Peter Hunt, Lenz-Alternative Worlds in Fantasy Fiction (Continuum Collection, Contemporary Classics of Children - S Literature) - Continuum (2005)

Contemporary Classics of Children's Literature
Series Editor: Morag Styles

Alternative Worlds in Fantasy Fiction
Contemporary Classics of Children's Literature
Series Editor: Morag Styles
This exciting new series provides critical discussion of a range of
contemporary classics of children's literature. The contributors are
distinguished educationalists and academics from Britain, North
America, Australia and elsewhere, as well as some of the foremost
booksellers, literary journalists and librarians in the field. The work of
leading authors and other outstanding fictional texts for young people
(popular as well as literary) are considered on a genre or thematic basis.
The format for each book includes an in-depth introduction to the key
characteristics of the genre, where major works and great precursors
are examined, and significant issues and ideas raised by the genre are
explored. The series will provide essential reading for those working on
undergraduate and higher degrees on children's literature. It avoids
jargon and is accessible to interested readers, from parents, teachers
and other professionals, to students and specialists in the field.
Contemporary Classics of Children's Literature is a pioneering series,
the first of its kind in Britain to give serious attention to the excellent
writing being produced for children in recent years.
Also available in the series:
Kate Agnew and Geoff Fox: Children at War
J ulia Eccleshare: A Guide to the Harry Potter novels
Nick Tucker and Nikki Gamble: Family Fictions
Kim Reynolds, Kevin McCarron and Geraldine Brennan: Frightening
Fiction
Contemporary Classics of Children's
Literature
ALTERNATIVE
WORLDS IN
FANTASY
FICTION
Peter Hunt and Millicent Lenz
continuum
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() 2001 Peter Hunt and Millicent Lenz
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First published 2001, Reprinted 2003
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0-8264-4936-0(hardback)
0-8264-7760-7 (paperback)
Typeset by Y HT Ltd, London
Printed and bound in Great Britain by Creative Print and Design, Ebbw Vale
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Contents
CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
Note
Introduction
Peter Hunt
Ursula K. Le Guin
Millicent Lenz
Terry Pratchett
Peter Hunt
Philip Pullman
Millicent Lenz
index
vi
1
42
86
122
170
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CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Fantasy and Alternative Worlds
Peter Hunt
'Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but
Facts. Facts alone are wanted in lif e. Plant nothing else, and root out
everything else. You can only f orm the minds of reasoning animals upon
Facts: nothing else will ever be of any service to them.'
Charles Dickens, Hard Times (1854)
Fantasy isthe natural, the appropriate language for the recounting of the
spiritual journey and the struggle of good and evil in the soul.
Ursula K. Le Gum (1992: 64)
Fantasy is literature for teenagers
Brian Aldiss (quoted in Winoker, 1987: 39)
There's certainly prejudice in some quarters against f antasy, but this
tends to be f rom people who think it's all swordsand dragons - which is
as silly as saying that 'Booker books' are all about f oul-mouthed Scots
and lonely ladies taking tea on wet Thursdays. I t seems to be suggested
that f antasy is some kind of f airy icing when, f rom a historical point of
view, it is the whole cake.
Terry Pratchett (Pratchett and Briggs, 1997: 467)
The paradoxes of fantasy
The first question about fantasy usually is: how seriously should we
take it?
In 1984, Ann Swinfen began her book In Def ence of Fantasy by
noting that fantasy occupies 'a curiously ambivalent position ... in the
contemporary literary scene' (1); in 1988, Raymond Tallis began his In
Def ence of Realism with the wry observation: 'that realism is outmoded
and the realistic novel a form that has had its day is a critical
commonplace'(1). Lucie Armitt, in 1996, took the opposite view:
if you place 'fantastic' in a literary context ... suddenly we have a
problem. Suddenly it is something dubious, embarrassing ...
2 ALTERNATIVE WORLDS IN FANTASY FICTION
Suddenly we need to justify our interest in it ... [Fantasy] ... is
that intangible source of unconscious fears and desires which
fuels our dreams, our phobias and therefore our narrative fictions
... but its presumed association with the formulaic inevitably
attracts two negative[s] ... : escapism and pulp fiction.(1)
Worse, it is associated with that still-marginalized literary form,
children's literature.
Fantasy literature is either taken seriously (and enthusiastically), or
seriously rejected. It is the root of all literature, an area of advanced
literary experimentation, and essential to our mental health; or it is
regressive, and associated with self-indulgent catharsis on the part of
the writers; or it is linked to a ritualistic, epic, dehumanized world of
predetermination and out of tune with post-romantic sensitivity: or it
symbolizes the random world of the postmodern.
Or, quite possibly, all of these, for fantasy resists, and indeed mocks,
the elaborate classification systems of academia that have grown up
around it, just as it defies the view that its huge popularity is a sad
reflection on the state of contemporary culture.
However, it is useful to take the three most common (if not the most
damning) of opinions - that fantasy is formulaic, childish, and escapist,
to see if they can be sustained - remembering that the one thing that
can rarely be said of fantasy is that it has nothing to do with reality.
The problem of genre
Of types of fiction, fantasy is where the initial impulse of the writing
and the constraints of genre clash most strongly. Personal, private,
fantasy allows us to speculate, to explore possibilities, to indulge our
private selves - to consider imaginatively things that cannot be (as
opposed to speculation on things that might be, which produces science
fiction): it would seem to offer worlds of infinite possibility, of
expansiveness, of liberation.
And yet, the forms that fantasy takes - for all the endless ingenuity
of the human imagination - are surprisingly limited. Fantasy seems to
have, like the folk tales from which it sprang, a restricted number of
recurrent motifs and elements: there are young, questing heroes, wise
controlling sages, irredeemably evil monsters, and (although, mercifully
fewer these days) damsels in distress (Propp, 1975). It might seem that
the most visible form, 'sword and sorcery' genre fantasy, is doomed to
die of repetition or parody - as in Terry Pratchett's 'Discworld' series,
or Diana Wynne J ones's The Tough Guide to Fantasyland which
mercilessly catalogues every cliche: 'Beer always foams and is invariably
INTRODUCTION: FANTASY AND ALTERNATIVE WORLDS 3
delivered in tankards' (1996: 30).
Such is the grip of formula, that it is almost as if one part of the
human psyche is frightened of the other: imagination is too dangerous
to wander unchained. (Of course, it may simply be that the very
publicness of written fantasy simplifies it: it needs to be comprehensible
to more than one person, and most private fantasies would need a good
many footnotes were they to be made public in their raw state!) And
yet, making sense of both the dark, unknown universe out there, and
the perhaps worse demons within - making both humanly manageable
- has been what storytelling and metaphor have always been about.
Ritualization, then, is neither surprising, nor exclusive to fantasy.
Original fantasy, however, as this book will demonstrate, is not hard to
find, although it may have to work harder because of its awareness of
its context.
There is, however, one area of formulaic writing that is increasingly
difficult to justify: the treatment of gender. The hero tale, still the
staple of contemporary fantasy, has been essentially a male preserve: in
fantasies fromThe Wind in the Willows, Winnie-the-Pooh, Peter Pan, The
Hobbit, the first three 'Earthsea' Books, and countless others, women
are marginalized (Tenar) or mothers (Wendy, Kanga), or dangerous
(Toad's bargewoman). As Ursula K. Le Guin said, ironically:
'Authority is male. It's a fact. My fantasy dutifully reported the fact.
But is that all a fantasy does - report facts?' (1993: 11).
But despite all this, fantasy literature, whose wellsprings are most
visibly subversive, continually strives to overcome (or exploit) both
genrefication and the fact that commercialism finds it easier to sell the
restricted and restricting rather than the dangerously unclassifiable.
The three major authors studied in the rest of this book are writers
who have taken on what has been, in terms of genre and gender, an
often limited form, and have moved it into new areas.
Fantasy and children
The second major criticism of fantasy is that it is childish. It is not
surprising that fantasy and children's literature have been associated
with each other, because both are essentially democratic forms -
democratized by being outside the solipsistic system of high culture.
The idea of a 'canon' - a group of superior texts whose superiority is
validated by some set of privileged judges - is alien to both: and to both
'popular culture' is a rallying cry, rather than a contradiction in terms.
But there is no reason to suppose that children and fantasy have a
natural connection, even if the struggle of imagination and generic
constraints parallels the conflict between common concepts of the
child and the adult - the expansive versus the repressed, freedom
versus discipline, freshness versus familiarity. Thus J . R. R. Tolkien's
famous dictum on the fairy tale can be applied to fantasy: 'the
association of children and fairy stories is an accident of our domestic
history. ... Children as a class neither like fairy-stories more nor
understand them better than adults do' (1964: 34). In fact, the
association of fantasy with children - and childishness - is quite
bizarre, in that fantasy (at least as most often constructed)
concentrates on worlds other than this one: alternative worlds -
desirable, if unattainable options. Why should this be thought to be of
interest to child readers? It is far more likely, as we shall see, with
fantasists from MacDonald to Barrie and onwards, that it is adult
writers who are interested in, or have a need for such alternatives. And
so we might ask, is, to a developing child, this world not enough? And
if it is not, is it because adults have closed off its inherent wonders?
(Hence, perhaps, the criticism of C. S. Lewis that his 'Narnia' books
reject the world as (God-)given world - albeit in favour of another,
more mystic version.)
Thus, a great many fantasy worlds do not cater for a developing
mind at all: the real world may be seen as being full of arbitrary, adult-
controlled restrictions, but for this is substituted another world, often
of even more arcane restrictions. Similarly, there has been, since the
days of the first real example of a 'logically cohesive' alternative world
(Sullivan, 1996: 307), William Morris's The Wood Beyond the World
(1894), a tendency to exploit pseudo-medieval settings. This suggests a
regressive element, a romantic yearning (by adults) for earlier
'innocence', for an alternative world where motivations, actions, needs
and gratifications are simpler and more direct than in the desperately
complex and subtle real world.
The paradox is that the appreciation of fantasy does involve (for
children as well as adults) the use of and validation of romantically
constructed 'child-like' talents - the joy of invention and discovery,
the wonder at variety and ingenuity - the fresh view of the different,
the other. The rejection of this as atavistic or childish by the
'sophisticated' adult reader has some interesting implications: as C. S.
Lewis put it:
To be concerned about being grown up, to admire the grown up
because it is grown up, to blush at the suspicion of being childish;
these are the marks of childhood and adolescence. When I
became a man I put away childish things, including the fear of
childishness and the desire to be very grown up. (1966: 25)
Adult criticism tends to resist this: invented worlds cannot be 'merely'
places of wonder or delight: they must mean something else (morally,
rather than inevitably) if they are to be interesting or valuable.
Manlove's complimentary comment on Terry Pratchett's The Colour of
Magic, that 'in a sense the real narrative ... is Pratchett continually
outdoing himself (1999: 136) can be taken as a negative criticism;
analysts of Le Guin's writing concentrate on the meaning rather than
the fact of her wonders.
This winds back to the relatively low cultural status of fantasy for
adults - although, logically enough, fantasy for children has a
respectable place in the (adult-nominated) children's canon. This
low status is compounded by the fact that differences between fantasy
and realism and between children's and adults' fantasy are confusingly
similar, and hinge on what is left out.
If fantasy is a simplifying activity - with simple acts and resolutions -
it can be seen as both an innocent activity and as a corrupting activity,
depending on who is reading it. Thus, for example, in fantasies, good
and evil are polarized in a way that they can perhaps never be - or
should never be - and which all-too-dangerously are - in a mature real
world. As Robert Louis Stevenson said, of what he regarded as a
fantasy, Treasure Island, in a debate with Henry J ames over the
'adventure' novel:
The characters need to be presented with but one class of
qualities ... Danger is the matter with which this class of novel
deals; fear, the passion with which it idly trifles; and the
characters are portrayed only so far as they realise the sense of
danger and provoke the sympathy of fear ... To add more traits,
to be too clever, to start the hare of moral or intellectual interest
while we are running the fox of material interest, is not to enrich
but to stultify your tale. (Allott, 1965: 83)
Things that are very difficult, for example, notably, sexuality, are
cleared away - in what may be an urge towards purity and innocence -
or towards irresponsibility and (wilful) ignorance - all of which terms
cluster perjoratively around 'childhood'. 'High' fantasy, for example,
especially clears out sex - ores may be savage, but they are not rapists -
sex is shunted off into that specialized ghetto of pornography where
real humans become ultimately degraded by being treated as anything
but humans. (Or, alternatively, the users of such material are degraded
by ignoring humanity; or natural and harmful urges are harmlessly
sublimated ... and so on.)
In this formulation, then, fantasy is necessarily evasive and
irresponsible - and simple. Bruno Bettelheim's book on the fairy tale,
The Uses of Enchantment (1976), notoriously reduced the elements of
what Philip Larkin called 'the collective myth-kitty' to a series of
reactive elements; the reaction to this suggested that he had devalued
the tales - but perhaps they actually are as simple as Bettelheim
suggested, and the idea that they are profound and forceful is merely a
defence (by the regressive).
Thus fantasy substitutes violence for discussion, friendship for love,
romance for passion, magic for achievement - and even food for sex -
especially in books ostensibly for children or for regressing adults, such
as Grahame's The Wind in the Willows, or Eleanor Farjeon's Martin
Pippin in the Apple Orchard. If some things are left out of children's
fantasy because they are not relevant to children, or because authors
wish to preserve the innocence/ignorance of childhood, and these are
much the same things as are left out of adult genre fantasy, then it is
not surprising that there has been confusion.
And, of course, with anything connected with childhood, the more
alienated the thinking about it, the more romantic it becomes.
Therefore one conventional explanation for the supposed preponder-
ance of fantasy in children's books is that children are in some way
closer to the unknown, the unseen, and the mystical. Children are
equated with primitives, who have (it is assumed) a simple faith in
animism and an inherent understanding of certain narrative patterns;
or are equivalent to the 'folk' (a naive construction) who originated
the folk tale, for whom the world outside the door of the hut was full of
who knew what wonders and terrors.
More patronizing still is the view that for children the distinction
between reality and unreality is blurred, and therefore they scarcely
have to suspend belief. (This view is at the root of a great deal of
careless and trivial writing.) As it is not clear at what developmental
stage any of this is true, or ceases to be true, it might all be treated with
a healthy scepticism. The romantic idea of 'child'like', meaning
innocent (however 'innocence' is constructed) and mystic, has been
imposed upon actuality: to the postmodern adult reader, absorption
into a text while reading is unfashionable; children (and unfashionable
readers) do it - and (therefore) it is childish to do it. Any suggestion
that developing readers may be just as capable of dual readings as other
readers undermines childhood as constructed.
Even the best writers cannot escape: as Le Guin observed:
For fantasy is true, of course. It isn't factual, but it is true.
Children know that. Adults know it too, and that is precisely why
many of them are afraid of fantasy. They know that its truth
challenges, even threatens, all that is false, all that is phoney,
unnecessary, and trivial in the life they have let themselves be
forced into living. They are afraid of dragons because they are
afraid of freedom. (1992: 40)
In short, the most damning criticism of fantasy is that it seems to be
merely 'fun': and we live in a culture that finds it difficult to take fun
seriously: as A. P. Herbert said: 'People must not do things for fun. We
are not here for fun. There is no reference to fun in any Act of
Parliament'. But, ironically, fantasy cannot be merely anything. The
assumption that fantasy is childish because you may not need to know
much about this world in order to read about an invented one
overlooks the obvious fact that knowledge of this world is necessary to
invent one. Fantasy is, because of its relationship to reality, very
knowing: alternative worlds must necessarily be related to, and
comment on, the real world.
Escapism and the reality of fantasy
Ursula K. Le Guin, in an article, 'Why Are Americans Afraid of
Dragons?' in 1974, reported the experience of a friend:
Ten years ago I went to the children's room of the library of such-
and-such a city, and asked for TheHobbit; and the librarian told
me, 'Oh, we keep that only in the adult collection; we don't feel
that escapism is good for children.' (1992: 34)
The common accusation that fantasy is not a good thing because it is
escapist rests on the fallacy that it is necessarily escapist (quite apart
from the implication that escapism is necessarily not a good thing).
The idea of all fantasy as frivolous escapism is no more generally
applicable than the suggestion that all fiction is escapist - and perhaps
less so. Fantasy cannot be 'free-floating' or entirely original, unless we
are prepared to learn a new language and new way of thinking to
understand it. It must be understandable in terms of its relationship to,
or deviance from, our known world.
The notion of impossibility in fantasy, then, must be ... more
public than the schizophrenic's hallucination, yet less public than
myth and religion. It must ... be part of an implied compact
between author and reader - an agreement that whatever
impossibilities we encounter will be made significant to us, but
will retain enough of their idiosyncratic nature that we still
recognise them to be impossible. (Wolfe, 1982: 3)
If there is virtually no connection between the real and the fantastic,
except distortion, then we arrive at the absurd and nonsense.
Consequently we do not escape ourselves or our situation: fantasy
has an inevitable role as a commentary on, or counterpart to, reality
and realism. Far from being 'escapist' as J ill Paton Walsh observed,
A work of fantasy compels a reader into a metaphorical state of
mind. A work of realism, on the other hand, permits very literal-
minded readings ... Even worse, it is possible to read a realistic
book as though it were not fiction at all. (1981: 38)
Or, in Ursula K. Le Guin's terms:
It is by such statements as 'Once upon a time there was a dragon',
or 'In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit' - it is by such
beautiful non-facts that we fantastic human beings may arrive, in
our peculiar fashion, at the truth. (1992: 40)
As a result, fantasy - things as they cannot be - is very often a very
direct critique of things as they are, even if not directly intended to be
so. As Tolkien observed of The Lord of the Rings,
As for any inner meaning or 'message', it has in the intention of
the author none. It is neither allegorical nor topical... I cordially
dislike allegory in all its manifestations, and always have done so
since I grew old and wary enough to detect its presence. I much
prefer history, true or feigned, with its varied applicability to the
thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse
'applicability' with 'allegory'; but the one resides in the freedom of
the reader, and the other in the purposed domination of the
author. (1978: 8-9)
Of course, what Tolkien says of applicability is true of any text - but his
mention of allegory is significant. The domain of modern fantasy is
related to a long history of myth, legend, folk-tale and wonder tale, not
to mention religion and the occult - forms of narrative which many
have seen as expressions of, or as being closely related to, deep and
universal human drives. As Colin Manlove has noted (and as Alan
Garner acknowledged of his first two fantasies), simply to populate a
landscape with these elements does not ensure any vibrant link.
Any number of Waste Lands, broken lances, grails, eucharistic or
baptismal symbols may appear in a story without that story having
any potent meaning. More than this, where a story does have
significance attached to it ... the word is indeed 'attached', for
the meaning has been neither felt by the author nor vitally
realised in the story. (1975: 11)
However, I would take issue with Manlove's idea that we can
distinguish between those works of 'fancy' - comic or escapist fantasy,
as opposed to the works of the imagination - which carry 'deeper'
meaning. It is just such a fanciful - and elitist - canonical view that
leads us into needlessly difficult waters.
Thus when Raymond Tallis says that 'a total disregard for the
probable will present a serious obstacle to the free operation of the
reader's intelligence and imagination' (1988: 193), I would agree. The
point is that fantasy does not totally disregard such things. If it did, it
would produce utterly incomprehensible and chaotic texts: fantasy
must react. There must be a 'realistic' focalizer: for example, in Oz,
however wild the premises of physical laws, the story centres on
Dorothy and her desire to get back to her familiar home; on the
.Discworld, however spectacular the invention, the psychology of
the characters is recognizable; in Le Gum's books, the Dragons - and
the women - are understandable and are able to be empathized with,
precisely because they are in contrast to the conventionally realistic
texts; in Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, the worlds Lyra discovers
are always in tension with the world she knows, and the world we
know.
In fact, such is the engagement with 'real' life and characters in
much fantasy that, as Manlove noted, it
tends to be moral in character, depicting the different natures of
good and evil, and centrally concerned with viewing conduct in
ethical terms. (1982: 30-1)
(Even on the simplest symbolic levels, as we have seen in the case of
gender, the prejudices of this world easily transfer to other worlds. Both
Tolkien and Lewis use the East and the Dark (skinned) as symbols of
evil - not to mention Garner's Svarts, Dahl's Oompa-Loompas, and
Lofting's J ollijinkies.)
Fantasy, then, is relevant, and so when Tallis finally concedes that
'the quarrel ... is with those who invent (or more usually, crib)
mysteries because they are insensitive to the mystery of daily life'
(1988: 193) no serious reader of fantasy would disagree.
Marking the boundaries
It seems to be more or less traditional for books on fantasy to begin
with a collection of definitions, marking out academic or conceptual
territory - and, on the whole, it seems to be a fairly defensive exercise.
After all, it can be argued that all fiction (and a good deal of non-
fiction) is in a sense fantasy - especially 'realistic' fiction, which,
fantastically, makes sense of the random narratives of life - not because
events described could not happen in some wise, but because fiction
narrates and makes sense of things in a way that is unavailable in
reality. As Mark Twain said, 'Why shouldn't truth be stranger than
fiction? Fiction, after all, has to make sense' (Winoker, 1987: 47). At a
lesser extreme, one could reasonably include in the category of fantasy
any fanciful tale, from myths to religious parables, from the folk tale to
the absurd, from nursery rhymes to nonsense.
One difficulty is that 'fantasy' is the ultimately relative term: one
person's fantasy is another person's norm - who would care to draw
their own line between fantasy and reality? The other is that most
definitions merely send us in pursuit of other words, such as
'impossible' and 'reality', which are at best moveable feasts. In any
case, the unacademic reader might wonder, why define?
However, following tradition, here is a sample. For W. R. Irwin it is
'the literature of the impossible' (1976: 4); for Eric S. Rabkin: 'its polar
opposite is reality' (1976: 14), for Colin Manlove, it is 'of another order
of reality from that in which we exist and form our notions of
possibility' (1975: 3) and 'a fiction involving the supernatural or
impossible' (1999: 3). Brian Attebury attempts to make the term a
little more self-referential: for him, fantasy violates 'what the author
clearly believes to be natural law' (1980: 2); Le Guin turns it into a
survival strategy: fantasy is
a different approach to reality, an alternative technique for
apprehending and coping with existence. It is not anti-rational,
but para-rational; not realistic, but surrealistic, superrealistic; a
heightening of reality. (1992: 79)
... and so on. (For an excellent selection, see Sullivan, 1992: 97-100.)
One of the most detailed definitions is Colin Manlove's (1975: 1-
12): 'A fiction evoking wonder and containing a substantial and
irreducible element of the supernatural and which the mortal
characters in the story or the readers become on at least partially
familiar terms'(l). This is concerned with drawing boundaries: thus it
excludes Orlando (both by Virginia Woolf and Kathleen Hale) or The
Once and Future King, on the grounds that the fantasy element is not
the central concern of the books; and, more swingeingly, 'where the
supernatural is seen as a symbolic extension of the purely human mind'
- which excludes, for example, the 'Alice' books. Manlove quotes
Tolkien - 'since the fairy-story deals in "marvels", it cannot tolerate
any frame or machinery suggesting that the whole story in which they
occur is a figment or illusion' (1964: 6) - thus dismissing (again) the
'Alice' books or the whirlwind ride of J ohn Maseneld's The Box of
Delights - and countless others.
I have a great deal of sympathy with this purist view in terms of
academic manageability, but rather less with the oceans of ingenious
ink that has been used to classify fantasy: an activity which goes
against the general spirit of expansive extravagance, but is in concord
with the game-playing, obsessive detailing of a certain kind of fantasy.
However, simply to list possibilities does at least demonstrate the
richness of the subject. Colin Manlove (1999), for example, divides
English fantasy into: secondary worlds, metaphysical, emotive, comic,
subversive, and children's; Ruth Nadelman Lynn divides children's
fantasy into allegory and fable, animal, ghost, humour, imaginary
beings, magic adventure, secondary worlds, time travel, toys, and
witchcraft and wizardry; Ann Swinfen, into animals, time, dual world,
visionary, secondary worlds and so on.
The most fundamental difference might seem to be between fantasy
set in 'this' world, where there is a tension between the 'normal' and
the fantastic elements, and 'other' worlds in which the fantastic is the
norm. In 'this' world, magic may just happen to exist (as in J ohn
Masefield's The Midnight Folk, or E. Nesbit'sFive Children and It); there
may be intrusions of magic into this world from a different plane (as in
Alan Garner's The Weirdstone of Brisingamen) or a different world
(Alan Garner's Elidor); or the transportation of characters into
another, parallel world (The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, J oy
Chant's Red Moon, Black Mountain). (In this last connection, a good
deal of ingenuity has been expended on the devices that move
characters between the worlds (rings, wardrobes, mirrors, or in the case
of Pratchett'sJohnny and the Bomb, black plastic sacks).)
Very often, places are very precisely described or mapped,
emphasizing the gap between the real and unreal worlds: thus Mary
Norton's The Borrowers, Richard Adams's Watership Down, Garner's
The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, or my The Mapsof Time provide precise
maps onto which fiction is superimposed - and where there are no
maps, as in Kipling's Puck of Pook's Hill, there is a sense that the setting
is 'real'.
It can be argued that one of the differences between American and
British fantasy - and the predominance of 'other world' fantasies in the
USA, derives from British writers' sense of place and historical
presence. As Susan Cooper has said:
Britain has had people living in it for God knows how many
hundreds or thousands of years, especially in Wales. Y ou walk
those mountains and the awareness of the past is all around you.
And I intend to write from that kind of awareness. The magic, if
you like, is all around. There is no moment at which one slips
down the rabbit hole. (Harrison and Maguire, 1987: 202)
In more general terms, there are differences in the way 'other' worlds
are realized: is the fantasy of other worlds symbolism with a place, or is
it a place with symbolism attached.
