .17
Note. N = 428; 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Nonpsychologist is coded

1 and psychologist is coded 2. r = correlation coefcient; positive values indicate a higher
p < .05.

p < .01.

p < .001.
signicant differences between the two types of coaches in most of their
activities (e.g., increasing motivation, developing insight, teaching a new
skill or holding the coaching participant accountable for results), but we
did nd that psychologist coaches were more likely to focus on building
rapport with the person being coached, more likely to assist clients with
applying new skills at work, and more likely to set goals for behavior
change with their client. With respect to the topics of coaching, there was
considerable overlap between psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches.
The top three topics addressed by psychologist coaches were leadership,
interpersonal skills, and management style, and the top three topics ad-
dressed by nonpsychologist coaches were communication, leadership, and
interpersonal skills. There were a number of areas (e.g., stress manage-
ment, time management, sales or nancial performance, mentoring, and
planning) that were more likely to be engaged in by nonpsychologist
coaches.
Table 4 compares methods of evaluating effectiveness for psychologist
and nonpsychologist coaches; fewdifferences were found. Generally, psy-
chologists were less likely than nonpsychologists to depend on the reports
of the individuals they coached (e.g., satisfaction with process, increased
self-understanding) to evaluate coaching effectiveness. They were also
more likely to use others reports (e.g., HR or peers) of behavior change
to evaluate the coaching effectiveness.
Comparing Psychologists by Discipline
Our next set of analyses examines consistency (or inconsistency)
among psychologists, comparing coach practices and methods across sub-
disciplines of psychology. Tables 58 replicate the analyses presented in
Tables 14 but use data only from psychologists, reporting overall F tests
from ANOVAS to compare types of psychologists. There were enough
coaches in our sample to do a comparison across four psychological
disciplines: industrial-organizational psychologists (N = 83), counseling
psychologists (N = 39), clinical psychologists (N = 30), and person-
ality/social psychologists (N = 20). Table 5 results reveal statistically
signicant differences in age (counseling and personality/social psychol-
ogists tended to be older), education (counseling and personality/social
psychologists were less likely to have a doctorate: 50% counseling, 65%
personality/social, 81% industrial-organizational, and 83% clinical), and
gender (70% female for counseling, 68% personality/social, 49%
industrial-organizational, and 30% clinical). There were also differences
between types of psychologists on all the elements of coaching practices
examined in Table 5, including licensure, certication, percent income
obtained from coaching, and whether they carried liability insurance.
Psychologists also varied in the extent to which they tended to coach
CEOs and entrepreneurs and in how they obtained client referrals.
Table 6 presents results comparing coaching methods; few signicant
differences were found. There were also only a few signicant differences
between types of psychologists in their use of assessment tools and topics
addressed in coaching (see Table 7), but some statistically signicant dif-
ferences were found for activities (i.e., teaching a new skill, assisting with
skill application, and holding a coaching participant accountable). Table 8
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presents cross-discipline comparisons for psychologists on evaluation.
Once again, few statistically signicant differences were found.
Considering Tables 14 as a set (comparing psychologists vs. nonpsy-
chologists) with Tables 58 as a set (comparing disciplines within psychol-
ogy), one might reach the conclusion that considerably more differences
can be found between psychologists and nonpsychologists than between
the various disciplines in psychology. This would not be a valid conclu-
sion. Because we focused on statistically signicant differences across
groups, such a comparison would be misleading, as the overall number of
coaches in the two sets of analysis vary greatly (N = 428 in Tables 14,
and N = 174 for Tables 58). For this reason, a comparison of the mag-
nitude of differences (not just signicance tests) between psychologist
coaches of various disciplines with the magnitude of differences between
psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches is needed. Examining d values
for all the comparisons in Tables 18 results in computation of 803 val-
ues. We present the full comparison data in the Appendices, but for reader
convenience, we also computed average d values for each general topic of
comparison (e.g., assessment tools, evaluation, and practice information),
using means and standard deviations presented in Tables 18. We then av-
eraged the absolute d values from all the within-psychology comparisons
to form an overall d value representing average differences between psy-
chological disciplines, which can be compared to the d value representing
average differences between psychologists and non-psychologists.
Results in Table 9 indicate that the magnitude of differences between
psychologists and nonpsychologists is roughly equal to the magnitude
of differences between psychologists of differing disciplines. The overall
absolute mean d value, across all topics, tools, outcomes evaluation, and
practices is d = .26 for the psychologists versus nonpsychologists com-
parison and d =.29 for the comparison of psychological disciplines (with
the largest differences occurring when we compare clinical to other types
of psychologists; average d = .34). Although many of the differences we
examined were statistically signicant, as noted in Tables 18, examina-
tion of the d values reveals that, in general, these effects were small to
moderate in magnitude.
Our nal analysis was a comparison of the competencies considered
to be essential for effective coaching. Because the data for this analysis is
qualitative, we restricted our comparison to psychologists versus nonpsy-
chologists. In the rst step of our analysis, three of the authors read all
the competencies (blind to whether they were provided by psychologists
or nonpsychologists) and developed a list of competencies found in the
data. Through discussion, we developed a nal set of competencies (see
Table 10). In the next step, two authors counted the number of times
each competency was mentioned by psychologists and nonpsychologists.
T
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Because the raw number of competencies provided by psychologists and
nonpsychologists differed (N = 282 for psychologists and N = 531 for
nonpsychologists), in Table 10 we report both our rawcounts and percent-
ages (i.e., the percentage of times that each competency was mentioned
by psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches). Results of
2
tests reveal
a number of signicant differences in the frequency with which compe-
tencies were mentioned by psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches.
For example, in the category of diagnostic and planning capabilities, re-
sults reveal that nonpsychologist coaches were signicantly more likely
to mention questioning skills, whereas psychologist coaches were signi-
cantly more likely to mention assessment and analysis. Nonpsychologists
were more likely to mention building rapport and having a large adapt-
able toolbox (of methods, technologies, and tools). Psychologists were
more likely to mention knowledge of business as a key coaching com-
petency and were signicantly more likely than nonpsychologist coaches
to mention personal characteristics, such as intuition, humor, courage, or
perceptiveness.
Discussion
The primary purpose of our study was to describe the current state
of executive coaching practices with a special emphasis on comparing
the practices of psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches. Perhaps the
two most striking aspect of our resultsconsidered as a wholeare that
(a) differences between psychologist and nonpsychologists coaches are
generally quite small (average d = .26) and (b) there are as many differ-
ences between psychologist coaches of various disciplines (d = .29) as
there are between psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches. Our results
show that a coachs background signicantly predicts how he or she will
conduct coaching, who he or she will coach, what assessments and tools
he or she may choose, and how he or she will evaluate coaching effective-
ness. But, the magnitude of the differences we found is generally quite
small, suggesting that it may be time to move the debate about whether
or not executive coaches should have psychological training to a debate
about what we can expect coaches of differing backgrounds to do best and
what type of training would help all coaches be more effective.
Although we did not nd large differences between psychologist and
nonpsychologist coaches, there are a few moderate-sized ndings worthy
of note, in part because they follow logically from the coachs train-
ing. Our results show that psychologist coaches have more experience
coaching (d = .58), which is not surprising given that performance as-
sessment, development, and behavior change (i.e., coaching) have long
been the domain of psychologists, and specic training and certication
of coaches is a relatively new phenomenon. Nonpsychologist coaches de-
rived a higher percentage of their income from coaching (d = .56) and
were more likely than psychologists to directly recruit clients and less
likely to obtain clients through referrals (d =.56). This may be, in part,
because many of the training and certication programs have marketing
and sales as an emphasis (see the International Coaching Federation Web
site), but graduate psychology programs typically do not. We also found
that nonpsychologist coaches had more sessions with their clients (d =
.49), were less likely to use multisource behavioral ratings as diagnostic
and assessment tools (d =.54), and were more likely to measure coaching
success by directly asking the person being coached about self-condence
(d = .53) and self-understanding (d = .50).
Some smaller differences (d values < .50) in practices between psy-
chologist and nonpsychologist coaches were also found. Psychologist
coaches were more likely to coach clients face-to-face and were less
likely to use approaches where empirical validity evidence is weak (e.g.,
neurolinguistic programming, psychoanalytic/psychodynamic). They also
tended to use multiple methods and sources, such as interviewing third
parties (e.g., supervisors and peers) during both the assessment and out-
come evaluation stages. Many of these differences (e.g., use of empirically
supported approaches, use of multisource assessment tools, and more re-
liance on third party observations than self-reports) reect practices taught
in psychology graduate programs.
Taken as a whole, our results appear to favor psychologist coaches,
especially with respect to strong measurement, use of data from multi-
ple sources, and use of techniques with empirical validity. Nonetheless,
our comparison of the four types of psychologists revealed that there are
as many differences between types of psychologists as there are between
psychologist and nonpsychologist coaches. These results suggests that the
many journal pages devoted to debates about whether or not psychologists
are the best (or worse) executive coaches have missed a key point: Even
among psychologists, there are many, albeit mostly small, differences
that can be linked to the psychological specialty in which the coach was
trained. The largest overall differences were found when clinical psychol-
ogists were compared to industrial-organizational, social/personality and
counseling psychologists (average d = .34)
When it comes to competencies viewed as important by psychologist
and nonpsychologist coaches, we found a number of signicant differ-
ences. Both groups agreed that skills such as the ability to build rapport,
and listening and counseling skills were key coach competencies. It was
in the broad category of knowledge that psychologist and nonpsychologist
coaches differed most. Psychologists were substantially more likely than
nonpsychologists to list knowledge and understanding of human behavior
as a key coach competency. In the literature, there is general agreement