7
Do the ideas in the books come
first, and is the fictive world then formed to accommodate them; or is
the fantasy accommodated in our 'real' world; or is the fictive world
created first and ideas generated subsequently? Robert Louis Stevenson
was an enthusiast of the last of these:
It is my contention - my superstition, if you like - that who is
faithful to his map, and consults it, and draws from it his
inspiration ... gains positive support ... [E]ven with imaginary
places, he will do well in the beginning to provide a map; as he
studies it, relations will appear that he has not thought upon ... it
will be found to be a mine of suggestion. (Salway, 1976: 419)
It is this kind of distinction that makes the worlds of The Water
Babies or the 'Alice' books not worlds in the way in which the
Discworld, or Middle Earth, or Earthsea, or Gormenghast can be said
to be separate worlds. Y ou could not map them - even when, as in
Through the Looking-Glass, we are dealing with a chess game. This is
also true of the 'Pooh' books and The Wind in the Willows. It is true that
E. H. Shepard drew maps of both, but the 100-acre wood or the River
Bank are not places which exist of themselves and in which therefore
things can happen. The place - the weir, Poohsticks bridge, the Mad
Hatter's tea table - spring up, as it were, when they are needed by the
action. Y ou cannot map the place where 'a boy and his bear will always
be playing'; you cannot go back to the garden of live flowers, or give a
map reference to Badger's back door. Like Grahame's 'economy of
character', it doesn't matter: Shepherd's maps are, in a sense, arbitrary,
and, perhaps, a little undermining.
The same nebulous geography is found in the 'world' of George
MacDonald's The Princess and the Goblin, and The Princess and Curdie -
and of many other books that inhabit what might be broadly called
'fairy-land'. It is a space where things happen, not a place of itself. In
Macdonald's world, there is a castle, a wood, a mountain, caves - but
these are only the spaces for action and allegory: there is no sense of
them having a separate existence. And allegory is a one-dimensional
form. Spenser's dragons have no existence beyond their immediate
rationale.
Rather than legislate these worlds out of our field of discussion, we
might simply note that their effect is likely to be different: some of the
dissatisfaction that critics - if not real readers - have felt with Lewis's
'Narnia' - is for all that it tries to map itself, it is really a place of ideas.
On the other hand, we might feel that the kingdom of Roke existed
before Ged and Tenar, and in this sense, exists after them. Le Guin
claimed that she explored and found Earthsea, rather than creating it -
although 'one gets a little jovial and irresponsible, given the freedom to
create a world out of nothing at all (Power corrupts)' (1992: 46). The
Hobbits walk an historical land, meticulously conceived. The Disc-
world can be - and has been - mapped. ('Where' these places 'exist'
might divert classifiers amongst us for a moment: Middle Earth may
have occupied the same space as we do now, once upon a time;
Earthsea, in contrast to Discworld, has no edges - in line with science-
fiction thinking Discworld occupies another, possible (however
improbable) corner of the multiverse; Lloyd Alexander's Prydain
although loosely based on Wales is never located anywhere.)
Because border disputes do not seem to us to be particularly useful,
the 'alternative worlds' discussed in this book are not confined to those
which exist in different, discrete worlds, such as Discworld, Earthsea,
Prydain, Middle Earth. Rather, we take 'alternative' to mean
alternative conceptual worlds, those which either - as in Pratchett's
J ohnny and the Bomb - exist down the other trouser leg of time, or exist
as (a similar concept) Pullman's parallel universes in His Dark
Materials. As Pullman has said:
I am surely not the only writer who has the distinct sense that
every sentence I write is surrounded by the ghosts of the
sentences I could have written at that point but didn't. (1998:
47)
And two final points on classification.
We have not used the term 'secondary worlds', which is often used
to mean discrete, other worlds, because it often seems to be based on a
misreading of Tolkien's Tree and Leaf. In discussing 'literary belief or
'the willing suspension of disbelief, which he finds an unsatisfactory
term, Tolkien says:
What really happens is that the story-maker proves a successful
'sub-creator'. He makes a Secondary World which your mind can
enter. Inside it, what he relates is 'true': it accords with the laws
of that world. Y ou therefore believe it, while you are, as it were,
inside. The moment disbelief arises, the spell is broken; the
magic, or rather art, has failed. Y ou are then out in the Primary
World again, looking at the little abortive Secondary World from
outside. (1964: 36)
For Tolkien, all imaginary worlds - all fictions - are 'Secondary'.
Similarly, we have not concerned ourselves too rigorously with the
distinctions between fantasy and science fiction (or science fantasy),
because the two are intertwined, and all three of the writers studied in
this book have been described as science-fiction writers. Definitions,
are, as usual, notable for their exclusions:
Fantasy deals with the impossible and the inexplicable, while
science fiction deals with a future that scientific or technological
advances could or might make possible. (Lynn, 1983: ix)
The fantasist tries to re-create, the science-fiction writer to make
the wholly new ... The genre is fundamentally exploratory in
character. (Manlove, 1982: 30-1)
Fantasy literature, then, the public face of play and desire, with its
(productively) opposing drives of ingenuity and simplicity, freedom and
control, covers a spectacular range. Some indication of its richness,
and the kinds of cultural tensions it provokes, and the problems and
pleasures that its readers might encounter, can be demonstrated by a
brief outline history, and a closer look at some key, representative,
texts.
The progress of fantasy
Origins and principles
Most elements of contemporary fantasy writing can be traced to very
ancient examples: wizards and werewolves and witches come from
ancient fears and power struggles, but we should be cautious not to
assume that naming a thing gives it any significance. As Tolkien notes
in Tree and Leaf , the game of derivations is a very dangerous, if not
pointless one. If we allow that folk-tale elements crop up across the
world in similar form, that is more likely to lead us to assumptions
about the human psyche, or humans' reactions to nature, than to
significant literary links. The larger the generalization about fantasy
('folk tales are about empowering the disempowered'), or the smaller
the detail (see for example Stith Thompson's mammoth folk-lore motif
index) the less, it seems to us, is being usefully said.
Secondly, as Sullivan points out (1992: 97-100), just as children's
literature requires some concept of childhood before it can exist,
fantasy requires some concept of realism before it can exist.
Consequently, to trace a history of fantasy 'back' to Beowulf or Arcadia
or Spenser's TheFaerie Queene, or Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's
Dream is to ignore the status of the 'fantasy' that they portray. As
Sullivan says,
the contemporary fantasy writer's borrowing of material from
medieval and ancient literatures for his modern texts auto-
matically makes those older narratives no more fantasies than it
makes them modem. (99)
Unlike the audience for early literature,
the modern reader makes categorical distinctions between the
possible (real) and the impossible (not-real) ... Thus fantasy
literature set in a Secondary World where the fantastic
(departures from consensus reality) occurs in believable ways, is
a product of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and should
be approached as such. (100)
The modern reader might dismiss, for example, some of the responses
to Gulliver's Travels when it was first published as naive: some of Swift's
contemporaries believed that the lands he described actually existed,
and why should they not? But both the conception and understanding
of that book must have been influenced by the readers' world-view.
Fantasy into literature
Fantasy's role as a way (personally and collectively) of combating or
coping with deprivation and repression, as well as desire, is clear in the
folk tale, and, not surprisingly, such narratives were either absorbed
into or silenced by society - notably through the puritan-evangelical
religious hegemony of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and
by the pervading utilitarian attitude of mind in the nineteenth century.
'Primitive' fantasy was absorbed effortlessly into literature and drama
from the oral tradition from the fourteenth through to the seventeenth
centuries. For example, Caxton's Reynard the Fox (1481) was among
the earliest printed books, and many of the great Tudor works, Sidney's
Arcadia (1590), Spenser's The Faerie Queene (1589-96), and many of
Shakespeare's plays, for example, A Midsummer Night's Dream, As Y ou
Like It, The Tempest, and even King Lear, are undoubtedly fantasies.
The fantastic was unexceptional. Objections to its various manifesta-
tions (folk tale, romances) in chapbooks were raised by puritan writers
in the seventeenth century, despite, as in Bunyan's The Pilgrim's
Progress (1678), the widespread fashion for fanciful religious allegory.
In the eighteenth century, the age of reason, the fantastic worlds of
the romance gave way to the pragmatic naturalism of the novel.
Consider Gulliver's Travels (1726) and Robinson Crusoe (1719). Gulliver
uses fantasy in the cause of intricate and far-reaching satire - which
has its roots in the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century fantastic satires
of Cyrano de Bergerac, Rabelais, and Cervantes; in contrast, Crusoe is
a pragmatic, naturalistic fantasy, with its roots in mercantile
Protestantism. Both play on the credulity of their readers, but it was
Defoe's model that dominated the century. The novel, although often
incidentally using the grotesque or the romantic, became a naturalistic
form, from Richardson, through Austen, and on into George Eliot and
Hardy. Books with elements of fantasy became either 'popular' fiction
(the gothic), or passing fashions (the oriental). Across the literary
board, the improbable or the highly coloured, from Dickens to Conan
Doyle (although with curious exceptions, such as Wuthering Heights)
slid down the literary scale of repute.
In children's literature, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the
age of pragmatism, saw a battle between the fantastic on one side, and
evangelism and flat-footed practicality on the other. Although the
fairy-tale genre, created in effect in late seventeenth-century France
had infiltrated British culture in the eighteenth century, it was
symptomatic that Sarah Trimmer could attack a new edition of
Perrault's f airy tales in 1803 on the grounds of 'exciting unreasonable
and groundless fears' in children, and not supplying 'any moral
instruction level to the infantine capacity'. Dickens, not surprisingly,
weighed in, in 'Frauds on the Fairies' in 1853, with a splendidly ironic
utilitarian defence, against George Cruikshank's sanitized and teetotal
versions of fairy tales.
In a utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave
importance that fairy tales should be respected ... Every one who
has considered the subject knows full well that a nation without
fancy, without some romance, never did, never can, never will,
hold a great place under the sun.
Where fantasy was harnessed to evangelical ideas, there was no
nonsense. Sarah Trimmer's Fabulous Histories (later The History [or
Story] of the Robins) (1786) had a preface which made it quite clear
that readers were not to believe what they read, not to consider the
stories
as containing the real conversations of Birds (for that it is
impossible we should ever understand) but as a series of FABLES,
intended to convey moral instruction applicable to themselves.
Over seventy years later, in A. L. O. E.'s (Charlotte Maria Tucker)
introduction to her The Rambles of a Rat (1857), some firm distinctions
were made:
Let not my readers suppose that in writing The Ramblesof a Rat I
have simply been blowing bubbles of fancy for their amusement,
to divert them during an idle hour. Like the hollow glass balls
which children delight in, my bubbles of fancy have something
solid within them - facts are enclosed in my fiction.
Fantasies of various kinds (such as the Grimm brothers' German
Popular Stories (translated 1823)), were channelled towards children,
partly by default, with the not unnatural result that in due course they
re-surfaced in spectacular ways.
They formed the root of a subversive reaction to a utilitarian
attitude of mind, with writers such as J ohn Ruskin withThe King of the
Golden River (1851), and William Makepeace Thackeray with The Rose
and the Ring (1855). The 'golden age of children's literature' which
began in the 1860s, was dominated (in Britain, at least) by fantasies by
Carroll, MacDonald, Kingsley, Molesworth, Farrow, Nesbit, Kipling,
Potter and Grahame. Fantasy, absorbed by these writers as children,
was often being used as sublimation, or a political tool, or a way of
negotiating either the writers' relationships with children, or their
relationships to their own childhoods.
Here, another distinction emerges. As a generalization, the
alternative worlds of science fiction, developing at this period (see
J ames, 1994: 12-28), seem to be outward-looking, speculative,
consequential. E. A. Abbott's Flatland: a Romance of Many Dimensions
(1884) a philosophical-mathematical jeu d'esprit, or H. G. Wells's The
Time Machine (1895), a social parable, are both concerned to open our
eyes to the world. In contrast, fantasy of this period, whether for adults
or children, looked inward and backward, as a therapy or a retreat,
generating such highly ambiguous phenomena as the 'beautiful child'
cult.
The period also contained examples of compromise: the fantasy of
both Mary Louisa Molesworth, especially in TheTapestry Room (1878)
and The Cuckoo Clock (1877) and E[dith] Nesbit in books such as Fife
Children, and I t (1902) developed the fantasy of magic intruding on this
world.
Although the USA was even more dominated in the nineteenth
century by the pragmatic than Britain (notably the educational work of
Peter Parley (Samuel G[riswold] Goodrich)) there was something of a
fantasy tradition - for example, Louisa M. Alcott's first book was
Flower Fables (1855). In general, though, European fantasies did not
transplant well; a notable example is J ames Kirke Paulding's (1778-
1860) A Christmas Gift from Fairyland (1838), which combines the
fairy tale, the moral tale and the tall tale, but is fundamentally a
critique of non-American values. For example, one of the stories, 'The
Fairy Experiment', follows the progress of a group of fairies from
England who come to America to seek 'refuge from the persecutions of
science and philosophy, two deadly foes to these playful fantasies, and
airy inventions of the imagination'. However, the fairy king and queen
are despotic and, as the narrator comments 'despotism cannot exist in
our new world'. Good American values prevail, the king and queen go
back to England - while the rest of the fairies form a republic, and
Puck goes to live with the Indians.
Stories that feature other lands, rather than other worlds, included
The Last of the Huggermuggers, a Giant Story (1855, dated 1856) by
Christopher Pearse Cranch, one of the 'New England Romantics',
combining elements from Gulliver's Travels and 'J ack and the
Beanstalk' with a tough American boy-hero, J acky Cable - 'Little
J acket'.
Twentieth-century fantasy
One of the most striking things about fantasy of the twentieth century
is how often it both reflects and transcends its time.
Thus, for example, The Magic Pudding (1918), Norman Lindsay's
'little piece of piffle', has survived as classic farce, with Sam Sawnoff
the Penguin, and Bill Barnacle and the koala Bunyip Bluegum,
rhyming their way across the Australian outback in pursuit of Puddin'
Thieves. Y et, at the same time, it can be read as a lament for the lost
Australia: the final picture of a rural idyll (albeit in a tree) shows the
threatening civilization of the city edging over the horizon.
If at the beginning of the century - even with the influence of
Tarzan (fromTarzan of the Apes, 1914) and The Wizard of Oz - fantasy
was not as popular in the USA as in Britain: it seems to have been
fostered by the two World Wars, and later the Vietnam war. In the
1920s and 1930s, writers scarred in various ways by the First World
War, notably A. A. Milne, J . R. R. Tolkien and Hugh Lofting, created
escapist worlds, and in the unstable political climate, fantasy flourished
with the work of Masefield, P. L. Travers and many others. (It can be
argued that the idyllic psuedo-realist lands of childhood created by
writers such as Ransome and Estes, and later Elizabeth Enright, were -
or soon became - fantasies.)
Travers, with Mary Poppins (1934), and Masefield withThe Midnight
Folk (1927) and The Box of Delights (1935) both make use of a more or
less random selection of magical and fantastic elements intruding on
the present day, largely through eccentric intermediaries - Mary
Poppins and Cole Hawlings. The weakness of Mary Poppins may well
be, as Perry Nodelman suggests, not the rag-bag nature of the fantasy,
but Travers' virtual deification of her central character, with the result
that 'Mary Poppins is not so much a fantasy as it is propaganda for
fantasy, fantasy at one remove and made to be an example of its own
significance' (1989: 8-9). At the same time, the USA was producing
urban fantasies, notably featuring Superman and Batman.
Perhaps the ultimate fantasy for its time can be seen in Katharine
Tozer's Mumf ie Marches On (1942), in which the amiable little
elephant and his friends capture Hitler:
The silence was shattered by a series of guttural cries, rising to
shrieks as the Leader of all the Germans danced madly in the
road, clawing at the sharp ends of his nose which was caught
firmly in the vice-like grip of the rat-trap ...
'Shut up,' said J elly. 'We're not the Reichstag.' He took the
yellow duster from his hat, and lifting the rat-trap, crammed the
rag into the Fiihrer's open mouth.
'Shan't be able to use that again.' he said regretfully.
If Mumfie is now more or less forgotten, the period produced a
fantasy whose importance was not really recognized for nearly thirty
years, an 'alternative world' fantasy, with its roots in legend rather than
fairy tale, The Hobbit, or There and Back Again (1937).
British fantasy for children burgeoned after the Second World War,
but the tone, rather than being retreatist, as after the First World War,
was much more uneasy and unsettling. Alan Garner (The Weirdstone of
Brisingamen (1960) and The Moon of Gomrath (1963)), Penelope Lively
(The Whispering Knights (1971) and The Wild Hunt of Hagworthy
(1971)) and Susan Cooper (The Dark is Rising (1965-77)) borrowed
from Celtic and French romance sources to provide threatening and
disruptive elements. The issues at stake are now generally much
greater: battles between good and evil rage in and over our world. In
Silver on the Tree (1977) Cooper explains a whole cosmography, which
can stand as an example for many similar structures:
This where we live is a world of men, ordinary men, and although
in it there is the Old Magic of the earth, and the Wild Magic of
living things, it is men who control what the world shall be like
... But beyond the world is the universe, bound by the law of the
High Magic, as every universe must be. And beneath the High
Magic are two ... poles ... that we call the Dark and the Light.
No other power orders them. They merely exist. The Dark seeks
by its dark nature to influence men so that in the end, through
them, it may control the earth. The Light has the task of stopping
that from happening.
But neither good nor evil will ever triumph totally, 'for there is
something of each in every man'.
As with Tolkien and Lewis, and many others, Cooper follows Ursula
K. Le Guin's dictum that The mythopoeticists err, I think, in using the
archetype as a rigid, filled mold. If we see it only as a vital potentiality,
it becomes a guide into mystery' (1993: 22).
Perhaps the best example of the dynamic between the real and the
fantastic is Garner's The Owl Service (1967), which draws on a
recurrent legend recorded in the Fourth Branch of the Welsh
collection of legends, The Mabinogi. However, the central difficulty
for readers unable to enter the implied solipsistic world of the child
readers recurrent in such fantasies, is how to make the actions of the
contemporary children seem important, or even particularly interest-
ing, in the light of the great weight of mythic significance held in the
stories of their predecessors - let alone the inevitability of the outcome.
(This problem is notable in C. S. Lewis's 'Narnia' series.) The same is
true of Garner's 'other world' fantasy, Elidor (1965), but like William
Mayne's Over the Hills and Far Away (1968) the other world is so
shadowy and symbolic that it is the interface between the two worlds
that is most interesting.
Fantasy from the 1960s was dominated by the Tolkien phenomenon,
and the many imitations of The Lord of the Rings. Perhaps the best of
this genre (for children), is Lloyd Alexander's Chronicles of Prydain
(from The Book of Three (1964)) which 'freely interweave material
from all four branches of the Mabinogi' (Sullivan, 1989: 56) - but
which in its ultimately democratic and even pacifist message provides a
gloss on the Vietnam war.
At the other end of the scale (and, literally, in terms of scale)
another form of alternative world is represented by Mary Norton, in
her 'Borrowers' sequence (fromThe Borrowers (1952) to The Borrowers
Avenged (1982)). While Swift's Gu//iver's Travels demonstrated the
potency of the ingenious 'wonder' generated by scale changes, his
purposes were intensely political. His more distinguished successors,
such as T. H. White's eccentric Mistress Masham's Repose (1947),
Norton's books, the eccentric 'Indian in the Cupboard' sequence of
Lynn Reid Banks, through to Terry Pratchett's remarkable The Carpet
People (1992) and TheBromeliad (1989-90) the idea of the miniature
has led to a more general exploration of themes of power, loss, and so
on. The fascinating case of the 'frames' around Norton's stories,
designed to stress their verisimilitude, while appearing to cast doubt
upon their existence, has a symbolic function: 'the gradual withdrawal
of human narration from their story may well symbolize freeing the
Borrowers from god-like human intervention' (Kuznets, 1985: 78).
This element of rejection of the human world (also seen in Lewis's
'Narnia' sequence) although set back in time, is characteristic of
tensions in British fantasy of this period. The loss of empire, the loss of
the old 'grand narratives', and the contrast between past glories and
future changes can be seen in major fantasies such as Lucy M. Boston's
The Children of Green Knowe (1954) or Philippa Pearce's Tom's
Midnight Garden (1958). Both books demonstrate the potential of
philosophy in fantasy, but concentrate on the regressive, nostalgic
element of fantasy - which, as we have seen, is curiously un-childlike.
A similar tone can be seen in books for adults; Mervyn Peake's
Titus Groan' trilogy (1946-59) or T. H. White'sOnce and Future King
(1958) can be seen as very regressive and conservative; indeed they
were regarded as essentially eccentric in the new realism of the 'angry'
decade of the 1950s. It was not until the 1960s that adult fantasy in its
most visible 'sword and sorcery' form began its rise in popularity - and
was gradually paralleled by a rise in the respectability of the absurd -
often associated with linguistic or narrative breakdown (for example,
Beckett, Barthelme, Pynchon), 'magical realism' (Borges, Marquez), or
to allegory, with an associated psychological breakdown (Angela
Carter). The fantastic in these forms can be seen as essentially
postmodern, and has been intellectually fashionable; but as Tom
Shippey has pointed out:
The fantastic', as academically denned and studied, is just not
the same phenomenon as the bestseller genre of 'fantasy' now to
be found in every bookshop. (1995: xi)
Commercial pressures consolidated the genreftcation of fantasy for
children towards the end of the twentieth century. Nonetheless, there
was some outstanding original work, such as Diana Wynne J ones's
Archer's Goon (1984), Jan Mark's They Do Things Differently There
(1994), or Margaret Mahy's The Changeover (1984), all moving
children's fantasy towards the postmodern and the metafictive. The
boundaries between reality and psychological fantasy have become
increasingly unstable and blurred, notably in Gillian Cross'sWolf (1990),
although such books were foreshadowed by the existential parable of
Russell Hoban's TheMouse and his Child (1967), whose alternative world
is a nightmare landscape of junkyards, haunted by a manic obsessive,
Manny Rat. This is a more explicit nightmare than Alice's dream, and
symptomatic of the world that fantasy increasingly inhabits.
Despite such remarkable work, objections to fantasy remain. In
2000, there was a good deal of public debate over whether J . K.
Rowling'sHarry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, or Seamus Heaney's
translation of Beowulf should be awarded the prestigious British
Whitbread Literary Prize. Much of the debate hinged on common
confusions between popular and high culture, and Rowling's book was
doubly condemned for being for children. It is, however, highly
significant that nobody seems to have pointed out, during the
Whitbread controversy, that both the competing texts were fantasies.
Fantasy, then is part of the fabric of literary culture. Although it is
still sometimes argued, with Raymond Tallis, that 'Fantasy imposes a
passivity on the reader: he either swallows what he is told or he is
excluded from the story altogether' (1988: 192), C. S. Lewis's view
seems likely to prevail:
Of course, a given reader may be (some readers seem to be)
interested in nothing else in the world except detailed studies of
complex human personalities. If so, he has a good reason for not
reading those kinds of works which neither demand nor admit it.
He has no reason for condemning them, and indeed no
qualification for speaking of them at all. We must not allow
the novel of manners to give laws to all literature. (1966: 65)
Thus the kind of comment made by E. M. Forster in Aspects of the
Novel (neatly stabbing the mode in the back as he did so) - that
fantasy 'asks us to pay something extra. It compels us to an adjustment
that is different to an adjustment required by a work of art' (1974:
113), can now be countered by Tom Shippey's view that
it is quite certain that the modern fantasy genre contains within
it a substantial part of the literary effort and literary skill of
present-day English-speaking culture, and provides for millions of
readers a distinctive literary reward. (1995: xxi)
Exploring alternative worlds: the key fantasies
The various complex ways in which writers have approached fantasy
writing can be illustrated by looking at some key texts, from Kingsley's
awkward, self-destructing use of the form, to J , K. Rowling's hard-
edged and eclectic Bildungsroman. What emerges strongly is the
complexity of these books, and the sheer fecundity of imagination,
whether at the service of intellectualism or humour, generally defies or
challenges classifications.
Charles Kingsley's The Water Babies: A Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby
(1863) is a highly eccentric 'landmark' text, often claimed to have
marked the beginning of the first 'golden age' of British children's
literature (from the 1860s to the First World War). It is a curious
performance, which might be excluded from a discussion of fantasy
(under a definition such as Manlove's, cited above), on the grounds
that its real preoccupations are Kingsley's hobbyhorses - issues such as
child-welfare, children's reading, sexuality, evolution, redemption and
purgatory. As a result, what seems at first sight to be a rambling
excursion into a fantasy-land of mystic fairies, talking sea-creatures,
and uneducated vegetables, becomes an extended illustrated lecture.
Kingsley almost seems to go out of his way to devalue his own fantasy -
the book ends: 'But remember always, as I told you at first, that this is
all a fairy-tale, and only fun and pretence: and, therefore, you are not
to believe a word of it, even if it is true.'
The Water Babies lurches between categories, from a realistic
indictment of child-labour conditions, to whimsical fantasy, fuelled by
undisciplined doses of scientific speculation and religious convictions.
One critic has proposed that in The Water Babies Kingsley 'offers his
most attractive, deceptively simple presentation of the argument that
all purely scientific explanations of reality would benefit by being
placed in the larger context of Christian revelation' and that 'science
must be especially careful not to trample on the realms of imagination
and religion' (Hawley, 1989: 20). For example, quoting Wordsworth's
'Ode: Intimations of Immortality':
Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ...
But trailing clouds of glory, do we come
From God, who is our home
the narrator of The Water Babies goes on:
there, you can know no more than that. But if I was you, I would
believe that. For then the great fairy Science, who is likely to be
queen of all the fairies for many a year to come, can only do you
good, and never do you harm; and instead of fancying, with some
people, that your body makes your soul, as if a steam-engine
could make its own coke; or, with some people, that your soul has
nothing to do with your body, but is only stuck into it like a pin
into a pin-cushion, to fall out with the first shake; - you will
believe the one true ... doctrine of this wonderful fairy-tale;
which is, that your soul makes your body, just as a snail makes his
shell.
Fantasy is harnessed to both polemic and allegory, and the book
exemplifies the ambivalent status of fantasy for children at this period.
Humphrey Carpenter may have been exaggerating when he suggested
that Kingsley was 'the first writer in England, perhaps the first in the
world with the exception of Hans Andersen, to discover that a
children's book can be the perfect vehicle for an adult's most personal
and private concerns' (1987: 37); whether this is true or not, Kingsley
is still operating in the didactic mode of a previous generation. Thus
although the world of Tom the chimney sweep/water baby is mapped
on to the everyday world - all the elements, from Harthover Hall to
the oceans, are there only to deal with ideas.
The same can be said - although the ideas are ingeniously hidden -
of the alternative worlds of Lewis Carroll's 'Alice' books. This is fantasy
locked on to the real world; each book is a satire-allegory on politics, a
commentary on Victorian mores, an empathetic view of the (female)
child's position in Victorian society, and a sublimation of Carroll's own
desires. Carroll's choice of (Sir) J ohn Tenniel - a prominent political
cartoonist - to illustrate the books was no accident, so dense (if
gnomic) is the political reference. In fact, despite all appearances, the
one thing that the books are emphatically not, is nonsense.
A comparison with Carroll's imitators, such as G. E. Farrow and his
'Wallypug of Why' books, demonstrates this. Farrow could handle
verbal jokes in the Carrollian manner:
'Late again!' called out the Hall Porter ...
'How can I be lateagain,' asked Girlie angrily, 'when I've never
been here at all before.
7
'
'If you've not been here before, then you must have been
behind,' said the Hall Porter, and if one is behind, they are late,
don't you know.
7
'
But, to take an obvious example, he makes virtually nothing of the
implications of the fact (or fiction) that the Wallypug was 'a kind of
king, governed by the people instead of governing them. He was obliged
to spend his money as they decided, and was not allowed to do anything
without their permission. In terms of definitions of fantasy, this may
make the Wallypug purer than Alice, but far less effective.
As an adult's fantasy (albeit directed at a child) the 'Alice' books
have an underlying seriousness, not to say grimness. Humphrey
Carpenter suggested that 'it is not in itself very surprising that the
books show, on their deepest level, an exploration of violence, death
and Nothingness' because 'Comedy tends to lead in that direction'
(1987: 62). He might, perhaps, have added that fantasy does the
same.
The alternative worlds that Alice enters are grotesque parodies of
Alice's 'normal' world, existing, perhaps, only in her mind. There is,
therefore a paradox here in the use of the dream structure; does
making the story a dream actually make it safer? Commonly, as we
have seen, the dream is regarded as the most unsatisfactory of devices
for fantasy, undermining the value of the action, or showing authorial
lack of confidence. In A/ice's Adventures in Wonderland, the coda,
which patronizingly reduces Alice's complex mindscape to echoes, is
close to disavowing the disturbing complexities of the book (as Carroll
later did totally in his ultra-simplified version The Nursery Alice (1890):
'Oh, I've had such a curious dream!' said Alice ... and when she
had finished, her sister kissed her, and said, 'It was a curious
dream, dear, certainly; but now run in to your tea: it's getting
late.' So Alice got up and ran off, thinking while she ran, as well
she might, what a wonderful dream it had been ... But her sister
sat still just as she had left her ... till she began dreaming after a
fashion, and ... the whole place around her became alive with
the strange creatures of her little sister's dream.
And it is all deconstructed:
the rattling teacups would change to tinkling sheep-bells, and the
Queen's shrill cries to the voice of the shepherd-boy - and the
sneeze of the baby, the shriek of the Gryphon, and all the other
queer noises, would change (she knew) to the confused clamour
of the busy farm-yard.
In the original text, Alice's sister dreams 'a dream within the dream, as
it were', about Alice's future. Throughthe Looking Glass, rather more
confidently, ends with Alice's soliloquy: 'Let's consider who it was that
dreamed it', and the last line of the final poem - 'Life, what is it but a
dream?' - takes us out into profound waters.
As several critics have noted, the dream 'frames' seem to be
'unwriting' both Carroll's subversiveness, and the suspicion that he had
approached too many taboo things too nearly. But, far from the dream
being an undermining feature, it is an integral part of the nightmare:
there is a sinister relationship between dream and reality. In Through
the Looking Glass, Alice comes across the Red King, asleep:
'He's dreaming now,' said Tweedledee: 'and what do you think
he's dreaming about.
7
'
Alice said 'Nobody can guess that.'
'Why, about you!' Tweedledee exclaimed, clapping his hands
triumphantly. 'And if he left off dreaming about you, where do
you suppose you'd be ... Y ou'd be nowhere. Why, you're only a
sort of thing in his dream.'
'If that there King was to wake,' added Tweedledum, 'you'd go
out - bang! - just like a candle.'
Gloss on Bishop Berkeley's point about all things being ideas in the
mind of God, or not, there is a dark sense of humour at work here: this
is fantasy at its most misleadingly serious.
Definitions of fantasy would seem to exclude everything that the
'Alice' books are: but they triumphantly vindicate their existence,
whether we regard them as profoundly rooted in the elemental uses of
fantasy, or complex romans a clef . But if they can be criticized in terms
of fantasy, it might not be that ideas come first, or that the worlds are
not fully realized, or that the books do not invoke wonder: it is the
character (or lack of character) of Alice herself. Her value seems to
exist only in the narrator's fondness for her: she is (as in Tallis's
criticism of fantasy in general) 'unastonished by things' (1988: 206).
At the opposite extreme from 'Alice' in terms of purpose is probably
the most famous American fantasy, L. Frank Baum'sThe Wizard of Oz
(1900) and its many sequels. If Baum had an intricate satirical or
personal purpose in writing his fantasy, it has escaped most readers. He
intended, he said, to produce a tale that retained 'the wonderment and
joy' of the old tales, with 'the heartache and nightmares left out'. If he
did not quite succeed, at least the heartaches and the nightmares are
dealt with in a fairly perfunctory manner. The fantasy of Oz, whatever
criticisms may be aimed at the functional rather than elegant prose, or
the simple sequencing (rather than plotting), is a fantasy that seems to
(and apparently intends to) exploit impossibilities for their own sake.
Dorothy and her friends and successors are whirled through a series of
adventures, each more inventive than the next. On the one hand, as
Perry Nodelman has said, there is
the sheer exuberant richness of Baum's imagination. As one reads
through any one of the Oz books, one cannot possibly tell what
weird wonder is going to happen next ... The astonishing world
Baum describes has no overriding law or principle except variety
... Baum does not often create his fantasy worlds and characters
out of his previous knowledge of literature and mythology. (1989:
10, 11)
But, as we have seen, even the most innocent-seeming texts must be
more than they appear to be: psychoanalytic critics could no doubt
make a great deal out of winged monkeys or melting witches, and there
has been a good deal of speculation as to whether Oz is a complex
allegory of the USA. It seems likely that at least some of the impact of
TheWizard of Oz derives from its concentration on Dorothy's quest to
return to Kansas and Aunt Em - however hard, and sketchily
described, that landscape is - and on the underlying tensions of the
two landscapes.
Nevertheless, it may be Baum's overpowering inventiveness that has
given the book its relatively lowly literary status: as J ohn Goldthwaite
said, he was 'the Edison of narrative fantasy, finding ways of lighting it
up and making it talk that no one had ever thought of before' (1996:
211).
The far more subtle fantasy world of Beatrix Potter's 'little books', is
an anthropomorphic land superimposed upon the everyday world of
Sawrey and the English Lake District. FromThe Tale of Peter Rabbit
(1902) to The Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930) her books, as Peter
Hollindale put it, can be read as 'conversations through the medium of
fantasy' between 'the biological reality of the animal and the social
behaviour of the human' (1999: 18). Sometimes the world is self-
contained, as in the satireof The Pie and the Patty'Pan (1905), in which
the houses of the real village are inhabited by animals who generally
behave as humans, or in Ginger and Pickles (1909), where Potter's
apparent whimsicality shows its characteristic hard edge:
Ginger and Pickles were the people who kept the shop. Ginger
was a yellow tom-cat, and Pickles was a terrier.
The rabbits were always a little afraid of Pickles.
The shop was also patronized by mice - only the mice were
rather afraid of Ginger.
Ginger usually requested Pickles to serve them, because he said
it made his mouth water.
'I cannot bear,' said he, 'to see them going out at the door
carrying their little parcels.'
Sometimes it overlaps with reality as when, in The Tale of Peter Rabbit,
Mr MacGregor finds Peter's blue jacket. The animal world to some
extent copies, to some extent mirrors the human: possibly Potter's
major achievement was to make her characters both at once. The
ironic treatment of human foibles may not qualify for some category of
'high' fantasy, but Potter's portrayals of horrors (as in The Roly-Poly
Pudding (1908)), or violence (The Tale of Mr Tod (1912)) is no less
telling for being in miniature, rather that on a vast canvas.
As we have seen (and as we shall see in the work of Terry
Pratchett), the roles of the adult creator and the child readers add a
very intricate level of complication to children's fantasy. The inherent
ambivalence of the relationship is nowhere better demonstrated by the
Neverland of J . M. Barrie in 'Peter Pan' (1904).
At first glance - or, perhaps, in collective folk-memory (and as
depicted in the Walt Disney version) - Neverland seems to be
composed of favourite elements of (British) children's games, where
one can fight pirates and red Indians, and play with mermaids and feast
with impunity. It is, one might think, an obvious children's fantasy -
always to play safely, never to grow up. But, as J acqueline Rose
observed, by the time Barrie came to write a definitive prose text in
1911, after his own stage versions and various retellings, 'Peter Pan'
'had come to signify an innocence, or simplicity, which every line of
Barrie's 1911 text belies' (1984: 67). For example, how many lost boys
were there? In the second (or third) of Barrie's prose versions, Peter and
Wendy (1911), Barrie explains:
The boys on the island vary, of course, in numbers, according as
they get killed and so on; and when they seem to be growing up,
which is against the rules, Peter thins them out.
The difficult question of innocence is, as we have seen, central to
the idea of children's fantasy, but in this case, whose fantasy is it? Is it
actually the fantasy of a child never to grow up? As Tolkien remarked,
alluding to the sterility of the fantasy that Barrie sets up: 'Children are
meant to grow up, and not become Peter Pans' (1964: 42). It may be
the adult observer, or the adult fantasist who actually gets satisfaction:
the narrator's commentary on the story that Wendy tells the lost boys
could sum up Barrie's (and many other people's) attitudes to fantasy:
Off we skip like the most heartless things in the world, which is
what children are, but so attractive; and we have an entirely
selfish time; and then when we have need of special attention we
nobly return for it, confident that we shall be embraced rather
than smacked.
Barrie's theatrical technique continually spills over into his prose,
parodying itself, and forming another distancing element. Here, fantasy
cannot be compared to the novel: cannot be criticized for failing to
involve the reader with naturalistic characters. Rather, we are dealing
with symbolic tragedy, with complex sublimations which need this kind
of abstract world of fantasy in which to function - otherwise matters
might be too painful.
'Peter Pan' has become part of international folklore, but Margery
Fisher saw its influence as essentially pernicious, for it set a fashion for
books
isolating the young from the adult world ... Peter Pan is still a
classic, if only for the terrifyingly true, bleak definition of a type
always with us. As a story to offer to children it should be
approached with caution, for there is much to dislike in its
curiously twisted, self-conscious, indulgent humour. (1986: 8)
Like The Wind in the Willows, 'Peter Pan' is an adult's fantasy for an
adult, about childhood, warped into the appearance of being for
children. The 1953 Walt Disney film is among the least disturbing
versions, scarcely raising the issues of isolation and loss which permeate
the original, while the cartoon form more or less eradicates the
unpleasant violence, and makes the 'frame' story more obviously a
fantasy in its own right.
Barrie was clearly ambivalent about the text: having set up
Neverland as the desirable playground, he ends the book (although
not every version of the play) with the image of Peter Pan being
excluded from the fantasy of family life: 'He had ecstasies innumerable
that other children can never know; but he was looking through the
window at the one joy from which he must be for ever barred.'
If Potter was using fantasy to deal with the adult world for children,
and Barrie to deal with the relationship between adulthood and
childhood for himself, Kenneth Grahame in The Wind in the Willows
(1908) seems to have been using it to deal with an adult's problem
with adulthood. Contrary to the understandable assumption that it is a
children's book, a strong argument can be made that not only was it
never actually intended for children (even the child to and for whom
part of it was ostensibly written) but is the concretization a wish-
fulfilment fantasy about Grahame's own frustrations and desires.
The Wind in the Willows can scarcely be said to be about animals at
all. Early reviewers were not all misled by the apparent anthro-
pomorphism: novelist Arnold Bennett reviewed it as 'an urbane
exercise in irony at the expense of the English character,' (Hunt, 1994:
16, 17). The major characters (all male) can be seen as facets of
Grahame's own character: as Margaret Meek observed, we 'encounter
the same person, the author, variously disguised as a Rat, a Mole, a
Badger, and a Toad, all equally egocentric and self-regarding' (1991:
25). The disguise encompasses the roles of independent bachelor, poet
and sailor, liberated clerk, powerful, traditionalist squire, and rebellious
child, all living in a fantasy world of privilege, where there are no
responsibilities, and where women are objects of fear or derision.
And these animals occupy a highly ambiguous fantasy space, as
much an 'other' world as that of Peter Rabbit or Bilbo Baggins. On one
level it is England in 1908: the woods, the river, Toad Hall, the inn,
the motor cars, the train, could all be seen in the real world then. E. H.
Shepard, after all, drew it from the life in 1930. But the world that Rat
and Mole and Badger inhabit is at once human size and animal size:
Toad is the only animal who crosses over into the 'real' world of
humans. But that 'real' world is grossly distorted: there is a magistrate's
court straight out of Gilbert and Sullivan, a medieval prison; where it
looks most 'real' - as with the barge woman or the gypsy, it adapts to
radical and irrational changes of scale. Is it, then, magical, or
allegorical, or symbolic, or all of these?
The Wind in the Willows emerges as a genuineescapist fantasy which
demonstrates the impossibility of escape: here is a writer sublimating
his fear of change and decay, of a Victorian world rapidly becoming
unstable - with the labour movement, the women's movement, the
motor car - creating a golden world which is, curiously, repressive in
itself. Thus while it might be assumed to appeal to children because of
its fantasy of anarchy and play, much of it may appeal more directly to
nostalgic adults. Women, those awkwardly complicated and demand-
ing creatures, are excluded; the political status quo, so threatened by
the faceless masses of the Wild Wood is easily restored 'by matchless
valour, consummate strategy, and a proper handling of sticks'; and a
homoerotic pagan God rules.
The conventions of fantasy provide certain readers with vicarious
gratification. Thus the emphasis upon food (rather than sex)
throughout seems to symbolize a retreat towards an irresponsible life
(otherwise known as childhood). One of Grahame's friends recalled
an occasion on which Grahame had borrowed a fourteenth-
century cottage in the main street of Streatley, and they walked
twenty miles along the Ridgeway before returning to 'chops, great
chunks of cheese, new bread, great swills of beer, pipes, bed and
heavenly sleep'. (Green, 1959: 126)
Whatever it is, The Wind in the Willows does not seem to be either
about or for childhood - growth, personal adventure, development,
and escape are all rigorously suppressed. At Mole's first meeting with
Rat, when he is revelling in his liberation from domestic drudgery, he
has his own fantasies - curiously, involved with leaving what is
essentially a fantasy world - quashed:
'Beyond the Wild Wood comes the Wide World,' said the Rat.
'And that's something that doesn't matter, either to you or to me.
I've never been there, and I'm never going, nor you either, if
you've got any sense at all. Don't ever refer to it again, please.
Now then! Here's our backwater at last, where we're going to
lunch.'
Later, Mole himself represses Rat, almost seduced by the Sea Rat, and,
obviously in the grip of a 'strange seizure'. Grahame's encounter with
fantasies of all kinds, and his intense, not to say tortured use of the
fantastic form is a complex, painful thing, and can hardly be accused of
being either shallow or unengaging.
Of all the major fantasies, A. A. Milne'sWinnie-the-Pooh (1926) and
The House at Pooh Comer (1928) must seem as far from the sword-and-
sorcery image of fantasy as it is possible to get. However, the
alternative world of the books, although it may look like a slice of
Sussex, is not the real Five-Hundred Acre Wood, but the Hundred
Aker Wood, which is a very different thing. And so, what is happening
in terms of fantasizing is every bit as complex, in terms of writer-adult-
child relationships, and every bit as conventional in terms of
characteristics, as larger-scale works. This may not seem like one of
the grand heroic narratives - but it is a question of scale, and, perhaps,
gender.
One difficulty of approaching the books has been summed up by
Milne's biographer, Ann Thwaite:
But after The Pooh Perplex, Frederick Crews's 1963 parody of a
student casebook, one cannot attempt the most rudimentary
criticism without seeming to be joking. After The Hierarchy of
Heroism in Winnie-the-Pooh', and 'A la recherche du Pooh perdu'
... one's pen freezes in one's hand ... Perhaps the great
Heffalump expedition really is a paradigm of colonialism? ... Y ou
begin to wonder if those invented critics might not have
something after all. (1991: 301)
Grasping the critical heffalump by the nose (or trunk), then, it can be
argued that the Pooh books contain many conventional elements of
fantasy - the anti-hero - who is weak but wise (Pooh), and his buddy
(Piglet), the omniscient mage (Christopher Robin), the team of (male)
supporters, the quests, and the excluded others. But the major
difference is that while fear in The Wind in the Willows is clearly derived
from the other, the outsiders - the wild-wooders, the women, humans
in general, the foreign - here the serpents are part of Eden. Rabbit,
Owl and Eeyore are the destructiveadult male egos, but stuffed toys for
all that; even Kanga (both female and foreign) is presented as a rather
frightening figure of power. Rabbit spends his time spreading cynicism
and fear ('Y ou know how it is in the forest... One has to be careful');
Owl lives on pretence ('Owl took Christopher Robin's notice from
Rabbit and looked at it nervously'); and Eeyore is Eeyore ('Hallo,
Eeyore,' they called out cheerfully. 'Ah!' said Eeyore. 'Lost your way?').
In contrasting these characters with the child-toys (Pooh, Piglet,
Tigger, Roo) Milne is reproducing the relationship between the heroes
and villains of all fantasy, within a sealed world.
Milne's ambivalence, both about writing for children, and an adult's
relationship to a retreatist world shows in the frames he places around
the book. Christopher Robin's growing up means, in effect, a transition
away from the world of fantasy: it is a loss, but a somewhat ambivalent
loss, as though childhood were not essentially admirable.
With his eyes on the world Christopher Robin put out a hand and
felt for Pooh's paw.
'Pooh,' said Christopher Robin earnestly, 'if I - if I'm not quite
-' he stopped and tried again - 'Pooh, whatever happens, youwill
understand, won't you?'
'Understand what?'
Fantasy cannot hide ambivalence like this - and indeed is often the
place where it is to be found most painfully.
Of the inter-war fantasists, Tolkien is undoubtedly the most
important for his influence on the genre, with The Hobbit, or There
and Back Again (1937). But for all its influence, it is easy to see the
same nostalgic, 'escapist' characteristics in Tolkien, Grahame and
Milne: the world is moving on, and the bucolic world of the Hobbits is
under threat - and, at the end of The Return of the King, the Shire is
severely damaged by industrialization. But whereas in Milne there is a
sense of moving on for Christopher Robin, the whole ethos of the
Middle Earth cycle is of the good past that is being lost. Aragorn and
Galadriel are but the lesser son and daughter of great peoples - and
they are going to fade and die. The humans that come after the third
age are short-lived and imperfect.
Rather than being a personal statement (as is much of the work of
Macdonald and Carroll and Grahame - and Pratchett and Le Guin),
the world of Middle Earth seems to be at root a ritual: everything is
done for the sake of song and legend - characters are living out gnomic
predictions, or consciously writing themselves into future history-
books. As Bilbo says, at the end of The Hobbit:
Then the prophecies of the old songs have turned out to be true,
after a fashion!' said Bilbo.
'Of course!' said Gandalf. 'And why should not they prove
true? Surely you don't disbelieve the prophecies, because you had
a hand in bringing them about yourself? Y ou don't really suppose,
do you, that all your adventures and escapes were managed by
mere luck, just for your sole benefit?'
It is all this, perhaps, that makes the books so disliked by
commentators raised on the novel of character, or, indeed, any post-
romantic humanist: violence, tempered with a little mystic philosophy,
solves everything. No real passions arise anywhere - and least of all
from the chronicler (who is acting out the traditions of ancient
chroniclers); no real people are involved.
There is little question that Middle Earth, a complex creation,
carefully worked out over many years, and based on language as much
as geography is the fullest exemplar of the coherent alternative world
yet - with the possible exception of the Discworld (although for some
less-well-known examples, see Manlove, 1999: 37-63). And some of its
appeal is this very intricacy: as Tolkien said: 'A lot of it, is just straight
teen-age stuff. I didn't mean it to be, but it's perfect for them. I think
they're attracted by things that give verisimilitude' (quoted in
Manlove, 1975: 156).
The maleness of the world is not confined to its heroics: as in The
Wind in the Willows we are largely free of the annoyances of the female
or the personal; the pleasures of the Hobbits are childlike in appetite
but adult in execution - pipes, beer, and so on - and as the books
progress, the Hobbits have less and less to do with childhood.
In this context, such genuine emotions as there are, are very small-
scale. Thus it could be argued that Sam Gamgee is the character who
provides the link not only with childhood, but with some kind of
identifiable reality. His role is essentially that of a child (or an adult's
preferred image of a child), trusting, supportive, pragmatic, and
eventually heroic: the difficulty is that he is simultaneously, like Mole,
a regressive image for the adult; he knows his place (subordinate, rural,
domestic). The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings celebrate the success of
the little person, the powerless who upset the counsels of the great - as
a metaphor for Englishness of a kind, it is very potent. And yet its lack
of passion - the kind of passion that lurks in 'Alice' or Teter Pan', or
the Pooh books - remains a weakness for many readers.
Much 'high' fantasy operates in a pagan, unredeemed world; but,
one might think, given that fantasy generally has a purpose, then what
better purpose might there be than the celebration of religious faith,
rather than the voyeuristic position of watching imaginary religions at
work? And yet C. S. Lewis's 'Narnia' series remains problematic for
critics on several counts. Tolkein, that builder of coherent worlds, did
not approve of Lewis's (at least initially) scatter-gun approach: talking
beasts from fable mix with hags and dwarves from legend, religious
allegorical figures, and even that modern, partially commercial
creation, Father Christmas.
The 'Narnia' books have been a publishing success story, selling
steadily over fifty years, although banned here and there (for
blasphemy). Some of the books, such as The Silver Chair (1953) and
The Horse and his Boy (1954) are set entirely in Narnia; others pass
between Narnia and the 'real' world. For Narnia is, genuinely, an
alternative. The most obviously symbolic books areThe Lion, the Witch
and the Wardrobe (1950) and The Last Battle (1956) and also there are
obvious moments, such as the lion-lamb transformation in The Voyage
of the 'Dawn Treader' (1952). There is a re-working of Christ's passion,
and, in The Last Battle, the end of the alternative world in favour of
another:
'When Asian said you could never go back to Narnia, he meant
the Narnia you were thinking of. But that was not the real
Narnia. That had a beginning and an end. It was only a shadow
or a copy of the real Narnia which has always been here and
always will be here; just as our own world, England and all, is only
a shadow or copy of something in Asian's real world ... ' The new
[Narnia] was a deeper country: every rock and flower and blade
of grass looked as if it meant more.
A sticking point is the resemblance of Lewis's Christian world to the
pagan world it replaces, or overlays. The characters have no free will:
the Christ-figure of Asian is totally in control - and seems to play even
more arbitrary games than the old Gods. But if this is acceptable in a
thousand imaginary worlds, why should it be seen as debilitating here.
7
It may be because the books seem to be about freedom and choice, but
are actually about control. David Holbrook, in a famous critique of the
books, suggested that structurally, 'nothing happens in the Narnia
books except the build-up and confrontation with paranoically
conceived menaces, from an aggressive posture of hate, leading
towards conflict' (1976: 117). The patterns of legend, which
countenance such simple remedies, do not sit well with Christianity
(and this is quite apart from Holbrook's doubt whether 'the hate, fear
and sadism in them is relieved by humanizing benignity' (124)).
J ohn Goldthwaite has developed this attack, pointing out that
Lewis's alternative world is a positive rejection of this one (in itself
blasphemy), and the rejection is on a rather mean-minded basis: the
alternative world 'allowed Lewis to leave out everything about the
world that he disliked or to summon up what he disliked in such a way
that he could knock it about however he wished' (1996: 224). Thus
Goldthwaite feels that the books are actually profoundly anti-
Christian, notably as Asian travels his world casually excluding from
the elect (who go to the ultimate alternative world, heaven) people of
whom Lewis disapproves - for example, the 'dumpy, prim little girls
with fat legs' in Prince Caspian, or the lipstick-wearing Susan of The
Last Battle.
Ideology is inescapable in any text: Lewis's work demonstrates the
complexities that follow when a specific philosophy meets quite
different kinds of generic and cultural materials.