among psychologist coaches of various subdisciplines that coaching in-
volves equipping people with the tools, knowledge, and opportunities
they need to develop themselves and become more effective (Peterson,
1996, p. 78) with the ultimate goal of sustained behavior change (Brotman
et al., 1998). The magnitude of the difference between psychologist and
nonpsychologist coaches about the importance of understanding human
behavior as a coach competency suggests that sustained behavior change
may not be the goal of all coaches; some may view increased insight or
self-awareness as an end goal.
We also found that psychologists rated knowledge of business prac-
tices, including strategy, culture, and leadership, as a more important
competency than did nonpsychologist coaches. Another small, yet im-
portant, difference in perceived competencies is that psychologists were
more likely to list competencies related to sound needs assessment prac-
tices (e.g., using data and measurement tools, analysis and planning),
whereas nonpsychologists were more likely to list broader, less specic
assessment and intervention competencies (e.g., questioning and probing
skills, using a exible toolbox). It is worth noting, however, that coaches
perceptions of key competencies may not reect their actual strengths.
As suggested by an anonymous reviewer, psychologists greater emphasis
on business competencies may reect their appreciation for the value of
business knowledge, which they may feel they lack.
Although a growing number of nonpsychologist coaches come from
business (former managers and former HR professionals), historically,
many nonpsychologist coaches came from human services and helping
professions. These coaches tended to be more focused on the personal
goals of the individual and less concerned about the business side of
things. Indeed, when coding the competencies, we observed what appear
to be two distinct types of competency listings that may be indicative of
distinct models or methods of coaching. Some coaches seemed to focus
more on business-related outcomes. These coaches focused on assessment
and skill development, with an implicit goal of behavior change. Others
focused on listening, reecting, and questioning, with more apparent focus
on the personal growth of the individual being coached. Our observations
may reect two distinctly different models (reection vs. intervention)
and goals (business competencies vs. personal growth) of coaching that
exist in the marketplace; however, our data suggest that these models are
not closely aligned with a coachs training or educational background.
Aprimary strength of our study was that we went to great lengths to as-
semble a representative sample of coaches, with a variety of backgrounds
and institutional afliations. This strength is accompanied by some limi-
tations. First, collecting data from over 400 coaches forced us to rely on
a survey with standardized questions and responses, limiting our ability
to collect rich data on the intricacies of coaches work with their clients,
which can be hard to characterize in a 15 response scale. For example,
we did not learn much about the underlying organizational goals that drive
executive coaching (e.g., develop high-potential managers, or change the
organizational culture) or about the processes used by organizations in
selecting coaches or matching coaches with executives. Second, a poten-
tially biasing factor in our interpretation of the data is our own link to
psychology, which may tend to focus our attention on some aspects of
our results over others. Three of the four authors are psychologists by
training (industrial-organizational and counseling); the fourth, although
trained in business, spent several years in a psychology department. We
acknowledge the possibility that our training inuenced the questions that
we asked and the issues we viewed as important. A third limitation of our
study design is that we asked coaches to self-report their behaviors and
approaches. As suggested by an anonymous reviewer, it is quite possible
that some coaches may have responded in a way that was consistent with
howthey thought they should respond, based on their training. For this rea-
son, continued empirical work on executive coaching is important. Even
though coaches may diverge to some degreein practicefrom what
they report on our survey, we still nd the similarities and differences
between coaches of various disciplines to be informative, both because it
is likely that there is an association between what coaches report and what
they actually do, and because reported differences may be indicative of
philosophical differences in approaches to coaching.
Implications and Application
Our review of the literature makes it clear that executive coaching
remains a popular intervention for organizations. One of the reasons that
coaching has grown so rapidly is because organizations have become
aware of the problems and costs caused by high-potential employees with
poor interpersonal skills, because the tight pool of talented employees
makes employee development more attractive to organizations than re-
placement, because retirement among senior executives has prompted
organizations to develop formal succession plans, and because managers,
due to lack of skills and time, tend to outsource feedback and develop-
ment of employees. The question facing organizations is how to choose
the right coach. The results of our study, although informative about many
small differences between coaches, do not provide a clear framework for
matching client needs with coaches on the basis of a coachs training and
background.
Given that knowing a coachs educational background is not enough
to tell an organization how a coach will behave, we suggest that organi-
zations can do a better job of matching clients and coaches by asking two
questionsone of themselves and one of coaches they consider hiring.
Question 1: What is the need of the individual to be coached, relative to
the necessary and sufcient conditions for developmentinsight, moti-
vation, capabilities, real-world practice, and accountability? These ve
conditions are referred to as the Development Pipeline (Peterson, 2006).
1
Does the person need additional insight, motivation, and skills? Or does
the person need to be given the opportunity to apply their existing skills