Fantasy, then, remains powerful, as demonstrated by the recent
efforts in the USA to ban the work of J . K. Rowling - on the grounds
that her books validate witchcraft. The world of Harry Potter might
technically be described as a 'parallel' world, a wizardly world existing
beside, and sometimes overlapping the everyday 'muggle' world. In
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (1997), Harry Potter and the
Chamber of Secrets (1998), Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban
(1999) and Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2000) intertextuality is
inevitable, and managed intelligently - perhaps because, unlike many
adult fantasies, it is essentially positive - even if it appears to be built
upon regressive elements such as the school story and a sexist popular-
culture hierarchy. The books' knowingness goes beyond intertextuality;
their preoccupation, for example with levels of knowledge and
surveillance, reflects very accurately the world of their readers. The
books are essentially not escapist: far worse things happen, personally,
to Harry than to Frodo or Bilbo. However symbolic Frodo's stabbing, it
is nothing compared to Harry's parents' murder. In several significant
ways, Rowling has changed fantasy, while holding on to such addictive
details as are useful.
Introducing Pratchett, Le Guin, and Pullman
Fantasy, then, has a remarkable history, and a remarkable range. It is
never innocent, very often highly complex, and contrary to a long
tradition of religious disapproval, very often based on ethical premises.
As Molson notes, 'ethical fantasy' is
explicitly concerned with the existence of good and evil and the
morality of human behaviour ... [it] takes for granted that good
and evil exist and that there are substantive, discernible
differences between them. (It assumes that] choosing between
right and wrong and accepting the consequences of that choice
are marks of maturity. (1982: 86)
It is also continuously re-inventing itself and challenging itself, and the
three authors discussed in detail in this book have three things in
common: they have absorbed the past of fantasy, they move it on in
new directions, and they are formidably intelligent.
Terry Pratchett might have the toughest job in achieving (in the
unlikely event of his wanting to do such a thing), literary respectability,
as a comic fantasist. But he is also an inveterate satirist and hence,
ironically enough, a realist:
Originally I just wanted to write a sort of antidote to some of the
worst kind of post-Tolkien fantasy, what I call the 'Belike, he will
wax wroth' school of writing. I wanted the world to be fantastic
but the people to be as realistic as possible. (Pratchett and Briggs,
1997: 472)
Pratchett is also a fascinating test'Case for the debate about the
distinction between literature for children and literature for adults.
Ursula K. Le Guin, a writer of serious purpose, has written for both:
The real trouble isn't the money, it's the adult chauvinist piggery.
'Y ou're a juvenile writer, aren't you.
7
'
Y eth Mummy.
'I love your books - the real ones, I mean, I haven't read the
ones for children, of course!'
Of courthe not, Daddy.
'It must be relaxing to write simple things for a change.'
Sure, it's simple, writing for kids. J ust as simple as bringing
them up. (1992: 49)
Her concerns are both philosophical and social, and she has done a
great deal to challenge the gender balance of certain types of fantasy.
And Philip Pullman/
I think the grand narratives aren't so much played out or
exhausted in contemporary writing, as abandoned for ideological
reasons ... Maybe the whole thing is weakened by a fatal lack of
ambition. This is what I find most irritating in my contemporaries
among writers: lack of ambition. They're not trying big things.
They're doing little things and doing them well. (Parsons and
Nicholson, 1999: 117)
Raymond Tallis observed, in his attack on fantasy, that 'it takes
infinitely greater talent to imagine and express the consciousness of the
person sitting opposite you in a train than to summon up ten thousand
demons from some imaginary hell' (1988: 207, cf. Le Guin, 1992: 117).
Perhaps - but it takes infinitely more talent still to imagine and express
the consciousness of the demons. Fantasy treats of demons of one kind
or another, and nowhere better than in the alternative worlds of
Pratchett, and Le Guin and Pullman.
References
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Paul.
Armitt, L. (1996) Theorising the Fantastic, London: Arnold.
Attebury, B. (1980) The Fantasy Tradition in American Literature: f rom
I rving to Le Guin, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Bettelheim, B. (1976) The Uses of Enchantment, London: Thames and
Hudson.
Carpenter, H. (1987) Secret Gardens, London: Unwin Hyman.
Fisher, M. (1986) Classics for Children and Y oung People, South
Woodchester: Thimble Press.
Forster, E. M. (1974) Aspects of the Novel, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Goldthwaite, J . (1996) The Natural History of Make-Believe, New Y ork:
Oxford University Press.
Green, P. (1959) Kenneth Grahame, London: J ohn Murray.
Harrison, B. and Maguire, G. (eds) (1987) Innocence and Experience:
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Lee and Shepard.
Hawley, J . C. (1989) The Water Babies as catechetical paradigm',
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Y ork: Twayne.
Irwin, W. R. (1976) The Gameof the I mpossible, Urbana: University of
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Kuznets, L. (1985) 'Permutations of frame in Mary Norton's
"Borrowers" series', Studies in theLiterary I magination, 18(2): 65-78.
Le Guin, U. K. (1992) The Language of the Night. Essays on Fantasy and
Science Fiction, second edition, New Y ork: HarperCollins.
Le Guin, U. K. (1993) Earthsea Revisioned, Cambridge: Children's
Literature New England in association with Green Bay Publications.
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Hooper (ed.) Of Other Worlds, London: Geoffrey Bles.
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Ref erence Guide (2nd edition), New Y ork: R. R. Bowker.
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Cambridge University Press.
Manlove, C. N. (1982) 'On the nature of fantasy
1
, in R. C. Schlobin
(ed.), The Aesthetics of Fantasy Literature and Art, Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press/Brighton: Harvester Press: 16-35.
Manlove, C. N. (1999) The Fantasy Literature of England, London:
Macmillan.
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[Reprinted in C. Powling (ed.) (1994), The Best of Books f or Keeps,
London: The Bodley Head: 27-31.]
Molson, F. J . (1982) 'Ethical fantasy for children', in R. C. Schlobin
(ed.), The Aesthetics of Fantasy Literature and Art, Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press/Brighton: Harvester Press: 82-104-
Nodelman, P. (1989) 'Introduction: On words and pictures, neglected
noteworthies, and touchstones in training', in P. Nodelman (ed.)
Touchstones: Ref lections on the Best in Children's Literature, Vol. 3,
West Lafayette: Children's Literature Association: 1-13.
Parsons, W. and Nicholson, C. (1999) Talking to Philip Pullman: An
interview', The Lion and the Unicorn, 23(1): 116-34.
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Propp, V. (1975) Morphology of the Folk Tale (trans. L. Scott), Austin:
University of Texas Press.
Pullman, P. (1998) 'Let's write it in red: the Patrick Hardy Lecture',
Signal, 85: 44-62.
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Books f or Children, Harmondsworth: Kestrel (Penguin).
Schlobin, R. C. (ed.) (1982) The Aesthetics of Fantasy Literature
and Art, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press/Brighton:
Harvester Press.
Shippey, T. (1995) 'Introduction', The Oxf ord Book of Fantasy Stories,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sullivan III, C. W. (1989) Welsh Celtic Myth in Modem Fantasy,
Westport: Greenwood Press.
Sullivan III, C. W. (1992) 'Fantasy
1
, in D. Butts (ed.), Stories and
Society. Children's Literature in its Social Context, London: Macmillan:
97-111.
Sullivan III, C. W. (1996) 'High fantasy' in P. Hunt (ed.) Internationa/
Companion Encyclopedia of Children's Literature, London: Routledge:
303-13.
Swinfen, A. (1984) In Def ence of Fantasy. A Study of the Genre in
English and American Literature since 1945, London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Tallis, R. (1988) In Def ence of Realism, London: Edward Arnold.
Thompson, S. (1932-6) Motif-Index of Folk-Literature: a Classif ication of
Narrative Elements in Foik-Tales, Ballads, M^ths, Fables, Medieval
Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, J est-Books, and Local Legends (6
volumes), Helsinki: Suomlainen Tiedeakatemia.
Thwaite, A. (1991) A. A. Milne. HisLif e, London: Faber and Faber.
Tolkien, J . R. R. (1964) 'On fairy stories', in Tree and Leaf , London:
Allen and Unwin.
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(ed.) The Aesthetics of Fantasy Literature and Art, Notre Dame:
University of Notre Dame Press/Brighton: Harvester Press: 1-15.
Wynne J ones, D. (1996) The Tough Guide to Fantasy/and, London:
Vista.
Further reading
Allison, A. (2000) Russell Hoban/Forty Years. Essays on his Writings for
Children, New Y ork: Garland.
Apter, T. E. (1982) Fantasy Literature. An Approach to Reality, London:
Macmillan.
Barren, N. (1990) Fantasy Literature. A Reader's Guide, New Y ork:
Garland.
Brooke-Rose, C. (1981) A Rhetoric of the Unreal Studies in Narrative
and Structure, Especially of the Fantastic, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Cohen, M. (1995) Lewis Carroll A Biography, London: Macmillan.
Corn well, N. (1990) The Literary Fantastic. From Gothic to Postmodern-
ism, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Cunningham, V. (1985) 'Soiled fairy. The Water Babies in its time',
Essays in Criticism 35: 121-48.
Dusinberre, J . (1987) Alice to the Lighthouse. Children's Books and
Radical Experiments in Art, London: Macmillan.
Egoff, S. A. (1988) Worlds Within, Chicago: American Library
Association.
Gardner, M. (ed.) (2000) The Annotated Alice. The Def initive Edition,
New Y ork: Norton.
Harvey, D. (1985) The Song of Middle-Earth. ]. R. R. Tolkien's Themes,
Symbols, and Myths, London: Allen and Unwin.
Hethenngton, J . (1973) Norman Lindsay: The Embattled Olympian,
Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
Hulme, K. (1984) Fantasy and Mimesis: Responses to Reality in Western
Literature, New Y ork: Methuen.
J ackson, R. (1981) Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion, London:
Methuen.
Manlove, C. N. (1983) The I mpulse of Fantasy Literature, London:
Macmillan.
Nikolajeva, M. (1988) The Magic Code, Goteborg: Almqvist and
Wiksell International.
Scott, C. (1997) 'High and wild magic, the moral universe, and the
electronic superhighway: reflections of change in Susan Cooper's
fantasy literature', in S. L. Beckett (ed.), Re/lections of Change.
Children's Literature Since 1945, Westport: Greenwood Press: 91-7.
Smith, K. P. (1993) TheFabulous Realm. A Literary-Historical Approach
to British Fantasy 1780-1990, Metuchen: Scarecrow Press.
Sullivan III, C. W. (1995) 'Cultural worldview: marginalizing the
fantastic in the seventeenth century', Paradoxa, 1(3): 287-300.
Todorov, T. (1973) The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary
Genre (Trans. R. Howard) Press of Case Western Reserve University.
West, M. I. (1989) Bef ore Oz- juvenile Fantasy Stonesf rom Nineteenth-
Century America, Hamden: Archon.
Wilkie, C. (1989) Through the Narrow Gate: The Mythological
Consciousness of Russell Hoban, Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson
University Press.
CHAPTER 2
Ursula K. Le Guin
Millicent Lenz
What Earthsea is about
The 'big* questions
In A Wizard of Earthsea (1968) Le Guin confronts the big existential
question: how to respond to the Biblical knowledge, 'Dust thou art,
and to dust thou shalt return' (Genesis 3:19). Le Guin's direct
approach to the topic of personal death and what lies beyond it
distinguishes her and certain other fantasists - J . R. R. Tolkien among
them - from most writers in this secular age, when concepts of death
and the hereafter, so much a part of our ancestors' daily psychological
landscape, have become a terra incognita (see Esmonde, 1987). Death
has been treated superficially in both 'realistic' fiction and factual
books, which present it as a problem to be solved (the bibliotherapeutic
approach) or as an occasion for 'soap-operatic sermons' (invariably
avoiding the question of a possible after-life altogether) (see
Abramson, 1974). Death is reduced to 'the great fertilizer' that makes
the flowers grow. Thus it is left to the fantasists, specialists in unknown
lands, to deal with the mystery of death and the puzzle of immortality
as components of a personal vision of life. J . R. R. Tolkien, for example,
in The Lord of the Rings, shows how 'mortality is indeed a gift and not a
curse' (Esmonde, 1987: 35-7) through the contrast between elves,
who are immortal, and humans, who must die. Like Tolkien, Le Guin
in the original trilogy (which includes A Wizard of Earthsea (1968), The
URSULA K. LE GUIN 43
Tombs of Atuan (1971) and The Farthest Shore (1972)) highlights the
paradox of the 'doom' or 'gift' of death and faces it without despair.
Esmonde notes Le Guin's use of the concept of reincarnation to
explore 'the relationship of life, death, and the hereafter' (39). The
wizards or mages of Earthsea must maintain the Balance, the
Equilibrium of all things, including the Balance between life and
death, for without Balance, whether on the individual or social level,
the entire realm is doomed.
A second big question raised in the Earthsea cycle concerns how a
young person may learn wisdom and attain 'generativity,' passing the
legacy of experience on to others. My approach will trace the
psychological growth and development of the protagonists, how they
gain self-knowledge and wisdom, how mentoring and life experiences
contribute to their learning, and how they may teach others. I will also
consider gender-based differences: clearly the acquisition of self-
knowledge and 'wisdom' involves quite different processes for Ged, the
wizard of Earthsea, and Tenar, the priestess of The Tombs of Atuan.
For a broader perspective, it is helpful to contrast the patterns in
male and female initiation stories. Brian Attebery's remark in The
Fantasy Tradition in American Literature (1980), that The Farthest Shore
is a quest whereas The Tombsof Atuan is a story of rescue, shows that
he views the story of The Tombsof Atuan (perhaps unconsciously) from
the male perspective of Ged. Attebery's later book, Strategiesof Fantasy
(1992), perhaps influenced by feminist literary criticism, reveals much
more insight into Tenar's experience. He categorizes A Wizard of
Earthsea as belonging to a tale-type known as the 'sorcerer's
apprentice', wherein the male hero begins in obscurity, attracts
attention to his gifts, leaves the domestic setting, is apprenticed to a
male 'master' who endows him with a new name, attends an all-male
school, commits an act of disobedience resulting in disaster, wanders
the world to find a remedy for the evil he has unleashed, is tempted by
a witch, bests a dragon, and finally overcomes evil. What the typical
male hero must learn is limits: He begins as arrogant, impulsive, and
ambitious; he ends in self-mastery, finally realizing his only true
adversary is himself. This pattern has been traced many times, notably
by such ethnologists as Van Gennep and J oseph Campbell, both
fundamentally concerned with males and their changes of status.
Attebery contrasts this with the pattern for female passage to
maturity, drawing upon Bruce Lincoln's Emerging from the Chrysalis:
Studies in Rituals of Women's I nitiation (1981). Lincoln identifies three
stages for women's rites of passage: 'enclosure, metamorphoses (or
magnification), and emergence'. Often the girl is secluded in her own
home, at or before her first menses. There she takes on a new identity,
perhaps that of a culture goddess, being robed in a special costume for
the ceremonial assumption of her new persona; then emerges into
society, carrying the gifts of fertility and order associated with the
mythic figure she represents (Attebery, 1992: 91). Female rituals in
traditional societies centre more on marking the onset of menstruation
than on the element of 'spiritual revelation' found in the puberty rites
of boys (see Eliade, 1958).
Tenar's coming-of-age in The Tombs of Atuan diverges in several
respects from Lincoln's pattern. She is forced to become Arha, a life-
denying 'culture goddess', and her true identity is restored partly
through the mediation of Ged, partly by her own efforts. Attebery
assesses Arha's task as 'unleashing' herself rather than mastering
herself (self-mastery being the 'male' task, throwing off the traces the
'female' one). He finds Kossil to be as 'fearsome as any fairytale
stepmother' and notes that Tenar reaches adulthood only over KossiPs
dead body (1992: 88, 98-9).
Le Guin's worldbuilding: the genesis of Earthsea, its magic of
language and names
Le Guin 'discovered' rather than 'invented' Earthsea, for she is an
'explorer,' not an 'engineer' (Le Guin, 1989c: 44). Elements of
Earthsea were drawn from two stories, a 'grim' one, 'The Word of
Unbinding' (1964b) and a 'lighthearted' one, The Rule of Names'
(1964a). The latter is set on an island, with a dragon, Mr Underhill
(true name 'Y evaud') from a westerly isle, Pendor. Later Le Guin wrote
a story (never published) about a prince in search of the Ultimate, who
encounters a colony of raft people, settles with them as the 'ultimate'
until he discovers there are more remote sea-people inhabiting the sea,
and joins them. Le Guin jests: 'I think the implication was that (not
being a merman) he'll wear out eventually, and sink, and find the
ultimate Ultimate.' (The raft-colony was eventually incorporated into
The Farthest Shore.)
When the publisher of Parnassus Press invited her in 1967 to write a
book 'for older kids' (beyond the picture book level), the result was a
mix of archetypal ingredients: islands, magic, and above all wizards.
Her minimal former acquaintance with wizards had consisted only of
'usually elderly or ageless Gandalfs,' and she asked herself, what they
were 'before they had white beards? How did they learn what is
obviously an erudite and dangerous art? Are there colleges for young
wizards? And so on' (1989c: 44-6).
The basic story of A Wizard of Earthsea came to her as a 'voyage' in a
spiral pattern, with mental pictures of the islands where the young
wizard would travel, three named for her three then young children
(their 'baby' names), and other names chosen on the basis of their
'sounding' right. Given the primacy of sound to her writing, correct
pronunciation isde rigueur. She notes that 'Ged' should be pronounced
with a hard 'g', not with a soft as in 'J ed', which, she remarks 'sounds
like a mountain moonshiner to me' (1989c: 46).
Earthsea's 'groundrules' are first that words and names are the basis
of magic, and second that everything has a secret name - both beliefs
harking back to those of tribal societies, reflecting Le Guin's
anthropological bent. The fully fleshed-out setting is complemented
by a rich history, told in songs, such as the epic 'Deed of Ged,' set in a
time so remote that the reader has a sense of peering into the 'dark
backward and abysm of time'.
Peoples and cultures of Earthsea
An island culture, Earthsea's isolated communities are 'stable,
homogeneous, and self-absorbed' (Attebery, 1980: 169). Most
islanders speak 'Hardic,' derived from dragon speech, the exceptions
being the residents of the wicked realms of the Kargad Empire and
Osskil, whose eccentricity of language emphasizes their isolation from
the culture of the archipelago as a whole. As part of the Kargad
Empire, Atuan is peopled by pale, fair-haired folk, Tenar included; Ged
and most of the Earthsea inhabitants are coppery brown in colour, with
black hair, like Native Americans (Attebery, 1980: 172). As for
governance, a king and local burghers wield secular power, but the real
power - knowledge - belongs to the wizards. The throne is vacant at
the time of A Wizard of Earthsea, and the action of the first three books
moves towards Arren's enthroning at Havnor.
Settings of Earthsea narratives
A strong 'spirit of place,' achieved through vivid details and
visualization (detailed maps accompany the narratives), lends
immediacy to this high fantasy set in an alternative world. Brian
Attebery finds a possible 'real-world' model for Earthsea in the
Indonesian archipelago, though Earthsea's climate seems more
European and its animals and plants are of mixed origin, some
imaginary (such as the 'otak', and at least one, 'kingsfoil', borrowed
from Tolkien), others familiar. Atuan seems to resemble the eastern
desert area of Oregon (Le Guin's adopted home), not sandy but
overgrown with 'scrub' and featuring mountains to the West. The total
landscape is, however, markedly original, with its temples, monoliths,
and priestesses (see Manguel and Guadalupi, 1980 for a gazetteer).
Geography in Earthsea is rich in symbolic significance, the sea being
less under control of humans and thus associated with superhuman
and nonhuman powers, the land being home to both people of virtue
and miscreants. On a psychological level, the islands of Earthsea
represent disparate, individual modes of human consciousness; the
shared rituals of the inhabitants help to create community despite
differences. The setting on islands in an archipelago suggests 'a
subterranean or archetypal connection of public events ... in this
seemingly medieval, romance-soaked Bronze Age world' (Barrow and
Barrow, 1991: 25). Douglas Barbour finds in Earthsea 'a single
civilization,' wide enough to contain people of extreme differences in
education, social and economic standing, and ethnicity, and thus
resembling Medieval Europe during the twelfth century, 'where high
learning and philosophy could be found in the same village with
complete ignorance, where material, scientific progress had barely
begun, where the great part of the population were peasants' (Barbour,
1974: 121).
Gifts and shadows: two 'chains' of metaphors in the Earthsea cycle
Le Guin's poetic, richly textured narratives are full of metaphor, and
repeated occurrences of two 'chains' of metaphors underpin the
structure of the entire cycle: the metaphors of the 'Gift' or 'Exchange',
and the metaphor of'Shadow'. The 'chain of gifts' was noted by George
Slusser: he traces the progress of the actual Ring of Erreth-Akbe and
observes the social effects of gifts: 'True harmony .., comes only from
the gift freely given' (1976: 39). Elizabeth Cummins explores gifts in a
more abstract sense, such as Ged's 'gift' of spells to protect Pechvarry's
boats in A Wizard of Earthsea (Cummins, 1990: 94) which the latter
reciprocates with lessons in boatbuilding and sailing. She observes that
'the exchange of gifts is a manifestation of the trust that makes human
community possible' (35, 46). The many types of exchanges in
Earthsea have been noted by W. A. Senior: bartering, selling, thieving
(a negative exchange), trades, but primarily gifts and returns: 'from
physical objects, to names, to magical spells, to abstractions such as
friendship and sacrifice' (1996: 102). Drawing upon Marcel Mauss,
who observed that 'in archaic societies all gifts carry a spiritual import
or content and entail the giver offering a piece of himself, Senior
concludes that gifts in the Earthsea cycle serve two major functions: to
encapsulate 'the macrocosmic system of Balance' that governs and
stabilizes the world; and to chart Ged's 'development, moral growth,
and integration' (104) into what Robert Scholes has called 'a dynamic
balanced system, not subject to capricious miracles of any deity', but
rather to its natural laws - which include the laws of magic - and to all
aspects of 'the great Balance or Equilibrium, which is the order of this
cosmos' (Scholes, 1986: 36-7).
The significance of the many occurrences of Shadows - which form
another and contrasting 'chain' - has been still more fully analysed
from a variety of critical angles (most often the J ungian), but there has
been no prior attempt to show the interplay between these two
metaphors. The Shadow in one of its meanings may represent the
'withholding' of relationship, the denial of 'giving', and hence it stands
at the opposite end of the psychological spectrum from 'gift-giving' and
the mutuality such giving implies.
A Wizard of Earthsea
The emergent wizard, 'Duny' to 'Ged'
Before Tehanu, Le Guin famously said that the (then) trilogy is 'about
art, the creative experience, the creative process' - the 'magician' and
the artist being of one species, both types of the Trickster (1989c: 48).
Thus, A Wizard of Earthsea is on one level an 'artist' novel, wherein an
alienated outsider undergoes an inner struggle to achieve the self-
discipline he needs to control his 'magic' powers. This process, a kind
of Bildungsroman in a fantasy setting, can be seen as the organizing
thread of the narrative.
Ged begins like many mythical heroes: humble origins, half-
orphaned, harshly treated, a childhood called by psychoanalytical
critics 'a portrait of hidden need' (Barrow and Barrow, 1991: 25). He is,
however, rich in psychic gifts, which his witch-aunt calls 'the makings
of power' (A Wizard of Earthsea: 14), and from her he learns the
rudiments of the magic arts. The danger posed by her superficial
knowledge is clear: she is ignorant of 'the Balance and the Pattern
which the true wizard knows and serves, and which keep him from
using his spells unless real need demands' (16). She does nonetheless
teach the child - known then as Duny - 'honest craft' and the epic
songs of their oral culture (17), including 'The Deed of Erreth-Akbe',
shaping his imagination to heroic ends.
The stages in his movement towards maturity are marked by his
changes in name: first Duny; then the nickname 'Sparrowhawk' (from
the birds of prey that frequent the fields where he plays); then his True
Name, bestowed by Ogion, 'Ged'. A village hero at an early age,
Sparrowhawk saves his community from the fierce Kargad invaders
through 'fogweaving', a trickster skill that may recall Homer's wily
Odysseus.
Shadow as key metaphor: Le Guin's 'The Child and the Shadow'
The Taoist and J ungian implications of Le Guin's use of shadow and
light are illuminated in her essay, The child and the shadow,' but
whereas J ung concentrated on facing one's shadow as a mid-life crisis,
Le Guin sees it as a task of adolescence. She decries writers of realistic
fiction who attempt to teach children the truth about good and evil
through 'superficialities of the collective consciousness, [the] simplistic
moralism [of] the baddies and the goodies'. 'Problem books', she feels,
miss the point, 'as if evil were a problem, something that can be solved,
that has an answer, like a problem in fifth grade arithmetic'. Such a
'realistic' approach to evil fails to confront what evil actually is: 'all the
pain and suffering and waste and loss and injustice we will meet all our
lives long, and must face and cope with over and over and over, and
admit, and live with, in order to live human lives at all' (1975: 147).
The child needs
knowledge; he needs self-knowledge. He needs to see himself and
the shadow he casts. That is something he can face, his own
shadow; and he can learn to control it and to be guided by it. So
that when he grows up into his strength and responsibility as an
adult in society, he will be less inclined, perhaps, either to give up
in despair or to deny what he sees, when he must face the evil
that is done in the world, and the injustices and grief and
suffering that we all must bear, and the final shadow at the end of
all. (147-8)
Ogion's mentorship of Ged: overtones of Taoism
Ged takes with him to Re Albi (The Eagle's Nest, Ogion's home), his
meagre belongings, all gifts: the bronze sword from his father, the
hand-me-down coat from the tanner's widow, and a becharmed alder-
stick from his witch-aunt (A Wizard: 26). Ogion the Silent subtly
models the art of patience for the impetuous youth: 'Manhood,' he tells
Ged, 'is patience. Mastery is nine times patience' (28). Never one to
write down to her audience, Le Guin presents in Earthsea (though in
simpler narrative form), the important themes of her writings for
adults, including, as Douglas Barbour notes, a completely realized
alternative world where Taoism is rendered in a way wholly consistent
with Earthsea's 'laws' (Barbour, 1974: 119-21).
Earthsea's magic 'Equilibrium' is the Earthsea equivalent of the
Way, the Tao, for upon this Equilibrium everything depends, as
everything depends upon the Tao ... To use Equilibrium for
selfish reasons is to break its deep laws: this is the lesson Ged
must suffer so greatly to learn. (Harbour, 1974: 120)
Ogion's wise passivity reflects the Buddhist idea of inaction, a
concept readers of Western background may find less compelling than
Ged's desire to seize the moment and act decisively. Ogion's asceticism
and closeness to the animal world (he shares his dwelling with goats)
connect him also to the pastoral 'green world' of romance. Ogion
occupies a liminal position, 'poised between the world of the human
and the world of the nonhuman' (Selinger, 1988: 32-3) and thus he is
able to mediate between the two.
Pivotal points of the spiralling plot: the apprentice wizard's
temptations and choices
Ged's first 'fall' combines disobedience (tampering with the forbidden
Lore Books) with the careless use of language (perilous in a world built
upon True Speech), and the dire outcome is a hideous shadow - 'a
shapeless clot of shadow darker than the darkness' (A Wizard: 34), his
own personal Frankenstein's monster. Eleanor Cameron notes two
lessons Ged learns of Ogion:
The first: that naming sets limits to power, and that he who
knows a man's true name (i.e. his true being) holds that man's life
in his keeping. The second: that danger must surround power as
shadow does light, and that sorcery is not a game played for
pleasure or for praise. (1971: 133)
Ogion's reprimand to Ged for neglecting mindfulness in wielding the
power of sorcery states a central theme:
'Have you never thought how danger must surround power as
shadow does light? This sorcery is not a game we play for pleasure
or praise. Think of this: that every word, every act of our Art is
said and is done either for good, or for evil. Before you speak or do
you must know the price that is to pay!' (A Wizard; 35)
Faced with a crucial choice of life - Ogion's pastoral way of humility,
hermitage, and silence; or the way of the bright enchantments of the
Wizards on Roke - Ged predictably chooses the latter, the choice
appropriate to his stage in life.
Ged's crossing the threshold of the School on Roke carries the
metaphorical significance of 'liminality', a state of 'in-betweenness'.
The door exemplifies Le Guin's symbolic use of thresholds: its two
faces, the one artfully fashioned of ivory, cut from a tooth of the Great
Dragon, the other of polished, translucent horn, allude, as Tavormina
(1988) has pointed out, to Virgil'sAeneid (6: 893-8), where true and
false dreams are linked with the twin Gates of Sleep, the gate of
translucent horn (open to light) signifying the truthful, and the gate
of ivory (opaque) the false dreams (Tavormina: passim). Ged's sense of
the shadow at his heels forebodes trouble, but the shadow is destined
also to play a less obvious role - as a guide into the regions of the
deeper self (Le Guin, 1975: 143).
The burst of birdsong when Ged meets the Archmage Nemmerle
(with his Raven) marks a new growth in the ability to understand the
language of the natural world . A beautiful unitary moment, when Ged
seems to himself to be 'a word spoken by the sunlight' (A Wizard: 48),
is broken by the sharp dissonance of the Raven's croaking, 'Terrenon
ussbuk! ... Terrenon ussbuk orrek!' (49). Craig and Diana Barrows'
interpretation is pertinent: in J ungian theory, birds, as 'symbols of
transcendence ... release a person from 'any confining pattern of
existence, as he moves toward a superior or more mature stage in his
development'... The raven relates to the witch who has tempted Ged
in the past and will tempt him in the future' (Barrow and Barrow,
1991: 27). Ogion's note of introduction foretells Ged's exceptional
destiny: in runes it declares 'I send you one who will be greatest of the
wizards of Gont, if the wind blow true
1
(A Wizard: 48).
J ungian psychology also explains Ged's overreaction to his fellow
student, the polite but disdainful J asper: because Ged has not yet
admitted his own 'shadow' into consciousness, he projects it upon
another, thereby blocking his own growth. Fortunately, Ged is not
isolated in his apprenticeship; he gains a true friend in Vetch, who
bestows the gift of trust and offers his True Name - Estarriol - in
exchange for Ged's own (84); Vetch offers to the half'Orphaned Ged a
certain stability and rootedness. Ged finds comfort also in his 'otak', a
small rodent who becomes his animal guide, a motif familiar from
folklore. Vetch views the otak's favouring of Ged as a sign that he is
one to whom 'Old Powers' of stone and spring - meaning dragons - will
speak in human tongue. J asper, in contrast, taunts Ged for keeping a
rat as his 'familiar' (67). Ged's bestowing of the otak's true name,
'Hoeg' (62) seals their mutually sustaining relationship.
Master Changer imposes on Ged the 'prohibition' that is a familiar
feature of traditional tales:
'Y ou must not change one thing, one pebble, one grain of sand,
until you know what good and evil will follow on that act. The
world is in balance, in Equilibrium. A wizard's power of Changing
and of Summoning can shake the balance of the world. It is
dangerous, that power. It is most perilous. It must follow
knowledge and serve need. To light a candle is to cast a shadow.'
(57)
This gnomic echo of a medieval proverb employs an ambiguous
metaphor, for as the J ungian critic Edgar C. Bailey, J r. has commented,
although the repressed and unacknowledged shadow can lead to loss of
control and hence the potential of evil, the shadow is also a source of
tremendous creative energy. To be born, to be human, to act ... is to
do evil - or at least to be capable of it' (Bailey, 1980: 257). On the one
hand, Master Changer warns of the peril of ignoring limits on the
mage's power; on the other, Ged's violation of the prohibition in a
sense constitutes the 'fortunate fall' vital to his growth. Thinking he
can 'balance the world as seemed best to him, and drive back darkness
with his own light' (A Wizard: 57), Ged is blinded by hubris to the peril
within. Le Guin's 'The child and the shadow' tells us that the
unrecognized shadow becomes stronger, until it can become 'a menace,
an intolerable load, a threat within the soul'. Paradoxically, though the
shadow is 'inferior, primitive, awkward, animallike, childlike,' it is also
'powerful, vital, spontaneous' and moreover, absolutely necessary, for
'without it, the person is nothing. What is a body that casts no shadow?
Nothing, a formlessness, two-dimensional, a comiC'Strip character'
(143). To withdraw his projected shadow, a process necessary to his
own psychological wholeness, Ged must bring it to consciousness
(Bailey, 1980: 255, drawing on J ung). This he is not yet able to do.
Ged must also learn mindfulness in the use of names. As T. A.
Shippey has noted, the processes of magic in Earthsea depend on a
concept prominent in early modern anthropology, the 'Rumpelstiltskin'
theory
that every person, place, or thing possesses a true name distinct
from its name in ordinary human language; and that knowing the
true name, the signifiant, gives the mage power over the thing
itself, thesignif ie. (1977: 151)
Elizabeth Cogell connects Le Guin's emphasis on names to the
influence of her father's anthropological research (1983: xvi). Her
mother, who authored two juvenile books about the Native American,
Ishi - Ishi, Last of HisTribe (fiction, made into a film of the same name)
and Ishi in Two Worlds (nonfiction), doubtless also had a significant
influence (See Kroeber, T., 1961, 1964 and Kroeber, A. L, 1976).
Ged's second fall into temptation occurs at a place highly charged
with symbolism: the dark enchanted ground of Roke Knoll, where the
tree roots reach 'down even to the old, blind, secret fires at the world's
core' (A Wizard: 74). The repetition of the pattern of his first 'fall'
illustrates what Bernard Selinger calls the 'normal' structure of Le
Guin's novels: 'radial, circling about, repeating and elaborating the
central theme', using a key image around which the rest of the novel
revolves (1988: 23). As a consequence of his second act of rash
disobedience, Ged's shadow is driven within, resulting in depression,
loss of creativity, and dulling of intellect. A tale from the Matter of
Dragons, involving a 'speaking stone' in a far northern land (86),
foreshadows the test Ged will face in his encounter with the Stone of
Terrenon.
Ged's subsequent adventures: learning on the job, gifts as tokens of
relationship
Ged's subsequent adventures constitute 'experiential' learning. From
his vain effort to save Pechvarry's son loeth from death and from the
loving touch of the otak's tongue that restores him to life (98), Ged's
concept ot wisdom is altered: wisdom does not consist in setting oneself
apart from other living beings, nor in attempting to challenge the laws
of nature (that mortals die). Rather, a human being must strive in
humility 'to learn what can be learned, in silence, from the eyes of
animals, the flight of birds, and slow gestures of trees' (98).
The new wizard's saving of the community of Low Torning from the
dragons of Pendor parallels the dragon encounter of the quest
romance. However, Le Guin's dragons are not to be confused with the
dragons of the Christian tradition, representatives of fallen nature.
(Tehanu gives the common genealogy of dragons and humans.) For the
first time, Ged becomes aware of what the Romantic poets called the
sublime, an ancient power surpassing human comprehension. By his
wits he wins out over Y evaud (107), resisting the temptation to learn
from the Dragon the name of the shadow (108). Unwittingly, Y evaud
supplies Ged a vital bit of information (a 'gift' of sorts): the shadow does
have a name! Ged's dragon-slaying becomes legendary and is
celebrated in the Song of Sparrowhawk.
At the Court of Terrenon in the North, the pattern of peril is
repeated: Lady Serret, Queen of Terrenon, is his earlier temptress, the
daughter of the Lord of Re Albi (139), and with her evil lord,
Benderesk, tends the ancient Stone of Terrenon, made when the world
was made, which imprisons within it an 'old and terrible spirit' (132).
In a psychoanalytical interpretation, the Stone of Terrenon is 'a
projection of the blackest part of Ged's own character, his desire for
power and dominion' (Barrow and Barrow, 1991: 30). Stone in J ungian
theory represents, says Marie-Louise von Franz, 'what is perhaps the
simplest and deepest experience - the experience of something eternal
that man can have in those moments when he feels immortal and
unalterable' (quoted from J ung in Barrow and Barrow: 30). This is
Ged's greatest temptation - to succumb to the desire to 'feel' immortal
and unalterable, to deny death.
His return to Re Albi in the shape of a falcon brings him full circle.
Ogion's telling of the parable of Bordger of Way, who took on a bear-
shape too often, until 'the bear grew in him and the man died' (A
Wizard: 143), warns Ged of the peril of remaining too long in animal
form. Ged must do as Ogion says: ' "Turn around ... Y ou must hunt
the hunter."' Only by returning to the original spring of his soul's
strength (146), and following his terror to its source and confronting it
(166), can he hope to win over it. Ogion's gifts of simple Gontish attire
(149) (reclothing Ged in his natural identity) and a meticulously
crafted staff of yew (148) mark another stage in the young wizard's
growth, making them tokens of 'renewal and engagement with others'
(Senior, 1996: 107).
Ged's active pursuit of the shadow leads to the 'robinsonade'
episode, his shipwreck on a reef inhabited by two old people, the
'prince and princess of Desolation' (162). Senior's comment sums up
the significance of the exchanged gifts: 'In this possessionless world on
a forgotten island, the spirit behind the gift of the Ring matches its
importance and power, for these aged, marooned children have almost
nothing to give and were long ago deprived of the world of gifts itself,'
and when Ged reciprocates with the gift of fresh water (giving the reef
a new name, 'Springwater Isle' (A Wizard: 162)), this exchange 'binds
Ged to these castaways for life, since their story now becomes an
integral part of his' (Senior: 106). The reunion with Vetch, and their
shared voyage towards the unknown, is preceded by another mean-
ingful exchange: when Ged compassionately heals an old man's
cataracts, he is rewarded with a new vessel, named 'Lookfar' by the
giver, who remarks: ' "I had forgotten how much light there is in the
world, till you gave it back to me."' The spiritual principle of
reciprocity is at work: Ged has endowed another with light, and thus
prepares himself for overcoming the Shadow (A Wizard: 170-1).
The eerie journey into waters to the east towards the foreboding
point where light and darkness meet is a 'threshold' experience of a
new sort, comparable to wavering in that shadowy state between life
and death, a metaphorical 'Lastland', before launching into the
unknown Open Sea.
The sea that turns to sand: Ged's 'recognition' scene
C. G. Jung in Essays on Analytical Psycliology spoke of an individual's need
to integrate the psyche's 'negative side' to attain wholeness, and the
related need to bring the 'shadowed' content of the psyche to
consciousness, 'so as to produce a tension of opposites, without which
no forward movement is possible' (quoted in Bailey, 1980: 255). J ung's
statement applies to Ged, who as the sea turns to sand is both literally
and figuratively 'stuck' in the 'sand' of his own unacknowledged darkness.
As Ged walks across the sea of sand, he meets the Shadow in its
different manifestations: first a hateful-looking J asper, then Pechvarry,
then Skiorh, and finally, 'a fearful face he did not know, man or
monster, with writhing lips and eyes that were like pits going back into
black emptiness'. Only when they meet face-to-face and speak at once
the same word, '"Ged"' (A Wizard: 201), are the seeming opposites
unified and made whole (201-2).
Vetch witnesses to
the truth, that Ged had neither lost nor won, but, naming the
shadow of his death with his own name, had made himself whole:
a man, who, knowing his whole true self, cannot be used or
possessed by any power other than himself, and whose life
therefore is lived for life's sake and never in the service of ruin or
pain, or hatred, or the dark (203).
Taoist philosophy permeates the novel and dominates in the ending:
'Insofar as [Ged] acts for others, and only insofar as he does so, he acts,
most truly, for himself (Barbour, 1974: 121).
Coming full circle, the book closes with Estarriol's song, the epigraph
to the book. 'Only in silence the word, |only in dark the light, |only in
dying life:(bright the hawk's flight)on the empty sky. - The Creation
of Ea.'
The Tombs of Atuan
Thanatos enshrined, choice denied
Fresh ocean breezes fill A Wizard of Earthsea and The Farthest Shore,
but TheTombs of Atuan is 'thick with the heaviness of earth' (Nicholls,
1974: 72, 74). Atuan's background images are of'isolation, darkness,
perversity - seen in the neutering of slaves, the wasting of lives, the
'dedication of the Kargish religion to age, fear, and death' (Attebery,
1980: 176). There are other contrasts as well. Whereas Sparrowhawk
could choose between a school for wizardry or a pastoral life, Tenar is
virtually kidnapped into a life of slavery at the Tombs. Whereas Ged
must face his mortality, Tenar/Arha must struggle to be free of a false
'immortality' as the endlessly reincarnated One Priestess. Awakened
out of the dust of the Tombs, she chooses life (eros in the broadest
sense) over thanatos (fixation on death). Whereas Gont and Roke are
full of light and air, Atuan is, in W. A. Senior's words, a harsh, sterile
world where 'the standard pattern is taking, not giving. Children are
taken, lives are taken, light is taken, obedience is extracted, emotion is
obliterated, identity is erased, and names themselves are eradicated,
but nothing is given in return' (1996: 107). Arha's childhood is more
deprived than Ged's, for she lacks even a witch-aunt or an otak, or any
mentor like Ogion. The pathos of her sacrifice is underscored by
contrast to Penthe, who is 'round and full of life and juice as one of her
golden apples, beautiful to see'. Through Penthe, Arha can see a world
she is denied, 'A whole new planet hanging huge and populous right
outside the window, an entirely strange world, one in which the gods
did not matter' (The Tombsof Atuan: 46).
The walled place: Arha's 'education'
Arha's strict 'education' (more precisely, 'indoctrination') includes the
sacred songs and dances, the history of the Kargad lands, and (for Arha
alone) the secret rites of the Nameless Ones, taught by Thar. Her
narrow attitudes are played against Penthe's love of change and
difference and daring (21), and her growing haughtiness shows in her
boast that she is the 'One Priestess', not to be bothered by 'old women
and half-men' (a thrust at Manan) (22-3). KossiPs ignorant assertion
that the 'pirates' of the outer lands are ' "black and vile. I have never
seen one ..."' (58) brings out the prejudice of Atuan's culture.
A silent crossing into womanhood: the emptiness of Arha's 'powers'
The narrative skips the interval between Arha's twelfth and fifteenth
year, passing over the critical age of fourteen, when girls are considered
adults (23). The silence concerning Arha's initiation into womanhood,
contrasting with the public ceremony surrounding Ged's coming into
manhood, implies cultural neglect of rites of passage for females. In
Tenar/Arha's case, as Slusser observes, a 'person of great strength and
imagination' is left with no life-affirming cultural support; he compares
her being 'eaten', consumed by darkness, to 'Blake's "marriage hearse",
the corruption of life at its source' (Slusser, 1976: 39-40).
Although the priestesses superficially appear to represent female
dominance, in fact their cult is declining, as shown by the God-Kings'
contempt for the old deities. Despite her presumed 'power', Arha finds
her life intensely boring, and, according to Kargad belief, is doomed to
be reborn as Herself (The Tombsof Atuan: 53) in an endless cycle. One
of her duties is to preside over the deaths of those found guilty of
sacrilege (32) - a repugnant task reflecting her culture's fixation on
thanatos.
The labyrinth: a maze of meanings
The labyrinth, a major metaphor of the novel, is a 'vast, meaningless
web of ways', designed 'to weary and confuse', and in the end, 'a great
trap' (62). In psychological symbolism, it signifies the unconscious and
remoteness from the wellspring of life (Pail Diel, Le Symbolism dans la
mythologie grecque, quoted in Cirlot, 1971: 175). In exploring this maze,
Arha probes her own inner realm, the subconscious. From a J ungian
point of view, Arha can be seen as beginning her process of
'individuation'; this process remains unconscious until Ged calls her
by her true name, Tenar (see Barrow and Barrow, 1991: 34). In
mythical terms, the labyrinth is associated with seeking, movement
and danger, and stands in contrast to the primal cave image, associated
with security, peace, and refuge (Gebser, 1992: 62).
J ean Gebser calls the labyrinth the counter-image of the cave, and
believes it represents the yearning for greater awareness, 'the possibility
of advancing rather than returning into unconsciousness and time-
lessness ... The labyrinth is a way, if still a confused way, into
awareness' (63). Arha's descent into the labyrinth is an interior, female
parallel to the male heroic journey in search of the 'dragon', for it is an
attempt to face and transform what the poet Rainer Maria Rilke called
'the erroneous zone within' (in his poem 'An den Engel,' ['To the
Angel,'] quoted in Gebser: 62). The beginning of awareness is signalled
by a dim light (Ged's) in the cavern of the Undertomb. The image of
the labyrinth evokes the classical myth of Theseus, to whom Ariadne
gave a thread, a symbol of consciousness, to help him escape from the
Minotaur; this is echoed in Arha's ball of yarn that helps her find her
way (The Tombs of Atuan: 74).
From Arha to Tenar: confronting herself
Ged's appearance means radical change for Arha - pivotal decisions
and new ambivalent emotions. Fear causes her to try to deny his
magical powers, and her desire that he should live vies with her
impulse to kill him. She is drawn to him partly because he brings
difference into her world of sameness, partly because she wants to
witness his sorcerer's 'tricks'. Her serious threat to kill him if he does
not 'perform' for her has a game aspect: They tossed his life back and
forth between them like a ball, playing' (97). When she requests
'"something worth seeing"', his trick of illusion is metaphorically
significant: he changes her black attire into a silken gown like that of a
princess. As 'something worth seeing,' he tells her, ' "I show you
yourself" (98).
Mirroring Tenar to herself, Ged is reciprocating her gift of a cloak
with something much more valuable, a vision of her own worth, but
the self-knowledge means she must risk the spying Kossil's treachery.
When Ged calls her 'Tenar' (105) (giving her also his own true name),
she finds the strength to assert her own identity.
Well acquainted with the Dark Powers, Ged unmasks the Nameless
Ones, those who ' "hate the light: the brief, bright light of our mortality
... they are not gods .... All their power is to darken and destroy"'
(118). Reflecting Le Guin's Taoist philosophy, he tells Tenar the earth
is both beautiful and '"terrible ... dark and cruel"' (118), but that
' "Y ou are free ... Y ou were taught to be a slave, but you have broken
free"' (118-19).
The Ring of Erreth-Akbe: thefts and gifts
Arha commits robbery twice, first taking Ged's staff and then tearing
the silver chain (not knowing it is really a piece of the broken Ring)
from his neck. Ged steals the half of the Ring of Erreth-Akbe which is
the object of his quest. The scene of Tenar's discovery of the Ring's
significance and the mutual exchange of the segments between her and
Ged is the pivotal 'gift' motif of the book (120ff.). When the ring is
rejoined (127-9), Tenar faces a crucial choice: she opts in favour of life
and her true identity. When Ged makes the Ring whole by patterning
and places it on her arm, he symbolically gives wholeness to both
Tenar and the world of Earthsea (129).
Escape and earthquake: the weight of liberty
Manan's character from the outset is ambiguous; he is both Tenar's
'protector' and her keeper. The horror of his end is mitigated by his
guilt in trying to push Ged to his death (131). The earthquake which
follows - an expression of the anger of the dark powers - toppling and
swallowing the Tombstones (137), brings the action to a dramatic
climax.
Tenar's acceptance of her new freedom is difficult: her great joy in
the replenishing energy of the natural world struggles against her
impulse to kill Ged because she knows he will pursue the heroic path
and abandon her (155). What to make of these reactions has spurred
critical debates: is her murderous impulse a sign of female weakness, an
inability to carry on an independent life? Responding with under-
standing, Ged ignores the dagger, trustingly urges her on, and the
moment passes. Tenar feels that 'a dark hand had let go its lifelong
hold upon her heart' (156). She is feeling 'the weight of liberty' (157).
As Erich Neumann put it:
In reality we are dealing with the existential fact that the ego and
individual that emerge from a phase of containment, whether in a
gradual and imperceptible process of development or in sudden
'birth', experience the situation as rejection. Consequently we
find a subjective experience of distress, suffering and helplessness
in every crucial transition to a new sphere of existence. (The
Great Mother, quoted in J enkins, 1985: 27)
Communities of women and communities of men: contrasts
Since Le Guin portrays the Tombs' community of priestesses as evil
and twisted, in contrast to the community of men on Roke, who are
creative and mutually supportive, does this mean, as Cordelia Sherman
has suggested, that 'the subliminal message of The Tombs of Atuan
seems to be that women living without men must become twisted and
purposeless, while men living without women can be productive and
strong'? (26). On the other hand, Sherman notes that Tenar is not a
passive 'heroine,' who waits for Ged to rescue her; on the contrary, she
shows exceptional courage in fighting the Nameless Ones, actively
helps to restore wholeness to the Ring, and plays a strong part in the
growth of her own character (1987: 26-7).
Lois Kuznets has expressed disappointment in The Tombs of Atuan
for failing to use its plot potential to construct a 'new' role for young
women; rather, it 'actually depicts the suppression of a female cult' and
its 'all-female community (except for eunuchs) is endowed with a
menace not at all evident in the all-male school for wizards that Ged
attends' (1985: 32).
Tenar's awakening to her sexuality
Le Guin has famously said that The Tombs of Atuan is 'about' sexuality
('Dreams Must Explain Themselves,' in 1989c: 50) and presumably
(since she does not describe their relationship in physical terms) she is
speaking of 'the sense in which Tenar's healing is dependent upon her
response to Ged' (J enkins, 1985: 26). Tenar must trust him, respond
positively and warmly to him, if the two of them are to escape from the
Tombs. She does not 'fall in love' with him in the usual romantic sense,
but through him confronts all that is 'outside herself, bigger than
herself, more important than herself (26). Michelle Landsberg points
out that Ged offers Tenar 'friendship, not sexual love' (1987: 82), and
although Tenar is naturally drawn to her rescuer, only one sentence
expresses her dawning romantic feeling: 'Never could she have said
what was in her heart as she watched him in the firelight, in the
mountain dusk' (145-6). The emotional reserve reflects a truth about
young girls, namely their 'tentativeness' vis-a-vis 'the psychological
necessity of connecting with other humans by sharing experiences and
language' (Reid, 1997: 39).
The history of the Ring; the growth of Ged; the shadowy future of
Tenar
King Thoreg's story, central to the plot, relating the full history of the
Ring of Erreth-Akbe, confirms the identity of the pathetic couple on
the reef now named 'Springwater Isle' (The Tombsof Atuan: 158-60),
and artfully connects the story of Wizard to that of Tombs.
Ged's considerable growth in compassion for Tenar and in the
capacity to give of himself is evident when he tells her she was ' "made
to hold light"'; and though she has been a ' "lamp unlit,"' her lamp
' "will burn out of the wind a while"', meaning he will bring her to a
place of refuge on the isle of Gont (162). Tenar has made immense
strides towards self-knowledge, but Le Guin does not furnish any clues
for her future (as she did for Ged at the close of A Wizard of Earthsea),
and this omission speaks volumes. Elizabeth Cummins observes: 'Le
Guin has created a woman and then was unable to imagine an
appropriate place for her in the hierarchical, male world she had
created' (1990: 156). Tehanu would change all that.
The Farthest Shore
From inner to public world
The Farthest Shore shifts the drama of restoring wholeness from the
inner and interpersonal levels into the larger arena of public life.