in real-world settings and be held accountable for doing so? The answer
to this question tells the company what they need to look for in a coach
(e.g., someone who can provide feedback and clarify goals in order to
facilitate insight or someone who can provide new knowledge and build
the persons skills). Asking this question will also help organizations re-
alize that if they do not know exactly what elements of development the
person needs, it is critical that they hire a coach who has training, skill,
and experience in problem identication (i.e., developmental assessment
and needs analysis). Our data suggests a potential advantage for psychol-
ogist coaches in this instance, as they are more likely to use effective
tools to diagnose the problem (e.g., multisource behavioral ratings d =
.54, interview with supervisor d = .33, interview with peers d = .35,
ability/aptitude tests d = .30, and review of prior performance data d =
.41). Our data also suggest that if an executive needs to learn to apply
his or her existing skills, a psychologist might be well suited for the task,
as psychologist coaches were more likely to assist with skill application
(d = .21) and to set behavior change goals (d = .22) with the individuals
they coach.
Once the organization has answered Question 1, they are ready to
interview coaches using Question 2: What is the coachs process for ad-
dressing the specic type of need identied in Question 1? Coaches can
be asked to explicitly describe their approach to building insight, enhanc-
ing motivation, helping the person learn new skills and gain knowledge,
1
The Development Pipeline lists the ve necessary and sufcient conditions for system-
atic learning, dened as follows (Peterson, 2006). Insight: the extent to which a person
understands what area(s) they need to develop in order to be more effective. Motivation:
the degree to which a person is willing to invest the time and energy it takes to develop
in those areas. Capabilities: the extent to which a person has the skills and knowledge that
are needed. Real-world practice: the extent to which the person has opportunities to apply
their skills in relevant, real-world settings. Accountability: the extent to which there are
internal and external mechanisms for paying attention to change and providing meaningful
consequences. An analysis of which elements are missing, or most constrained, will iden-
tify where coaching and development efforts should be focused in order to most efciently
facilitate learning.
transfer learning to real-world applications, and/or ensuring that the per-
son is held accountable and sticks to their goals. With that kind of clarity
relative to a specic model of development, organizations can assess how
satised they are with a coachs ability to articulate his or her approach to
addressing the executives need.
2
Our data suggest that knowing a coachs
educational background will provide only limited information of this na-
ture. Indeed, we found it ironic that a common criticism of psychologist
coaches is their assumed use of psychoanalytic techniques in the coach-
ing process because our data suggest that psychologists are signicantly
less likely than nonpsychologists to use such controversial techniques in
executive coaching. Clearly, organizations cannot rely on a coachs edu-
cational background to determine what process they will use in executive
coaching. Thus, organizations need to pose questions, such as Question 2,
directly to potential coaches. Asking questions such as the two we sug-
gest also allows organizations to determine whether a particular coachs
practice tends to focus mostly on behavior change and business goals, or
whether the coach tends to focus more on helping individuals with their
personal growth and development.
In addition to asking coaches questions about their background and
training, organizationsand individual executives looking for a coach
would be well served to clearly communicate their objectives to prospec-
tive coaches. Doing so would allow coaches to better determine whether
their unique training, capabilities, and typical processes are a good t
for the client, potentially resulting in better matches. Similarly, because
our results suggest that a coachs educational background provides only
limited information to an organization, coaches must be clear in their
conversations (and in their marketing materials) about what they bring to
the table, and why their capabilities and processes are appropriate for a
particular situation, based on experience and past success with the given
audience and need. Coaches can also be clear with organizations about
whether their general approach to coaching tends toward intervention ver-
sus reection, and whether the bulk of their coaching is done to develop
business competencies or whether they focus more on personal growth.
Furthermore, if psychologist coaches feel that their graduate training in
human behavior makes them a better coach, it is incumbent on them to
explicitly identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities they bring to exec-
utive coaching as a result of that training and how those capabilities will
make them a better choice for a particular coaching assignment.
2
Additional questions and issues related to selecting coaches and designing coaching
programs are discussed in Executive Coaching Forum (2004), Peterson (2002), and Valerio
and Lee (2006).
Future Research
As systematic empirical examination of executive coaching is in its
infancy, there are a number of fruitful avenues for future research. Per-
haps the most pressing need is for continuing sound research on the
effectiveness of coaching in general (e.g., Peterson, 1993a,b), especially
as compared with other methods of training and development, such as
group-based skills training, or broad goal-setting interventions. Quasi-
experiments in organizations, comparing outcomes of coaching versus
other interventions, or looking at the incremental validity of coaching
when combined with other interventions, are needed (e.g., Seifert, Yukl,
&McDonald, 2003). Another critical need, as coaching becomes more and
more popular is to understand the differences (in purpose, process, and
expected outcomes) between external coaching and supervisory coach-
ing. Over time coaching has shifted from remedial interventions to more