Shirley Toulson says the novel depicts how 'when the people turn away
from the old rites, spells and traditions, and grab at a security and
immortality of their own making, the equilibrium is shaken' (1973:
780). In a similar vein, Suzanne Elizabeth Reid emphasizes Le Guin's
concept of the art of wizardry as 'looking for the outside edge',
exercising the imagination to pay attention to both the concrete things
of the world and one's inner realities, making connections and drawing
upon 'emotions, memories, and experiences to go beyond super-
ficialities' (1997: 40-1). She adds, 'Magic fades when the will to listen
and learn the true names of the things of life pales.' Earthsea's
inhabitants are spellbound by an illusion, seduced by 'a false dream
outside of life, the dream of eternal security', and they no longer live
with a sense of 'dangerous exploration', 'living wholly and passionately
as do artists and magicians' (41).
The journey to the 'farthest shore', a metaphor for the land of the
dead, traverses an Earthsea wherein people who were once proud and
creative have been reduced to hallucinating drug addicts and peddlers
of nondescript trash. 'Only the sea-people', says Toulson, escape the
malaise, for only they 'accept inevitable danger and death.' Danger and
death being undeniable components of life, Earthsea is fast becoming a
spiritual wasteland. The spirits of the dead have no peace, and those
who have not yet died exist in silent desperation: 'the sluice-gates of
the world {separating life and death] must be closed again before all
the real life is drained through them' (Toulson, 1973: 780). Compared
to the two previous books, The Farthest Shore presents the reader with a
larger and more imperilled universe, and its ecological implications may
speak more directly to youth of the twenty-first century.
Le Guin on The Farthest Shore: other critics' perspectives
Le Guin has said that The Farthest Shore is 'about death', not death as
an abstract reality, but rather the individual's awareness of personal
mortality, which marks the moment of childhood's end. Because it is
'about the thing you do not live through and survive,' she considers it
less 'well built' and 'complete' (1989c: 50). Some critics have echoed
this view, perhaps finding the novel too metaphysical for their tastes.
Michele Landsberg remarks that it is 'the most complex and the least
satisfying' of Le Guin's Earthsea books, despite the 'most original and
magnificent dragons in literature, ancient and thunderously immense
creatures whose eyes glitter with a remote and ironic amusement at the
doings of men' (1987: 179). Peter Nicholls finds a similarity between
both the epic themes of Le Guin and Tolkien (specifically Lord of the
Rings) and their shared fascination with dragons as embodying 'ancient
knowledge and power', and he praises The Farthest Shore as 'a muted
triumph, a quiet lyric,' admiring Le Guin's boldness in vividly
portraying a descent into the underworld (1974: 71), a topic rare in
literature for the young.
Prince Arren, the oracle of his destiny, and his marvellous sword of
Serriadh
Prince Arren's quest is the traditional heroic one, wherein the external
voyage mirrors an internal growth towards maturity, self-knowledge,
and acceptance of personal mortality. Prince Arren (a name meaning
'sword') has been the subject of a prophecy made by Maharion ('He
shall inherit my throne who has crossed the dark land living and come
to the far shores of the day' (The Farthest Shore: 20)). Like King
Arthur, Arren is the bearer of an enchanted sword, a marvellous
weapon that can be wielded only 'in the service of life', never in blood-
lust or revenge or greed (34-5).
Intimations of apocalyptic ruin and the call to adventure
Earthsea is in 'end time' mode (26): the Master Patterner can see no
pattern, and instead perceives ' "fear. There is fear at the roots"' (15).
He is speaking of the roots of the world tree itself, the cosmic tree
called Y ggdrasil in Nordic mythology, whose roots reach down to the
very core of Earth. Ged too senses impending disaster: ' "There is a
dimming of the sun. I feel, my lords - I feel as if we who sit here
talking, were all wounded mortally, and while we talk and talk our
blood runs softly from our veins'" (28-9), and wills to trace the
'trouble' to its source (28) with Arren at his side; the young man feels
'as if the Archmage had named him son of myth, inheritor of dreams'
(24). Acceptance of the call to adventure is Arren's 'first step out of
childhood' (11).
Gifts in The Farthest Shore
The basis of the social/political relationships between mages and kings
is in a 'gift' of loyalty: The Masters of Roke, equal in rank to the great
princes, serve the king 'by an act of fealty, by heart's gif t\ not by
constraint (17). The 'loyalty' that makes order possible is 'the supreme
gift', for it preserves the kingdom. Arren's fealty to Ged repeats the gift
pattern on a personal scale. Personal gifts also play a part: Arren's
purchase (34) of a silver brooch for his mother being one example.
Throughout the Earthsea of The Farthest Shore, however, gifts and
exchanges are becoming corrupt, and the loss of identity and joy
(Senior, 1996: 109) results from the human obsession with 'power over
life - endless wealth, unassailable safety, immortality', culminating in
greed (41) - symptoms of the loss of Balance where values are
concerned.
Holding despair at bay: the tale of Cob
Ged's discourse on the forbidden Lore of Pain, leads to the tale of the
Grey Mage of Pain (whose use-name, 'Cob', means 'spider' (as in
'cobweb')), an evil, misguided wizard who angered Ged by his frivolous
use of magic as 'a mere trick to entertain the idle' (85); the angry Ged
had forced Cob - knowing his inordinate terror of death - to go with
him into the Dry Land, winning his undying hatred. Cob has violated
nature by opening a hole between the worlds, in a vengeful attempt to
cheat death. Ged's part in making Cob into the Dark Mage suggests
that Cob is Ged's shadow or doppeiganger.
Characters and events on the quest
In Hort Town, now a 'Vanity Fair' full of cheap illusions, a 'dream city'
with no 'centre' (58), the once powerful wizard Hare says, '"I
remember being alive'" (54-5); he is but one example of people
seduced by Cob into thinking they could outwit Death. Lorbanery's
once marvellous silk looms are silent, covered with spider webs,
emblems of inertia and despair (88). The madwoman Akaren and her
equally mad son, Sopli, (95-6) illustrate what Arren calls the absence
of'joy in life' (98). The mad Sopli ironically loses his life because of his
irrational fear of drowning. Finally Arren himself falls into despair,
doubting Ged and believing they too will die, and for nothing (122).
In contrast, the Raft People, some of Le Guin's most original
inventions, live above this decay. Their participation in the Long
Dance can be seen as a celebration of life, moving on 'fragile rafts' in a
limitless ocean, dancing 'above the hollow place, above the terrible
abyss' (Wood, 1979: 176), above the trap of'nothingness' that haunts
this blighted Earthsea.
Arren's 'healing': lessons from Ged
Ged lectures Arren on the principle of Balance and the need to resist
'doing good' for its own sake: instead, act only when necessary (The
Farthest Shore: 75): the "'first lesson on Roke, and the last, is Do what
is needf ul. And no more!"' (150). A second principle views knowledge
of death as a 'gift' bestowing selfhood. Selfhood is difficult, but is
beyond all price: ' "our torment, and our treasure, and our humanity"'
(138). As Elizabeth Cummins observes, the psychological healing
process for Arren follows the pattern set with Ged and Tenar: 'In all
three psychological healing begins when the problem and solution can
be named, when the admission of weakness becomes strength' (1990:
54). Third, Ged teaches Arren the value of a trusting relationship (The
Farthest Shore: 136), saying unequivocally, '"I will trust you, son of
Morred"'. The roles of mentor and apprentice are undergoing a
transformation into mutuality (138). A fourth lesson is Ged's
revelation of the 'Anti-King', the traitor self that lives in all of us,
'"in the dark, like the worm in the apple"', seeking endless self-
perpetuation, whose voice we must resist (153-4).
Orm Embar and 'the dragons' run': Cob's 'remains'
Guided by Orm (cf. Old Englishwyrm, dragon or serpent) Embar to
Selidor, Arren experiences the sublime when he sees 'how small a thing
a man is, how frail and how terrible,' in contrast to the dragon hovering
above, filling half the sky (172). The dragon's use of 'Agra' is left
unglossed by Le Guin, though Perry Nodelman points out its
resemblance to the Latin agnus, or lamb, and speculates on some
possible implications of Christ-like innocence (1995: 196). The
dragon's Old Speech adds a flavour of incantation, plus an orphic
ambiguity ('"no and yes'", The Farthest Shore: 173) in its pronounce-
ments. Orm Embar's heroic self-immolation leaves Cob's 'remains'
crushed, revealing his empty eye-sockets (192). Elizabeth Cummins
explains: 'Symbolically ... [Cob] has sacrificed his self ("I"), his ability
to see the power of light, his ability to see the natural environment and
the human community' (1990: 55).
The Stone of Shelieth
The Stone is a 'truth-telling' rock-crystal, used for divination (158).
Two of the Masters of Roke see contradictory visions in the Stone: the
Master Changer sees the sea as it was 'before the Making,' the Master
Summoner sees 'the Unmaking' (161). Crow and Erlich suggest that
Segoy's 'Making' of Earthsea through Old Speech, is 'mythologically,
the birth of consciousness ... The existence of the world depends on
man's consciousness' - an idea that pervades Western philosophy since
Kant. Hence, the human capacity to destroy the world is 'twofold.' It
can take the form of abusing nature (bad ecology), or neglecting 'the
responsibility to create one's own human being', and in either case,
the whole of creation is jeopardized (213). What the mages see in the
Stone of Shelieth is alternative versions of the catastrophe that comes
about when human beings refuse to do two things only they can do -
give conscious attention to all the myriad forms of the created world,
and utter the words that bring the world to consciousness.
Le Guin's concept of the Dry Lands; the closing of the hole between
worlds
Peter Nicholls calls Le Guin's portrayal of the afterworld in Earthsea
neither a state of nirvana nor a traditional 'heaven' or 'hell'; he deems
it 'quite deeply un-Christian,' yet also not 'anti-Christian'; rather, it is
something closer to the ancient Greek Hades. Le Guin clearly values
life in the present world, and in the epigraph to A Wizard of Earthsea,
the phrase 'only in dying life' means that 'the keenness of living is kept
sharp by the imminence of death' (Nicholls, 1974: 78-9). The Dry
Lands evoke the Waste Land of T. S. Eliot, in turn based upon the
tradition of depicting spiritual acedia, despair, as a lifeless desert.
At the dry, barren 'fulcrum of the world' (The Farthest Shore: 176),
Ged closes the hole between the worlds, signifying through Agnen, the
Rune of Ending, his restoration of wholeness to Earthsea. With the
closing of this unnatural door, Ged incidentally releases Cob, whose
eyes are inexplicably restored and freed of anger, hate, or grief (209).
The doppelgdnger wins release along with his 'original.'
The victory of consciousness; Ged's farewell to his wizardry;
Arren's symbolic role fulfilled
Ged's Herculean effort has cost him his wizard's power (219), but his
achievement has restored the wholeness of the realm of Earthsea: an
artist nearing old age, Ged succeeds in 'assisting an entire country in
dealing with a crisis of language' (Cummins, 1990: 60-1). Language
had to be newly empowered, for the health and wholeness of Earthsea
depends upon human consciousness, and human consciousness in turn
requires words to name the things of the world and thereby bring them
to awareness. Why Ged could do this, and no other, is explained in his
comment to Arren: ' "I desire nothing beyond my art"' (The Farthest
Shore: 150). Pure of heart and single in purpose, he is ready for the
simple life on Gont.
Arren's achievement is also great: he has grown from a naive
idolization of Ged to being able to see him 'for the first time whole, as
he was' (187). Knowledge of the 'true' Ged correlates with Arren's
knowledge of himself. He is now ready to become King of Earthsea. His
true victory, however, is not in being crowned at Havnor, but was
achieved, as Margaret Esmonde says, on Selidor, 'where grasping a
stone brought back from his conquest of the Mountains of Pain, he
knows he has achieved a true victory over self, although there is no
one to praise him' (1979: 29).
Homecoming
Kalessin, a monumental dragon still more ancient than Orm Embar,
takes each of the protagonists to their respective destinations: ' "I have
brought the young king to his kingdom, and the old man to his
home."' Master Doorkeeper notes of Ged, '"He has done with doing.
He goes home"' (221-2).
TEHANU
Its relevance to contemporary times
Tenar, after the close of The Tombs of Atuan, 'put all magery behind
her and chose the classic path to happiness: To live unknown' (Dirda,
1990: 9). Despite her choice Tenar/Goha ('Goha' meaning in the
Gontish language 'a little white web-spinning spider' (Tehanu: 1) is
swept up in events of an epic dimension through her relationship with
the child Therm - meaning 'burned,' or 'flame,' a name bestowed by
Tenar. The child becomes the pivotal figure in the transition from the
old, exhausted Earthsea to the new world that is being born: the 'in-
between' time of the setting makes it comparable to our own era.
Near the end of his life, J ung compared our age to the beginning of
the Christian era two centuries ago:
[A] mood of universal destruction and renewal ... has set its
mark on our age. This mood makes itself felt everywhere,
politically, socially, and philosophically. We are living in what the
Greeks called the J cairos - the right moment - for a
'metamorphosis of the gods,' of the fundamental principles and
symbols, (quoted in Tarnas, 1993: 412)
Richard Tarnas sees the pertinence of J ung's comment to our time:
'The crisis of modern man is an essentially masculine crisis ... [in
which] as J ung prophesied, an epochal shift is taking place in the
contemporary psyche, a reconciliation between the two great polarities,
a union of opposites: a hieros gamos (sacred marriage) between the
long-dominant but now alienated masculine and the long-suppressed
but now ascending feminine.' The contemporary struggle is to bring
forth something fundamentally new in human history: 'We seem to be
witnessing, suffering, the birth labour of a new reality, a new form of
human existence, a "child" that would be the fruit of this great
archetypal marriage, and that would bear within itself all its
antecedents in a new form' (442-4). Tarnas's words can give
perspective to Le Guin's 'reconciliation between the two great
polarities of masculine and feminine in Tehanu, as well as the 'child'
Tehanu herself as an 'antecedent' of a new form (if not a
metamorphosis of the gods, perhaps a regendering and reimagining
of their 'species').
Critical controversy over Tehanu's relationship to the trilogy
Tehanu, following The Farthest Shore after a gap of eighteen years, has
received a varied critical reception. Some feel the trilogy was a
complete work of art and are uncomfortable with the added book; for
example J ohn Clute, who finds it 'a forcible - and at times decidedly
bad-tempered - deconstruction of its predecessors', and though he
understands the rationale for Le Guin's unmasking of the 'inherently
male' order of the previous books, he clearly would rather she had not
'deconstructed paradise' (Clute, 1990: 1409).
His opinion is shared by Ann Welton, who allows the considerable
truth of the book, but finds it not wholly 'of a piece' with the trilogy:
she believes 'the characters and mise-en-scene
1
'are from Earthsea, [but]
the message comes from someplace else', perhaps from Le Guin's short
fiction and essays of the previous fourteen years (Welton, 1991: 18,
15). Others rejoice that Tenar's and Ged's stories are continued into
middle age and, like Robin McKinley (herself an outstanding author of
books for children, such as Beauty), praise Tehanu's clearsighted
'recognition of the necessary and life-giving contributions of female
magic - sometimes disguised as domesticity'. McKinley qualifies her
praise with her assertion that 'Y oung readers of the Earthsea trilogy
should be obliged to wait a decade or two before they read it. Adults
may read the quartet as a finished work' (McKinley, 1990).
Others agree that Tehanu is more suited to adults than children, for
it bears less resemblance to high fantasy (to their mind exclusively
children's fare ) than to the supposedly 'adult' novel. Dirda goes so far
as to say it 'builds to a climax of almost pornographic horror, nearly too
shocking for its supposedly young adult pages' (1990: 9).
There are those who argue to the contrary - that it supplies what is
lacking in the preceding books, a female heroic. Some foreshadowing of
Tehanu, albeit subconscious on Le Guin's part, occurs in The Farthest
Shore, where the lonely Ged, desiring to go 'home' to see Tenar and
Ogion, says, 'And maybe there I would learn at last what no act or art
or power can teach me, what I have never learned' (The Farthest Shore:
176-7). A connection can also be made between The Farthest Shore
and Tehanu in the progressively 'deepening gloom' of the cycle, which
as T. A. Shippey says, reflects 'America in the aftermath of Vietnam:
exhausted, distrustful, uncertain' (1977: 158-9).
Len Hatfield in 'From master to brother: shifting the balance of
authority in Ursula K. Le Guin's Farthest Shore and Tehanu (1993),
believes that the implicit subversions of patriarchy in the original
trilogy are simply made explicit in the last book. Perry Nodelman
responded to Hatfield's article with a brilliant piece of Earthsea
'archaeology' in which he maintains that Tehanu can be read 'not as an
explicit statement of formerly implicit themes, but rather, as a
profound criticism and reversal of what went before'. Moreover, Le
Guin shows 'how much supposedly universal archetypes can change in
a decade and a half, thus revealing 'the transitory nature of all the
supposedly eternal assumptions human beings make about gender and
sexuality', and portraying 'the continual process by which all of us
constantly reinvent the past' (1995: 181, 198-9).
Holly Littlefield has demonstrated a continuity between the earlier
Tenar, a fifteen-year-old girl who was able 'to outwit, entrap, and
control' Ged, the most powerful wizard in Earthsea, and the Tenar of
twenty years later, who addresses social issues, especially the
imbalances of power between men and women (1995: 248, 252). Le
Guin, she says, cannot reconstruct the Earthsea she created nearly
three decades ago, but instead has written a mature response to it,
reflecting women's experience in that world and offering some pungent
criticism of it. Tenar's personal choice exalts loving relationships over
Ogion's world of wizardly books and spells: as she says, ' "I wanted to
live. I wanted a man. I wanted my children. I wanted my life"'
(Tehanu: 51). Despite her misogynist training in her prior life, she now
feels 'the need to become more deeply connected to her own inner
power as a woman' (Littlefield, 1995: 254).
Le Guin has expressed the philosophy of Tehanu elsewhere, for
instance, in a 1986 commencement address to young women at Bryn
Mawr: 'I hope you don't try to take your strength from men, or from a
man. Secondhand experience breaks down ... I hope you'll take and
make your own soul, that you'll feel your life for yourself pain by pain
and joy by joy'. These were words that she believed Tenar might have
said to the young women of Earthsea (1989a: 158).
How Tehanu differs from its predecessors in the Earthsea cycle
Tehanu differs from its three predecessors in several ways. First, Tenar,
whose growth towards maturity was initiated by Ged's quest in The
Tombs of Atuan, is now the centre of attention, no romantic heroine,
but a middle-aged woman with her own kind of courage. Contempor-
ary feminist theory and several of Le Guin's essays, plus her Earthsea
Revisionea
1
, provide illuminating background on why Le Guin essentially
'rewrote' the trilogy by adding the fourth volume. For example, the
essay 'The Space Crone' explores the three stages of a woman's life:
virgin, wife-mother, crone - the three aspects of the Triple Goddess,
traditionally represented by Diana, Venus, and Hecate. The failure of
the contemporary world to honour all three goddesses means that The
entire life of a woman from ten or twelve through seventy or eighty has
become secular, uniform, changeless'. Le Guin affirms the need to
recapture the value of the last stage of a woman's life, when she must
become pregnant with herself, despite society's failure to value this
lonely achievement; only old women, she says, have experienced and
accepted to the utmost the 'essential quality' of the human condition
(5-6). Not yet in the crone category (she uses this term to refer to the
older Aunty Moss) Tenar is however in the process of giving birth to
herself, and from a larger perspective, she is, together with the dragon
Kaliessen and Therru/Tehanu, a kind of cultural mid-wife, assisting at
the birth of a new world.
Lissa Paul describes the 'cultural shift' inherent in Tehanu: Tenar
marks Le Guin's abandonment of the male romantic hero in favour of a
'feminist, pro-creative, recreative hero, not pure' (as the conventional
romantic hero must be), but 'whole'. The dragon has undergone a
parallel transformation, from a nemesis into a 'familiar', a 'guide for the
new female hero'. Le Guin moves beyond the conventional hierarchical
order of high fantasy into 'a new world where the search is for wildness,
a "new order of freedom'" (Paul, 1996: 105. SeeTehanu: 18, 26).
Both Tenar and Ged have suffered through many changes since
Tombs, where Ged had initiated Arha/Tenar into selfhood and
awakened her sexuality. In Tehanu it is Tenar who initiates Ged to
sexuality and the satisfactions of ordinary domestic life. (Mages are
required to be sexually abstinent, in accordance with the tradition of
purity, embodied for example in Parsifal, though interestingly, this
prohibition does not apply to witches.) In one of her sallies into
humour, speaking of the absence of sex in the earlier Earthsea books,
Le Guin observes in Earthsea Revisioned that the working title for
Tehanu was in fact 'Better Late Than Never' (1993: 15).
Another major difference lies in Ged's loss of magic; he must now
accommodate to this and, no longer the 'Alpha Male,' must seek what
comforts he can in humility and simple tasks. (Michael Dirda has
contrasted the ageing ex-mage with the aged Ulysses in Tennyson's
poem, who 'sails off into the sunset, to certain death, proclaiming
heroic verse: "To strive, to seek, to find, and not yield." But Ged feels
nothing of this' (1990: 9).)
Lastly, Therru/Tehanu enters as a new, world-changing character
destined to become the new female archmage, transforming the old
Earthsea into a world that is yet-to-be-defined.
Le Guin on revisiting Earthsea: the need for 'Revisioning*
The main points that Le Guin makes in her account of her purpose in
writing Tehanu, expressed in Earthsea Revisioned, can be summarized
here. First, the 'gendered' character of the 'hero-tale' in the Western
world, traditionally male and concerned with the 'validation of
manhood,' is structured as a quest with women as 'sidekicks' (5).
Second, at the time she began to write, artists were supposed to ignore
gender, but this ideal of the 'androgynous' artist's mind was - and is -
problematical, for ' [t]he standards themselves were gendered' - the
'universally human' was gendered male. As she says: 'My Earthsea
trilogy is part of this male tradition - that is why I had to write this
fourth volume. Because I changed. I had to show the other side'
(quoted in Tax, 1990: 75). No longer an 'artificial man,' she desired to
'revision' Earthsea through a woman's eyes, redefining 'action,
decision, and power' through relationships, as women experience
them. In Tenar's world, as today, 'History is no longer about great men.
The important choices and decisions may be obscure ones, not
recognized or applauded by society.' The virtues of Ged in Tehanu are
'no longer the traditional male heroic ones: power as domination over
others, unassailable strength, and the generosity of the rich' (1993: 12-
14).
As Meredith Tax remarks, Le Guin wants us to ask, 'who did the
dishes for all those feasts in Tolkien? And how can any of us - even
men who share housework - be heroes when we have to spend so
much time caring for house and children? And without heroes, how
can evil be defeated?' For in Tehanu there is a sense of the growing
strength of evil and a loss of the power to challenge it. Ged has lost his
power, Tenar has given hers up to 'marry and have kids', and the
central symbol of the book is 'a burned, abused child'. However,
because this is fantasy, not realistic fiction, 'there are dragons', and in
Le Guin's universe, dragons signal hope (Tax, 1990: 75).
The shared human-dragon history: the tale of the woman of Kemay
The tale of the old fisherwoman of Kemay tells the shared history of
dragons and humans: Once both were of the same winged race and
spoke the same Language of the Making, but they grew apart: 'the wild
ones' became dragons, and the 'wise' ones, the gatherers of treasure
and learning, became the human folk. Some of the humans 'saved the
learning of the dragons - the True Language of the Making - and these
are now the wizards'. Still others remained 'both human and dragon,'
keeping their wings, and these great winged beings are both wild and
wise, having human minds and dragon hearts (Tehanu: 11-12). Le
Guin's dragons are far removed from the malevolent creatures of the
medieval European imagination, closer to 'oriental lineage,' in Richard
F. Patteson's phrase, and thus, stand for 'a nature in which savagery is
a necessary part of the whole - something to be respected more than
feared' (1985: 246). In fact, in this last book of Earthsea, the chief
dragon leads the humans in defeating the evil mage, Aspen.
In Earthsea Revisioned Le Guin further explains the evolution of
dragons in the cycle. In the trilogy, they were 'above all, wildness.
What isnot owned.' Tenar makes a connection to 'wildness' - and thus
to dragons - through her adoption of Therru. Therru is 'the key to this
book. Until I saw Therru, until she chose me, there was no book.' With
only one seeing eye, Therru 'sees with the eye of the spirit as well as the
eye of the flesh' (19, 25), and she knows dragon language without
needing to learn it. (Compare the children in Le Guin's picture book,
Fire and Stone, where only they comprehend what the dragon says.)
Her 'Third Eye,' a sign of extrahuman powers (Cirlot, 1971: 100)
explains Ogion's words, ' "they will f ear her"' and why he urges Tenar,
"Teach her, Tenar ... Teach her all!'" (Tehanu: 21). In a folklore
context, Ogion's prophecy 'adheres to the falling-word myth and
foretells the coming of the avatar who will reverse the pattern of
decline' (Senior, 1996: 110).
Reunited with Ged, teaching Therru
Both Therru and Ged learn about 'the womanly arts of survival:
cooking, animal husbandry, and patience,' what Littleneld has called
the 'less-sanitized side of life' that teaches compassion (quoted in Reid,
1997: 46) from Tenar. Tenar however is no 'angel in the house,' and
occasionally seethes with bitterness and disillusionment over the lack
of respect for the vulnerable, especially women and children. In
response to critical comments on the negativity in the portrayal of men
in the book, Le Guin has cited the exceptions: Ogion, the young king
Arren, and Ged - who has lost his 'job' and is learning new virtues. As
for Spark, he may be 'a selfish lout', but Le Guin counters, 'Are all sons
good, then, all wise, all generous.7 Tenar blames herself for Spark's
weakness (just like a woman!) but I blame the society that spoiled the
boy by giving him unearned power' (1993: 14). Tenar shows sensitivity
to Ged's dilemma in losing his wizard's staff: she says to Aunty Moss,
' "All I understand about living is having your work to do, and being
able to do it. That's the pleasure, and the glory, and all"' (97). In
contrast to Tenar's alienation from her son (she does not know his
'true name'), the warmth and depth of the bond between Tenar and
Ged grows, culminating when Tenar, looking at him in the light of a
rose and gold dawn, says, "'I have loved you since I first saw you"',
whereupon he responds with an intimate kiss, saying, '" Life-giver"'
(214).