positive and proactive needs, such as accelerating high potential devel-
opment, developing special populations (e.g., minority executives), and
special needs (e.g., onboarding or managing remote teams, or managing
a specic project); additional research is needed to better understand how
coaching varies by the nature of the intervention. We also know little
about the processes used in short term, focused coaching, which may also
depend more heavily on electronic communication.
In this research, we began the process of identifying coaching com-
petencies by asking coaches themselves what they think the key compe-
tencies are. An important area for future research is to determine what
knowledge, skills, and abilities coaches must have to address the various
types of issues they face (e.g., facilitating insight, motivation, capabili-
ties). Arriving at a concrete set of KSAs (not based solely on coaches
reports) linked to each element and type of executive coaching would
help coaches and training programs know what knowledge and skills to
develop. Our informal review of graduate training in counseling, clinical,
and industrial-organizational psychology, along with International Coach-
ing Federation certied programs, suggests that most training programs
have gaps. For example, graduate programs in clinical and counseling
psychology focus on human development but typically include no course-
work related to either the business environment or employment law. In
contrast, industrial-organizational psychology programs have a strong fo-
cus on the employee behavior, motivation, attitudes, and performance,
as well the legal issues surrounding employment, but they typically do
not train students in techniques associated with one-on-one coaching or
counseling. Retired executives bring a wealth of business experiences but
may not be trained or knowledgeable about assessment and may not know
howfacilitate sustained behavior change. Coach certication programs are
unique in providing the business and marketing skills needed by coaches,
especially those building a new practice, but due to their brevity, cannot
provide trainees with strong, foundational knowledge related to human
motivation and development.
Another important area in which research is lacking is the coaching
process. There is a need for future research to examine the active ingre-
dients of coaching. What coach behaviors help someone gain insight?
What do coaches actually do to increase motivation? Specically, how
do coaches help someone increase their capabilities and apply those new
capabilities in the workplace? How do they hold the person they coach
accountable? One way to conduct this type of research would be to con-
duct a series of interviews with coaches and the people they coach, either
after each coaching session or at set time periods during the coaching
engagement. The interviewer might ask these questions: Did your coach
inuence your motivation? If so, what did the coach do? Did your coach
do anything to help you build your skills? How did the coach accomplish
this? Asking those same questions of the coach (i.e., What did you do to
help the person you coach build skills?) would allowfor a rich and detailed
understanding of what coaches do (and can do) to help the individuals they
coach achieve their developmental goals. According to the coaches in our
study, the most important competency of a coach is to listen. Effective
listening skills may be a prerequisite, but surely there is more to effective
coaching that simply listening.
An applied study, such as the one we describe, would allow us to
more clearly understand the behaviors that are associated with effective
coaching. Such a study would also reveal differences, if they exist, in
behaviors that coaches think are effective and those viewed as effective
by the individuals they coach. An intensive study of the coaching process
would also shed light on the difference processes used in electronic and
face-to-face coaching, in ongoing development and coaching focused on a
specic task or project, and between coaching as an external intervention
and supervisory coaching. One role that psychologist coaches, especially
those trained in industrial-organizational psychology, may be well suited
for is to train supervisors howto provide ongoing, developmental coaching
for their employees. Finally, because little is known about how executive
coaching ts into the overall process of developing executives, additional
research focused on when and how organizations select coaching as the
preferred intervention is needed.
Conclusion
We embarked on this research with the notion of linking coach train-
ing and background to coaching practices. One clear implication of our
results is that the long standing debate about who makes the best coach
(psychologists or nonpsychologists) may be of limited value. Our results
suggest that relying on educational background alone to predict a coachs
philosophy, process, or behavior is ill advised because it provides lim-
ited information about a coachs practices. Nonetheless, our results do
suggest that psychologist coaches (consistent with their training) tend to
use multiple methods of assessment and evaluation, which may provide
them with a richer picture of a clients needs and more rigorous outcome
evaluation. If organizations expect their executive coaches to evaluate and
diagnose problems, they may be well served by psychologists who are
trained in and more likely to use multiple assessments. It is important
to note, however, that our data show that these differences, even when
statistically signicant, tend to be small.
Overall, results of our study suggest that energy being devoted to the
question of whether or not psychologists make better executive coaches
should be redirected to these questions: What are the knowledge, skills,
and abilities coaches need to help individuals gain insight and motiva-
tion?; and What coach behaviors are the best predictors of long-term
behavior change in the individuals they coach? Psychologists may or may
not make better executive coaches; but, psychologists (and psychologist
coaches) are clearly well trained to answer questions such as these.
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A Survey of Executive Coaching Practices