Fan and double vision: Tenar and Therru and their dragon 'powers'
The dragon motif and the theme of gifts are evident in the visit to Fan,
whose prize possession, acquired as a gift, is his eponymous, marvellous
fan. This two-sided piece of trompe I 'oeil art, has on one side a gorgeous
image of 'delicately painted men and women ... The towers and
bridges and banners of Havnor,' and on the other an image of dragons,
which when held up to the light showed 'the men and women were
winged, and the dragons looked with human eyes' (Tehanu: 104-5). It
represents in Le Guin's words 'double vision, two things seen as one.'
(1993: 21). The dragons remain mysterious, even to their creator, but
clearly Therru/Tehanu has the double vision to 'see' both the human
and dragon worlds, and Tenar is 'a woman dragons would talk to'
(Tehanu: 62), who can do something male wizards cannot: look into
the dragon's eye and live (37-8). The reason is that she has not been
seduced by the need to wield power; therefore, she is free to connect
with 'a different world, a free world, where things can be changed,
remade' (Le Guin, 1993: 23).
Liminality in Tehanu
Kathleen Spencer's writings on Le Guin have explored the 'liminality'
of her typical 'anthropological hero' in her science fiction - a solitary
individual who reaches out to the 'alien,' and in the process of so
doing, becomes an agent of creative social change (1980: 34). Spencer
applies the social anthropology of Victor Witter Turner to Le Guin's
science fiction; Turner himself borrowed the term 'liminal' from
Arnold van Gennep's writings on rites of passage, and modified liminal
to elucidate his theory of ritual processes and symbolic behaviour in
human culture. (Spencer, 1980: 34; Turner, 1978: 249). Spencer's
comments on Le Guin's science fiction are relevant to the characters of
Earthsea, since Le Guin has identified the central theme of the cycle as
'Power' (Loer, 1990: 38) and issues of power must be faced by 'liminars'
on the periphery of the established order. All of the protagonists in the
Earthsea cycle are liminal, but none more so than Therru, who has
kinship with both the human and the dragon worlds, and thus can
meaningfully communicate between the two species who were once
one. (Le Guin's Catwings series illustrates 'liminality' on the picture
book level, where cats with wings - a kind of hybrid species - relate to
children who feel themselves marginalized and provide animal guides
'through a shadowy, urban landscape of archetypal evils' (Lindow,
1997a).)
Therru, having been marginalized from both the human and dragon
worlds, and knowing the languages of both, is positioned to bring about
a new era, a time envisioned in Ogion's dying exclamation, ' "A//
changed!"' (Tehanu: 23). Of both human and dragon lineage, she will
be able to go 'beyond the old order in which men were taught to own
and dominate and women were taught to collude with them: the order
of oppression' (Le Guin, 1993: 23-4). The parallels to today's anxieties
can be seen in Beech's comments on Tenar's world: '"[It isj ... a time
of ruining, the end of an age ... We must turn to the center again or be
lost... We must find our heart, our strength"' (Tehanu: 15). Though a
sorcerer, Beech has no clue to the significance of the Master
Patterner's cryptic prophecy of '"a woman on Gont"' (142). Therru/
Tehanu's mediation between the human and dragon worlds climaxes
in Kaliessen's (Segoy's) battle with the false mage Aspen (true name
'Erisen'), after which Therru is given her new name, Tehanu' (in
Kargish, 'The Heart of the Swan', and Hardic, 'the Arrow').
A new pastoral life, a new world to come
The abode of the newly-constituted family - Tenar, Ged and Therru -
is Ogion's house, a neat metaphor of the transformation of his era into
theirs. This setting and their newly chosen occupation as goatherds
give a pastoral conclusion to what began as heroic fantasy. Tenar and
Ged have come a long way from the Tombs of Atuan, and they now
have the 'gift' of the dragon's child, left in their care for a time. Tehanu
must eventually return to Kaliessen, but for the present, as the dragon
remarks to her, ' "Thou hast work to do here" ' (225). Instead of heroic
rewards, Ged and Tenar have achieved wholeness, ripeness, and
harmony with the natural rhythms of a mountain home. The child,
however, holds the promise of a breakthrough to a new world we can
only imagine.
Earth sea for today
The Earthsea books portray their protagonists' growth and develop-
ment from childhood through adolescence to maturity, and their
respective quests to find answers to the existential questions of life,
death, and the hereafter. Though expressed through the fantasy or
'dream' genre, this existential level of meaning mirrors, on a
psychological level, the realistic Bildungsroman or novel of education.
The characters face crucial moments of decision, 'pivotal' choices, in
response to certain universals of the human condition. The relation-
ships between the characters also play a vital role in their coming to
wholeness. Though there are parallels between the alternative world of
Earthsea and the world of the reader in contemporary times, there are
also definitive, illuminating differences that lend themselves to
comparison and contrast between the 'worlds'.
Earthsea
1. A realm of magical arts, based on the power of language, derived
from the Old Speech of dragons, wherein to speak is to create.
2. An agrarian society, with limited commerce, where most people
live simple lives in harmony with nature.
3. A class society, hierarchical and patriarchal in structure, headed by
a king in Havnor, to whom wizards give the 'heart's gift' of fealty;
in Tehanu, however, a questioning of rigidly denned male and
female roles and leanings towards gender equality.
4. For the priestly, wizardly class, valuing of an abstinent, monastic
path; simplicity and asceticism (compare Buddhism); denial of the
passions; sublimation of sexual desires into service of heroic ideals
(compare the knight of courtly romance).
5. A close relationship to the animal world; animals in a daemonic
relationship with mages (compare Native American beliefs);
nonetheless, animals viewed ambiguously: shapeshifters who stay
too long in animal form risk losing their humanity.
6. A high value placed on metaphysical awareness: people's lives
permeated with spiritual reality; the unlearned exhibit superstition
and a naive belief in 'spells'.
7. Protagonists of 'timinal' status, standing between two 'worlds' and
mediating between them.
'Realistic' contemporary world
1. An abundance of technological 'marvels' instead of 'magic'.
2. A predominantly urban society, highly materialistic, with most
people removed from the natural world.
3. Democracy valued, though corporations and the military wield
great political power; in the advanced nations, economy shifting
from industrial to 'information age'.
4. Male dominance in many areas; movement towards a gender-equal
society in more advanced and enlightened parts of the world.
5. Materialistic values 'rule', although some individuals opt for a
simpler life close to nature; great yearning for richer spiritual life
manifested in sales of 'soul* books, attraction to Eastern religions.
6. Increasing attention to the need for deeper ecological awareness;
the 'green' revolution; renewed interest in herbal remedies; animal
rights movement; most people however remote from rhythms of
natural world.
7. An urgent need to develop people able to serve as 'mediators' of
cultural understanding, such as Le Guin's 'liminal' figures, to
bridge differences, whether social, political, or gender-based.
Earthsea and its readers
Given the fact that Le Guin's Earthsea novels offer many 'teachable
moments,' I wish to explore a few answers to the question, 'What do
the four books of the Earthsea cycle offer to today's readers.
7
' (In
addition, of course, to the sheer pleasure of the stories!) J udging from
the electronically posted reader reviews, 'today's readers' of the cycle
are an eclectic group, ranging from sixth graders (assigned by their
teachers to read, usually, A Wizard of Earthsea) to adults mesmerized
by the entire 'quartet,' such as one who speaks of the trilogy as 'a
J ungian joy' and Tehanu as 'a text for the new millennium' in its
introduction of 'the Anima as coeval healer and warrior' (Amazon,
com, a reader from Los Angeles, posted 12 December 1997).
Wendy J ago's 'A Wizard of Earthsea and the charge of escapism'
(1972) pointed out how the novel can contribute to a child's
knowledge about growing up, apprenticeship, and facing mortality (also
in the form of deathseeking impulses); much can be gleaned as well
from Le Guin's artful use of language. Geoff Fox's 'Notes on "teaching"
A Wizard of Earthsea' (1973) describes a variety of practical activities
for teachers to use with young children: discussion, choral work,
drama, artwork, game making and writing - both prose and verse - all
tested in the classroom.
Others have noted how the books 'model' teaching. In 'A review of
"Earthsea"' in Growing Point, Margery Fisher speaks of the 'element of
loving pedagogy, of a human desire to instruct and strengthen,' shown
in Ged's 'instinct to teach, to reach out in kindness, and share his
experience and knowledge with others' (1977: 3119). Margaret Miles
expresses her belief that the Earthsea books treat education in the
most basic sense, portraying the way that 'how and what you are taught
brings you to the point of learning to define who and what you are.'
Ged, a student in the first book, teaches Tenar in the second, and both
continue to learn as they in turn teach the young Lebannen and
Therru, 'who will shape the powers of the world to come' (Miles, 1991:
301).
Respect for the power of language and the valuing of rhetoric
Reams could be written on the lyrical and orphic qualities of Le Guin's
language in the Earthsea books. Here is a sampling of the critical
responses it has evoked. Fred Inglis says Le Guin gives children a way
of understanding that 'the most universal of human gifts, language, is
also the most wonderful' (1981: 245-6). He quotes the passage in A
Wizard of Earthsea in which the young Sparrowhawk looks into Ogion's
lore book and, struck by the antiquity and mythic quality of the
contents, experiences a peculiarly ghostly feeling: 'Small and strange
was the writing, overwritten and interlined by many hands, and all
those hands were dust now' (A Wizard of Earthsea: 34). This is the
voice of one who understands the magic of language and its persistence
over time, and 'makes language, as it always was and is for Magi, the
special preoccupation of her hero-intellectual' (Inglis, 1981: 246).
Another characteristic of Le Guin's style is the creation of new
words, vital to the building of new fictive worlds. Richard Ohmann
says: 'A writer cannot escape the boundaries set by his tongue, except
by creating new words, by uprooting normal syntax, or by building
metaphors, each of which is a new ontological discovery' (Ohmann,
1972: 43). J ust one example of a new word is the name of the cycle
itself, 'Earthsea,' bringing together the components of land and ocean
into linguistic unity, expressive of the underlying metaphysical
oneness. The names of her dragons, such as Orm Embar and Kaliessen,
resonate with a dragonish quality, showing her musical ear and prowess
as a wordsmith. Her fondness for a word like 'rune' gives an Old
English flavour to her 'wordhoard'; J ohn R. Pfeiffer places the trilogy
within the tradition of the oral epic, detailing Le Guin's use of Old
English poetics: formulaic language, alliteration, kennings, gnomic
expressions, and repetition (although this evidence has been
questioned, see White, 1999: 24-5). Pfeiffer sees Ged's maturation
'in terms of his growing command of speech and language. Put another
way, the message of [A Wizard of Earthsea] is that the achievement of
the fully human experience requires the mastery of speech as the
means for creating that experience'. Through Ged, young readers can
see the importance of mastering rhetoric. Pfeiffer also insists that the
Earthsea narratives need to be heard (1979: 124, 116).
Ecological dimensions
Volumes could be written on the pertinence of Le Guin's Earthsea to
present-day ecological concerns. Here there is room for only a few
suggestions that may spur further thought. Brian Attebery points to an
analogy between Le Guin's portrayal of 'the psychic cost of seemingly
effortless meddling with the world' (nearly fatal for the inept wizard)
and the human and environmental cost of misused technologies
(Attebery, 1980: 173). Since 'magic' can be viewed as technology
whose modus operandi is not yet understood, the analogy seems
especially pertinent. Although Le Guin has been called by some an
'ecofeminist,' there are good reasons to refrain from applying such a
limiting label; neither the 'ecologist' nor 'feminist' label fits:
Because Le Guin creates entire cultures and environments, her
work does lend itself to ecofeminist interpretations, but ecology is
not as important to her work as is anthropology. If I had to
identify Le Guin with a particular brand of feminism, it would be
one that hasn't yet been invented. (White, 1999: 116)
Seeing beyond appearances
Tenar comforts the despairing Ged, telling him he needs time to heal
from his experience of death (in The Farthest Shore), and he replies,
' "Like the child? ... I don't know ... Why you took her, knowing that
she cannot be healed. Knowing what her life must be.'" His words
anger Tenar, for he has failed to see beyond appearances (Tehanu: 74-
5); instead, he has responded like the unlearned Tiff, who
surreptitiously makes the sign to avert evil when Therru passes,
showing that 'Like most people, Tiff believed that you are what
happens to you' (161). Tehanu as a whole validates a much different
perspective: it is the 'maimed child' with a vision that comprehends
the inner essence who brings rescue and the promise of renewed life. In
our day of overemphasis on superficialities of 'beauty', there is a deep
wisdom here for the child whose only ideal of beauty may be a Barbie
or Ken doll. Le Guin's portrait of the abused child carries a message of
hope for the self'healing and self-affirmation of the wronged individual.
In her article, 'Ursula Le Guin's Earthsea: rescuing the damaged child,'
Sandra J . Lindow traces the 'maimed child' as a recurrent image
throughout the Earthsea books, pointing out that both Ged and Tenar
suffered abuse in childhood and that, in rescuing Therru, Tenar is
psychologically reclaiming the child she once was (1997b: 10-13).
Envisioning a future of peace and harmony
In Earthsea Revisioned, Le Guin says that when writing Tehanu, she saw
'a new world, or maybe only gulfs of sunlit air' (26). Her characteristic
self-deprecation does not diminish her accomplishment in leaving a
reader of the entire cycle with what J . R. R. Tolkien called 'a lifting of
the heart' (Tolkien, 1965: 69). Though she chose to incorporate in
Tehanu elements of social criticism, commonly (and mistakenly)
thought to be more germane to the realistic novel than to heroic
fantasy, the close of the story belongs definitely to the tradition of
eucatastrophe, the happy ending, noted by Tolkien as a necessary
element of fantasy (68). This sense of newness of life is sorely needed
today, at the start of a new century, when prophecies of disaster on a
cosmic scale vie with pipedreams of unimaginable wealth and
unprecedented 'progress.' Le Guin's vision is neither Utopian nor
dystopian, but rather what may be called 'melioristic,' meaning tending
to betterment through human effort - or maybe through the opening
of human hearts. Perhaps it is Le Guin's 'mediating' protagonists, the
liminars who are isolated without being alienated and can further
understanding between seemingly incompatible peoples, who are her
most precious 'gift' to a vision of peace.
Through her Earthsea books, readers can stretch the limits of their
own lives and experiment with alternative cultures in worlds rich and
strange.
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Further reading
By Ursula K. Le Guin (a selection)
Very Far Away f rom Anywhere Else, New Y ork, Atheneum, 1976,
published in England as A Very Long Way f rom Anywhere Else,
London, Gollancz, 1976.
Solomon Leviathan's Nine Hundred Thirty-First Trip around the World,
illustrated by Alicia Austin, New Castle, VA, Puffin, 1976; Cheap
Street, 1983. (Originally published in collection Puf f ins Pleasures.)
Leese Webster, illustrated by J ames Brunsman, New Y ork, Atheneum,
1979.
The Adventures of Cobbler's Rune, illustrated by Austin, Cheap Street,
1982.
Adventures in Kroy, Cheap Street, 1982.
A Visit f rom Dr Katz, illustrated by Ann Barrow, New Y ork, Atheneum,
1988, published as Dr Katz, London, Collins, 1988.
Catwings, illustrated by S. D. Schindler, New Y ork, Orchard Books,
1988.
Catwings Return, illustrated by S. D. Schindler, Orchard Books, 1989.
Fish Soup, illustrated by Patrick Wynne, New Y ork, Atheneum, 1992.
A Ride on the Red Mare's Back, illustrated with paintings by J ulie
Downing, New Y ork, Orchard Books, 1992.
Wonderf ul Alexander and the Catwings, illustrated by S. D. Schindler,
New Y ork, Orchard Books, 1994.
J ane on Her Own: A CatwingsTale, illustrated by S. D. Schindler, New
Y ork, Orchard Books, 1999.
Websites
Scholarly articles
http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ALAN/spring96/griffin.html
by J an M. Griffin, 'Ursula Le Guin's Magical World of Earthsea,' which
appeared in Alan Review 23(3) (Spring 1996).
http://www.teleport.com/~aaugiee/leguin.shtml
'A Literary Analysis of Ursula K. LeGuin,' by J ustin Day (Previously
titled 'Ursula K. Le Guin: Symbolism, Theme, and Mythology In the
Earthsea Trilogy'). Concise exposition of the symbolism, mythology,
and themes in the Earthsea books (updated to include Tehanu).
'Fan' sites
1. The Dragon of Solea's guide to Earthsea
http://web.a-znet.com/ganieda/earthsea/earthsea.htm
Graphically beautiful, this will appeal to the image-oriented. A kind of
concordance to Earthsea, including Names, Places, Chants, Plants,
Animals, The Wisdom of Earthsea,' this is maintained by a fan,
Shannon, of Ithaca, NY (see the site for details, click 'About the
Dragon').
2. Le Guin's World
surf.to/le.guin
or http://hem.passagen.se/peson42/lgw/main.html
Useful links.
3. The unof f icial Ursula K. Le Guin homepage, maintained by Laura
Quilter, with an angle on Le Guin as a feminist, has links to published
interviews:
http://www.wenet.net/~lquilter/femsf/authors/leguin/
and one section gives one-sentence reader's annotations of Le Guin's
children's (picture) books:
http://www.wenet.net/~-lquilter/femsf/authors/leguin/juvenile.htm
Miscellaneous
http://www.pacifict.com/ron/Mills.html
'A Left-Handed Commencement Address' delivered in 1983 at Mills
College (inspirational, succinct, aimed at women).
'Ursula K. Le Guin, A Noted Portland Author Talks About
Storytelling Aimed At Exacting Readers, The Pint-Sized Kind.' By
Cheryl Bowlan
Delightful site, devoted to Le Guin's picture books, especially the
Catwings series. Worth a visit despite the commercial headers.
Brief biography and critical overview: Ursula K. LeGuin
Ursula K. Le Guin, born in 1929in Berkeley, California, daughter of
Alfred L. Le Guin (an anthropologist) and Theodora Covel Brown (a
writer; maiden name, Kracaw). Her early years were spent in the
academic milieu of the University of California at Berkeley, where her
imagination was fired by literature - the folklore of Celtic and Teutonic
writers, the works of Hans Christian Andersen, Lord Dunsany, and J .
R. R. Tolkien - and anthropological writings such as Sir J ames Frazer's
Golden Bough.
She earned an undergraduate degree from Radcliffe (1951), and her
master's degree from Columbia (1952) was in Romance Literatures of
the Middle Ages and Renaissance, specializing in French. She has
taught French at Mercer University in Georgia (1954-5) and the
University of Idaho (1956) and has been a visiting lecturer and writer
at Portland State University, University of California at San Diego,
University of Reading in England, and many other places. A frequent
guest of honour at science fiction conventions, she has also been a
creative consultant for the Public Broadcasting Service, working on the
television production of The Lathe of Heaven (1979). Her affiliations
have included, among others, memberships in Writers Guild, PEN,
Science Fiction Research Association, Science Fiction and Fantasy
Writers of America, Amnesty International of the USA, National
Abortion Rights Action League, National Organization for Women,
Nature Conservancy, Planned Parenthood Federation of America,
Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and Phi Beta
Kappa.
She married Charles Alfred Le Guin (a historian), 22 December
1953, and they have three children: Elisabeth, Caroline, and
Theodore. Settling with her husband in Portland, Oregon, she
continued to write while working and raising a family. Before turning
to the novel, she wrote poetry, and her narrative style retains a
remarkable clarity, evocative precision, and lyricism. Le Guin's writings
in science fiction and fantasy invent new alternative worlds,
representing new possibilities for self and society, often implicitly
critiquing contemporary culture. Often, her tales are set in an alien
world and trace the protagonist's efforts to mediate between vastly
different peoples. The reconciliation of the alienated and sundered
worlds typically comes by means of a conceptual breakthrough.
Her first published novel, the space opera Rocannon's World (1966;
rev. 1977), prefigures several abiding themes that carry through to the
Earthsea series: learning to 'bridge' between one's own culture and an
alien one, and the power of mutual 'gifts' - which may be non-material
or material in nature - to create and sustain relationships. In
Rocannon's World an ethnographer is marooned on a primitive planet,
suffers difficulty in navigating a strange culture, but finally, in return
for opening himself to the new world, receives the gift of 'mindspeech'
or telepathy. In The Lef t Hand of Darkness (1969), which won both
Hugo and Nebula awards, Le Guin relates the story of an ethnologist
who visits Gethen, a planet whose people are androgynous; neuter
most of the time, they can become either male or female at intervals in
their sexual cycles. Since the Gethenians appear at first to be like
people in our world, and are only gradually revealed to be
fundamentally different, the effect is a 'cognitive estrangement' that
heightens the impact. This first novel in the Hainish series invites
speculation on the nature of sex and sexism in contemporary society, as
well as cultural chauvinism in a generic sense, in contrast to the
Gethenian society where individual identities and social status are free
from stereotypes of gender. In a departure from conventional novelistic
form, the narrative is interwoven with ethnological reports, retellings
of indigenous religious ceremonies, legends and myths, and diary
entries. This novel is interlaced with one of Le Guin's recurring
themes, namely that unity evolves from the interaction and balance
between opposites: sameness and difference, male and female, the
familiar and the alien.
By 1970 Le Guin had become one of the most esteemed writers of
science fiction; and while her reputation transcends genre, her science
fiction writings have won five Hugos and four Nebula awards and she
has received more attention from the academic community than most
other modern science fiction writers.
Her work incorporates an ideal of balance or 'Equilibrium': in the
psyche, between the rational and the intuitive; in gender, between
male and female; in the natural world, termed 'ecology'. Her Earthsea
books reflect her typical strategy of shaping a story around recurrent
motifs, in a pattern aptly called 'spiralling,' adding richness and density
by means of new juxtapositions. Le Guin's stories have combined
traditional elements of fantasy with elements of science fiction,
creating alternative societies, sometimes incorporating psychic phe-
nomena, such as telepathy ('mindspeech' in Rocannon's World),
precognition and clairvoyance.
Her motifs are drawn from the paired archetypal symbols common to
poetry, myth and romance: darkness and light, male and female,
speech and silence, seen not as opposed polarities, but rather as twin
parts of a balanced, meaningful whole. Her dualism is not that of
Western philosophy, Hegelian or Marxist, wherein progress comes out
of the dialectical opposition of forces; instead it reflects the Eastern
Taoist tradition, where the emphasis is on the wholeness stemming
from balance and the mutuality of ;yin and yang. Jungian archetypes and
the tenets of Taoism illuminate her work, but it is important to refrain
from applying such theories in a reductionist fashion: there are more
things in her 'heavens and earths' than can be captured in the
abstractions of philosophy. Rather, her narratives may fruitfully be
approached in the manner of poetry, with an openness to the discovery
of previously unearthed riches.
CHAPTER 3
Terry Pratchett
Peter Hunt
Of all f atiguing, f utile, empty trades, the worst, I suppose, is writing
about writing.
Hilairc Be/foe (Winoker, 1987: 103)
Critics say good things, and sometimes dumb things, and occasionally
nasty things. The books sell, so I don't mind.
Terry Pratchett (Pratchett and Briggs, 1997: 467)
'All right,' said Susan. 'I'm not stupid. You're saying humans need
. . . f antasies to make life bearable.'
REALLY? [said Death] AS IF IT WERE SOME KIND OF
PINK PILL? NO. HUMANS NEED FANTASY TO BE
HUMAN. TO BE THE PLACE WHERE THE FALLING
ANGEL MEETS THE RISING APE.
'Tooth fairies? Hogfathers? Little-'
YES. AS PRACTICE. YOU HAVE TO START OUT
LEARNING TO BELIEVE THE LITTLE LIES.
'So we can believe the big ones?'
YES. JUSTICE. MERCY. DUTY. THAT SORT OF THING.
Terry Pratchett (Hogfather: 422)
Approaching Terry Pratchett
There is a scholarly edition of Gulliver's Travels in which the editor
devotes erudite footnotes to proving that the Lilliputians and
Brobdignagians could not have existed - because of the number of
cortical cells, bone structure, and so on (Turner, 1986: 310, 325). This
has always struck me as being a rather foolhardy annexe to a book by a
master satirist, which contains the rather nasty account of the
Professors at the Academy at Lagado ('in my Judgement wholly out of
their Senses'), and one of whose most famous obiter dicta was that
'satire is a sort of glass, wherein beholders do generally discover
everybody's face but their own'.
TERRY PRATCHETT 87
And so any academic venturing to write anything about Terry
Pratchett's books, might, if not actually on something not altogether
legal, pause to reflect that here we have a satirist every bit as incisive
and erudite and wide-ranging as Swift. If Pratchett's contemplation of
human foibles is on the whole as much a matter of amusement as of
anger, it nevertheless resides in a mocking intelligence and a cordial
(and not always genial) contempt for useless activities. Such as literary
criticism.
Academics have suffered a long-running lambasting in the Disc-
world novels, which feature, very frequently and uncharitably, the
activities of the Wizards at Unseen University:
Often they lived to a timescale to suit themselves. Many of the
senior ones, of course, lived entirely in the past, but several were
like the Professor of Anthropics, who had invented an entire
temporal system based on the belief that all the other ones were a
mere illusion.