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PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY

2009, 62, 361404

Race .91 .28 .86 .34 .08

Coach practice information

Percentage of income from 1.99 1.10 2.62 1.15 .26

Licensed psychologist .44 .50 .04 .19 .50

Certied coach .15 .36 .56 .50 .40

Percent coaching practice in U.S. 77% 37% 58% 46% .21

Participants job roles

Entry-level or supervisor 3.07 1.40 3.29 1.33 .08

Source of participant referral

Participant referred by manager 3.08 1.11 2.71 1.31 .16

Participant referred by HR 3.12 1.17 2.65 1.24 .19

Coach contacted Participant 1.90 1.10 2.56 1.23 .27

Face to Face 4.15 1.01 3.70 1.21 .19

E-mail 3.01 1.25 2.96 1.18 .02

610 3.63 1.36 3.62 1.36 .01

2130 2.68 1.63 3.48 1.64 .24

Scientic or philosophical approach

Cognitive behavioral 3.83 1.13 3.64 1.24 .08

Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic 2.39 1.83 2.84 2.14 .11

Skill training 3.31 1.25 3.34 1.26 .01

Interview with supervisor 3.61 1.32 3.17 1.35 .16

Interview with peers 3.19 1.21 2.75 1.27 .17

Interview with family 1.54 .91 1.46 .80 .05

Interest inventory 2.26 1.19 2.71 1.35 .17

Personality inventory 3.12 1.39 3.23 1.29 .04

Role plays 2.73 1.18 2.67 1.28 .02

Increasing motivation 3.55 1.21 3.76 1.11 .09

Holding participant accountable 4.26 1.00 4.21 1.06 .03

Topic addressed in coaching

Strategic thinking 3.08 1.01 3.10 .99 .01

Conict management 3.32 .83 3.28 .88 .02

Leadership 3.92 .88 3.86 .75 .04

Adaptability/versatility 2.97 1.12 3.21 1.00 .11

Motivation 2.36 1.21 2.86 1.19 .20

Delegation 2.85 1.05 2.86 .98 .00

Sales or nancial performance 2.02 1.04 2.34 1.11 .15

Mentoring 2.41 1.10 2.71 1.10 .13

Note. N=428; 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Nonpsychologist is coded 1

Satisfaction with outcomes 4.24 .84 4.40 .70 .10

Attainment of coaching goals 4.16 .90 4.27 .77 .06

Increased self-understanding 3.84 1.25 4.33 .80 .23

Learning or skill development 2.63 1.21 2.40 1.25 .09

Note. N = 428; 172 psychologists and 256 nonpsychologists. Nonpsychologist is coded

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