Many people are aware of the Weak and Strong Anthropic
principles. The Weak One says, basically, that it was jolly
amazing of the universe to be constructed in such a way that
humans could evolve to a point where they make a living in, for
example, universities, while the Strong One says that, on the
contrary, the whole point of the universe was that humans should
not only work in universities but also write for huge sums books
with words like 'Cosmic' and 'Chaos' in the titles. (Hogfather:
144, n)
And just don't think you can sneak under the wire masquerading as an
honest scholar:
I save about twenty drafts . . . Once [the final one] has been
printed out . . . there's a cry of'Tough Shit, literary researchers of
the future, try getting a proper job!' and the rest are wiped.
(Pratchett Quote File v5.1 @ alt.fan.pratchett)
But having a live author to deal with is probably the least of a critic's
worries, because the approach to Pratchett is stalked by legions of
experts and scholars, otherwise known as devotees and fans. The
friends of the Discworld seem, even on a brief acquaintance, to be
every bit as erudite, expert, committed (not to say obsessive),
meticulous, scholarly, defensive - and subtly disdainful of outsiders
as, for example, the members of the Arthur Ransome Society, or the
Beatrix Potter Society: the only difference is that there are many more
of them.
My own technologically inept research on the Web produced several
hundred Discworld/Pratchett-Iinked sites worldwide. Quite character-
istic seems to be the Discworld Monthly, with a circulation of over
20,000, in which (Issue 39, July 2000) William Barnett sardonically
reviewed the first book of criticism on Pratchett, Terry Pratchett: Guilty
of Literature (Butler et al, 2000). This book falls over itself (rather as I
have done) to justify its curious activity, especially in the light of the
experience of the Librarian of Unseen University, negotiating the
infinite L-space:
Creatures evolve to fill every niche in the environment ... He
waited patiently as a herd of Critters crawled past, grazing on the
contents of the choicer books and leaving behind them piles of
small slim volumes of literary criticism ... And you had to avoid
cliches at all costs. (Guards.
1
Guards!: 190-1)
But for all that Guilty of Literature is solidly pro-Pratchett, and written
by fans, it does not escape, because, as I suspect with all such
followings, the Pratchett books belong directly to the fans - each and
every one individually. They do not need critics and are rather
affronted by them (as I was advised when walking to the podium at the
first Literary Weekend of the Arthur Ransome Society: Tread softly
for you tread on my dreams' (Hunt, 1992)). Thus Barnett is not going
to let any self-appointed expert get away with anything. The Various
luminaries from the sci-fi and academic worlds' (he says wryly) who
wrote this are (naturally enough) 'guilty of telling you things you
already know', and, anyway 'most of them only do criticism, not actual
fiction.' And, just to make sure they're nailed into their place, Barnett
ends: 'Fancy that.' Of course, one riposte might be that most Pratchett
fans only do reading (fancy that) - or, apparently, construct web-sites -
but, in fact, they do more than that: they act exactly like the academic
literary scholars who have excluded Pratchett from their reckoning.
The idea of an annotated edition of a Pratchett novel, with 25 per
cent of the pages devoted to 'notes' might, as things stand in the
literary world - especially given the status of comic fantasy (Gullivers
Travels, Gargantua and Pantagruel, and their ilk, aside) - seem to be a
particularly improbable flight of fantasy, and almost certainly a risibly
undesirable one. And yet, on the Web can be found a site that lists, at
immense length (some of) Pratchett's allusions in his novels, and the
intricacy of the detective work is no less impressive (or pointless) than
any annotation of Gulliver's Travels, for all that the cross-references are
to Twin Peaks or 'Star Trek' or 'Peanuts', or Alien, and that they exist
as web-links rather than footnotes.
TERRY PRATCHETT 89
As these annotations prove, it would be idle for the intellectual snob
to dismiss Pratchett as 'merely' a web-meister of popular culture. For
example, in Men at Arms, the Patrician reflects on the stupidity of
people:
They do things like open the Three Jolly Luck Take-Away Fish
Bar on the site of the old temple in Dagon Street on the night of
the Winter solstice when it also happens to be a full moon. (197)
As Leo Breebart points out (www.us.lspace.dorg/books/apt/men-at-
arms.html), Dagon
4
is the Hebrew name for the Philistines' God
Atergata, whose temple Samson destroyed (Judges 16: 23); Dagon was
half woman, half fish.
Here, then, is modern fantasy at its most successful, most integrated
into modern culture. Its range of reference, its allusions, its very
concept of what is fantastic and what is real (most strikingly seen in
Only You Can Save Mankind and johnny and the Bomb) are all fused into
the way it is received, interpreted, and talked about. The text and the
single reader's imagination are no longer what the reading experience
is about. Pratchett's Discworld 'exists' as much in the Discworld Map,
the Companion, the Quiz Book, and the dialogues and discussions and
speculations on the Web by thousands of reader-authors, as much as it
does in what Pratchett actually wrote in the novels. Imaginations, as
never before, are combining to form a fluid, corporate fantasy.
Pratchett caters for this, in a way, by his use of the ideas of
alternative futures and alternative pasts. The history of the Discworld
(like the history of the real world - although this is seldom
acknowledged) is continually changing; the books continually
emphasize possibilities:
There was another of those long pauses, wherein may be seen the
possibilities of several different futures. (Men at Arms, 1994: 370)
In The Carpet People, Culaina, the mystic wight, is in touch with these
possibilities:
She passed through future after future, and there they were,
nearly all alike ... They streamed past her. These were all the
futures that never got written down - the futures where people
lost, worlds crumbled, where the last wild chances were not quite
enough. All of them had to happen, somewhere.
But not here, she said.
And then there was one, and only one. She was amazed.
Normally futures come in bundles of thousands, differing in tiny
little ways. But this one was all by itself. It barely existed. It had
no right to exist. It was the million-to-one chance that the
defenders would win. (181)
And the idea is developed formally into the alternative, parallel worlds
of Johnny and the Bomb:
Everything you do changes everything. And every time you move
in time you arrive in a time a little bit different to the one you
left. What you do doesn't change the future, j ust a future.
There's millions of places when the bombs killed everyone in
Paradise Street.
But it didn't happen here. (219)
If Pratchett's fantasies are not bounded by the books, are never
static, what, then, does the peripatetic critic have usefully to say about
them? Criticism will be (more obviously than usual) a reductive
intervention. But if it was ever thus, we might fall back on the idea
that to write about books at all is an act of faith: to say, in effect, that
this kind of intellectual exercise is worthwhile of itself. It is part of the
natural discourse that revolves around books, not an extraneous,
parasitic activity; it may well become absorbed into the fantasy.
Equally, for all his best-seller status, I come across more people who
have not read Pratchett than who have and, as a gesture of gratitude
to a writer who has restored my waning faith in the written word, I
have an evangelical urge to share the pleasure.
But that ambition has nothing to do with literature as commonly
understood. Guilty of Literature sees itself as 'the opening salvo in the
campaign to admit Pratchett to the canon of literature' (viii). This
essay has no such questionable ambition; as we have seen, literature is
not a useful concept in that it excludes and confuses, and this is
particularly the case with children's books. Canonical literature
generally excludes fantasy, marginalizes comedy, and regards children's
books as beneath notice. To try to accommodate that way of thinking
into the encouragement of the excitement of reading by young readers
(or anybody) leads, demonstrably, to unhelpful comparisons. Fantasy,
and especially children's fantasy, does not need an elitist relativism
imposed upon it.
The distinction between children's books and adults' books is also
important in this context, and it is not merely a piece of academic hair-
splitting. What people think children's books should be is generally
what they turn out to be. Not merely the content, but the attitude to
the audience - the construction of the audience - the tone, and even
TERRY PRATCHETT 91
the quality of thought, is governed and distorted by this. Pratchett's
children's books, however, are not entirely what children's books are
expected to be. To look at them critically is to see a fascinating
demonstration of a writer establishing for himself j ust what it means to
write for children: what should be done, what might be done, what can
be done.
And the Discworld novels? Possibly the most intricate and
imaginative alternative world ever created? In some editions the list
of titles is headed, 'for adults of all ages'. As with most Pratchett jokes,
that one requires a certain amount of unpacking, but while the books
do not exclude the child reader (whatever that may be) it seems clear
that children are not the primary audience. Exploring Pratchett's books
means exploring questions not so much about what is for children, but
more, what exactly constitutes childhood.
Introducing Terry Pratchett
Despite the fact that Pratchett's novels have sold well over 10 million
copies - for some time there has been a joke that no British railway
train is allowed to depart unless at least one passenger is reading a
Pratchett novel - a brief introduction may still be in order.
Pratchett's first novel, The Carpet People (1971) was written when
he was seventeen (although it was not his first published work), and, as
he said, 'in the days when I thought fantasy was all about battles and
kings'. It was rewritten in 1992: 'Now I'm inclined to think that the
real concerns of fantasy ought to be about not having battles, and
doing without kings' (The Carpet People: 7). Although The Carpet
People is now marketed as a children's book, its implied audience
remains ambiguous.
The Dark Side of the Sun (1976) and Strata (1981) established him
with a promising reputation for humorous 'science fiction'. The first
Discworld book, The Colour of Magic (1983) has been followed by more
than twenty others, appearing recently at the rate of two a year (The
Truth was published in 2000); there have been a relatively limited
number of high-quality 'spin-offs', and some dramatizations and
television adaptations - and despite their huge popularity, the
Discworld books have managed to retain a cult status, a kind of
intimate relationship between writer, readers and imagined world.
Part of this may well be to do with the richness of Pratchett's
imagination. Colin Manlove said of The Colour of Magic,
In a sense, the real narrative of the book is Pratchett continually
outdoing himself . . . Pratchett's fantasy, in this book at least, is a
magnificent entertainment, a display of inventive pyrotechnics.
(1999: 136)
While Pratchett's imagination seems to be inexhaustible, it is difficult
to agree with Manlove's conclusion that the book 'asks only that we
enjoy, it does not seek to change us' (137). None of Pratchett's books
are innocent in this way: even the extract that Manlove quotes, on the
problems disposing of active spell-books ('burial in deep caves was ...
ruled out after some districts complained of walking trees and five-
headed cats') has obvious real-world applications. Pratchett's books are
a sustained crusade for intelligent living, and models of intellectual
awareness - always pursuing the complex, oblique answer. Their moral
structure can be seen to rest on
a conviction that only personal integrity is a useful foundation for
free will and true choice; all else is self deception. Ideologies
which deny individuality and the value of the individual life are
masks for immorality ... Pratchett is not trying to assert that
morality leads to success, nor that moral actions provide moral
outcomes, rather to make it clear that it is morality which makes
us who we are. (Butler et a/., 2000: 161)
Pratchett's basic target may be (or may have been initially - for his
fantasy has taken on a life of its own) the world of fantasy fiction and
science-fiction (which, for this reader at least, is hard to take seriously
after reading Discworld), but any social absurdity or human folly is fair
game. For example, as the Lord Vetinari observes in Jingo (1998):
'Putting up a statue to someone who tried to stop a war is not
very, um, statuesque. Of course, if you had butchered five
hundred of your own men out of arrogant carelessness, we'd be
melting the bronze already.' (405)
What singles Pratchett out is that he carries this constant attitude of
attack into his children's books; just as in the Discworld novels he
seems always to be testing the limits of fantasy to carry polemic, so in
his children's books he seems to be pushing at the limits of what
limited conceptions of childhood assume that children can understand
(Jo/inn)/ and the Dead is perhaps the classic example of Pratchett's
social indignation).
The complexity of these shifting borderlines can be illustrated by the
example of Tom Brown's Schooldays (1857). In the Discworld novel
Pyramids, Teppic is sent to the Assassins' school, (where a boy called
Fliemoe is mentioned in passing (58), much as Speedicut is in Thomas
TERRY PRATCHETT 93
Hughes's book (1.5)). Pratchett gently parodies the older book, but
who is the joke actually for - the reader who has read Tom Brown (and
who has?) - and is the joke the same for a (generalized) child reader as
for a (generalized) adult reader (or for someone who does not know
that Tlymo' is a brand of lawn mower).
In Tom Brown's Schooldays Arthur, the new boy, is a member of
Tom's dormitory:
Arthur finished his washing and undressing, and put on his night-
gown. He then looked round more nervously than ever. Two or
three of the little boys were already in bed . . . It was a trying
moment for the poor lonely little boy; however, this time he
didn't ask Tom what he might or might not do, but dropped on
his knees by his bedside, as he had done every day from his
childhood, to open his heart to Him who heareth the cry and
beareth the sorrows of the tender child, and the strong man in
agony.
Tom was sitting at the bottom of his bed unlacing his boots, so
that his back was towards Arthur, and he didn't see what had
happened, and looked up in the sudden silence. Two or three
boys laughed and sneered, and a big brutal fellow, who was
standing in the middle of the room, picked up a slipper and shied
it at the kneeling boy, calling him a snivelling young shaver. (2.1)
In Pyramids, the new boy is also called Arthur, but religion is a little
different on the Discworld:
The door at the end of the room swung open slowly and Arthur
entered, backwards, tugging a large and very reluctant billy-goat
. . . Adopting the shiny, pink-faced expression of someone who is
going to do what they know to be right no matter what, Arthur
drew a double circle around his bed and ... filled the space
between them with as unpleasant a collection of occult symbols
as Teppic had ever seen . . . He drew a short, red-handled knife
from the jumble on the bed and advanced towards the goat -
A pillow hit him on the back of the head.
'Garn! Pious little bastard!' (37)
Enthusiasts for literature often make great play with resonance and
intertextuality: with Pratchett, not only is such allusion self-conscious
- his characters (especially in some of the children's books) are aware
of the allusions too.
The 'children's' books
Apart from The Carpet People, Pratchett has (thus far) published six
books marketed for children. The Bromeliad, consisting of Truckers
(1989), Diggers (1990) and Wings (1990), and the three Johnny
Maxwell books, Only You Can Save Mankind (1992), Johnny and the
Dead (1993), andjohmry and the Bomb (1996). Enthusiastic classifiers
might argue that the first three at least are essentially 'science fiction'
rather than 'alternative world' fantasies. The four-inch-high Nomes
may occupy an alternative space in our contemporary world, but they
are still concerned with that 'real' world; they may be creatures of
fantasy, but the central mechanisms for enabling the Nomes to find
their way home are a computer and a spaceship, creations of
speculative science. The Johnny Maxwell books, on the other hand,
evade classification. They are, on one level, contemporary realism, but
they all explore alternative worlds, in which science and philosophy
and imaginative possibilities and impossibilities have equal weight.
Also, as we have seen, Pratchett's books explore the essential
differences between children's and adults' books - and the fact that he
writes fantasy complicates matters considerably.
One key point at which children's books and fantasy-adventure
frequently overlap is in the use of central characters who are anti-
heroes - apparently powerless, marginalized people, who nevertheless
triumph. This is the fantasy of many adults - and the fantasy that many
adults construct for childhood. Thus characters in Pratchett's books
that are marketed as children's books, the unheroic Snibril in The
Carpet People, the quixotic Masklin in The Bromeliad, and the bemused
Johnny Maxwell, may seem to serve the same function as, say, the
incompetent wizard Rincewind, or the innocent Mort in the Discworld
novels (marketed for adults). The people with whom many of us seem
to (and are presumably intended to) identify, win through, despite the
inscrutable ways of (in the children's books) the adult world, or (in the
adult books) the magic world. The difference between the two may
well be that the children's book characters are treated with a rather
less ironic sympathy (although, as we shall see, this is not always the
case with Johnny).
The differences can be subtle. Take the exchange between the tribal
king, Brocando, the (ex)general of the Empire, Bane, and Snibril in
The Carpet People. Brocando says to Bane:
'I've brought you to the secret place . . . I should have you
blindfolded.'
'No,' said Bane. 'You want me to fight for you, then I'm
TERRY PRATCHETT 95
wearing no blindfold.'
'But one day you might come back with an army.'
'I'm sorry you think so,' said Bane stonily.
'As me, I don't, said Brocando. 'As a king, I have to think so.'
'Ha!'
This is stupid,' said Snibril. 'Why bother with a blindfold?'
'It's important,' said Brocando, sulkily.
'You've got to trust one another sooner or later. Who are you
going to trust instead? You're men of honour, aren't you?' said
Snibril.
'It's not as simple as that,' said Brocando.
'Then make it simple!'
He realized he had shouted. (75)
Is there anything in that text that marks it out as 'for children'? The
fantasy element which says that the most powerless can bang some
sense into the heads of the supposedly powerful is common to books for
adults and for children. Perhaps the only tell-tale element is the word
'sulkily', which seems to belong to a certain linguistic set - but, equally,
it is an example of 'telling' rather than 'showing': the narrator is not
letting us (as 'adults') deduce, he is thinking for us (as 'children' - or as
readers who need to be, or wish to be, thought for).
As his children's books develop, Pratchett, to his eternal credit,
rarely makes this kind of distinction: to say that his children's books
respect their audience by dealing with complex issues is only half of
their merit: the other is that he establishes an unpatronizing tone and
mode.
Another area in which children's books, adults' books and fantasy
overlap is the need for explanation of previously unknown things, the
amount you need to explain, and the way you then explain. Pratchett's
books have certain built-in advantages. It is a truism that adult writers
of children's books cannot avoid educating their audience: in adults'
books they can assume a peer knowledge, and can therefore entertain.
In the world of fantasy, both adult and child readers are more equally
inexperienced - but Pratchett levels the playing field more than many
writers. The fact that he is habitually didactic, and a habitual aphorist
means that he adopts much the same tone in all his books. For
example, would it be possible to tell, out of context, which type of book
this comes from?
'After this, no more books. No more history. No more history
books.'
'Somehow, that's the worst part' ...
'I'd j ust like to say that no more history books is not the worst
part, young man. Dying's probably the worst part . . . History will
look after itself.' (The Carpet People: 182)
Similarly, as we have seen in considering fantasy in general, certain
things - the absence or presence of which might indicate the kind of
book being written - are cut out. Thus Pratchett does not describe
violence gratuitously, and he does not describe sex, apart from in a
highly ironic way. (Of course, this would be a good argument for a
sceptic who might then feel that all Pratchett's books could count as
children's books.)
But, most importantly, Pratchett assumes an audience whose
knowledge of, say, computing, theories of time, and, especially, popular
culture are as acute as his. (I'm probably not the first 'critic' to enjoy
Pratchett's ingenious allusiveness (even, probably, to feel a little
superior at getting the gags) only to have an uneasy feeling about the
number of gags I'm missing.) This means that, not only are his books
unpatronizing and wide-ranging, but the characters are very knowing:
Johnny and the Bomb, especially, turns this self-awareness into, in effect,
a discussion of the boundaries of books.
And so, when Pratchett writes for children, he writes with inherent
respect, and the books are as full of ideas and intellectual speculation
as any.
This is not to say that he does not relish the small moments of self-
indulgent joy that populate almost all fantasy, from David killing
Goliath to Sara Crewe demolishing Miss Minchin. There is, for
example, the portrait of the consummately cool professional, the Clint
Eastwood-John Wayne character of the invincible hero. In The Carpet
People, this is Bane:
Snibril . . . crept towards the sleeper and made to raise his hat
brim with the knifepoint. There was a blur of activity. It ended
with Snibril flat on his back, his own knife pressed to his throat,
the stranger's tanned face inches from his own.
The eyes opened. He's j ust waking up, Snibril thought through
his terror. He started moving while he was still asleep! (27)
Bane is also quick on the draw:
Bane was drawing his sword. He dismounted quietly, and inched
forward. With his free hand he motioned Pismire to go on talking
. . . Bane took one step forward, then whirled round and brought
his sword whistling down into the shadows at his side. There was
TERRY PRATCHETT 97
a grunt, and a body fell silently across the path, a crude black
sword dropping from its hands. (31)
Fantasy is very often subversive because many of us take pleasure in
such incidental displays which are quite unconscionable in any other
literature.
Small concerns: The Carpet People
The Carpet People is presented as a children's book - it must be a
children's book, as it is about tribes of small people - actually
minuscule people - who would take an hour to walk across a match,
and live amongst the dust of the carpet. But the settings and characters
are typical of other-world fantasy, and their equivalents can be found
in Tolkien or a thousand other variants. There are dark horrors (such
as the underlay) and dazzling wonders (such as the Woodwall - or
matchstick). The villains are evil, the wise shaman of the tribe
(Pismire) is suitably pragmatic, the anti-hero (Snibril) an intelligent
adolescent, the cool warrior (Bane) almost invincible; there is the dim
but unstoppable warrior (Glurk), and a mystic female (Culaina) - and,
the society is vaguely medieval.
But there is nothing particularly of childhood in the book, and, in the
re-written version at least, the preoccupation is, as in the rest of
Pratchett, the defence of both the rational and the imaginative. At the
end of the book, the race that rules the empire appoints the hero Bane:
'since he was considered to be honest and brave and without any
imagination. The Dumii distrusted imagination - they said it made
people unreliable' (169). At what stage in one's acquisition of
knowledge of the world is this comment applicable to grading-
conscious education systems or repressive (or any) governments?
The fact that the characters are small and in 'this' world, rather than
being of normal size in some 'other' world (although, as one character
says, 'We . . . are correctly-built . . . it's no business of ours if everyone
else is ridiculously overgrown' (60)) aligns them with the child-world of
toys; the fact that they are (in cosmic terms) helpless, and are aware
that they do not understand the world 'out there' aligns them with
children. But beyond that, the core of the book could be for any
audience sympathetic to the conventions of fantasy, and sympathetic
to the idea of co-existence rather than confrontation - to the idea of
constructive change. When the evil (religionists) are dispatched,
Pismire reflects on the fact that the real wisdom seems to be coming
from the previously disempowered:
'Snibril's right, though . . . Everyone's done things the old way.
Now we'll have to find a new way. Otherwise there won't be any
way. We don't want to have to go through all this j ust to start
squabbling over something else, the Empire -'
'I'm not sure there's going to be an Empire again,' said Bane . . .
There might be something better . . . I'm thinking about it. Lots
of small countries and cities joined together could be better than
one big Empire. I don't know.'
'And a voice for women,' said Lady Vortex's voice from
somewhere in the crowd.
'Possibly even that,' he said. There should be something for
everyone.' (186)
In a sense, that change applies to the world of fantasy as well as to
the 'real' world that the fantasy reflects. One might suspect that when
Pratchett says that 'It's not exactly the book I'd write now' (The Carpet
People: 7), one aspect that he might have changed would have been
the inherent sexism. The Carpet People is very largely a male-quest
book in the tradition that Ursula K. Le Guin both celebrated and
rebelled against in the 'Earthsea' quartet, and which Pullman re-wrote
completely in 'His Dark Materials' trilogy. Only towards the end of the
book do females begin to assert themselves, but they are either, like
Culaina, mysteriously other, or they are surrogate males:
Lady Vortex picked up a sword. She was bristling with anger . . .
'And when we get out of this, young man,' she snapped, 'there's
going to be some serious talking. If we're going to fight, we're
going to have a bit of the future too -' (182-3)
Although Pratchett's other books are male-centred, he considers
seriously the idea of the female and the feminine. There are 'strong
female characters', Grimma in The Bromeliadj and Kirsty in the Johnny
Maxwell books. However, Masklin and Johnny, the ostensible heroes,
have what are often regarded as feminine characteristics - a talent for
sympathy, negotiation, and lateral thinking. The females, on the other
hand are (generally) tough, aggressive, and highly efficient. Kirsty has
'the voice of someone who dialled wrong numbers and then
complained that the phone was answered by people she didn't want
to speak to' (Johnny and the Bomb: 37). Grimma is the power behind
Masklin:
'What you'll do,' she said sharply, 'is jolly well stop moping and
get up and go out there and get things organised! . . . Do it now!'...
Masklin stood up.
'You shouldn't talk to me like that,' he said plaintively. 'I'm the
leader, you know.'
TERRY PRATCHETT 99
She stood, arms akimbo, glaring at him.
'Of course you're the leader,' she said. 'Did I say you weren't
the leader? Everyone knows you're the leader! Now get out there
and lead!' (Truckers, 155)
Ingenuity and indignation: The Bromeliad
The Bromeliad is, equally obviously - and equally not obviously - a
children's book. The idea of four-inch high nomes who live ten times
faster than humans may provide the opportunity for endless ingenuity,
but it is clearly (in literary terms) trivial and unimportant. 'Once you
have thought of the big people and the little people,' Dr Johnson, that
spokesman for a rational world, is reputed to have said of Gulliver's
Travels, 'the rest is easy.' These must be childish things because they
are small. The underlying premise, which is that the little people live in
a world governed by big people to whom they cannot relate and who
they can scarcely understand - but whom they can outsmart, is clearly
a metaphor for childhood, and this relegates the story to the inferior
realm of children's books. But this kind of smallness can be seen in
other ways. As Lois Kuznets notes in her totally unapologetic study of
animated toys in fiction:
toy characters in literature, like many other characters in fantasy,
often function as subversive forces acting out crises of individual
development generally repressed by modern society. This
function, shared by toys in life, is familiar to child psychology
as well as to psychoanalysis . . . [T]oy characters both disguise and
express suppressed desires, helping to evade individual and
societal censors . . . [P]lay and art belong to the same realm.
(1994: 7)
A good many fantasies, both for adults and children, are
fundamentally regressive, suppressing growth, development, and the
imagination by the insistence on conformity to generic patterns and
various predetermined codes of behaviour. Children's fantasies (by
adults) tend to keep children in their place by imposing closure. The
Bromeliad, in contrast, has as a basic theme the idea of widening one's
conceptions of life: it is a book about growth, exploration, empower-
ment - the essential stuff (I would hope) of childhood and children's
books - and, of course, it is a theme relevant to a good many adults.
Thus the central metaphor of the book (put into the mouth of the
repressed female, Grimma, as an argument against domestication and
marriage) is about continually transcending boundaries that you might
not even know are there:
There's this place, you see. Called Southamerica. And there's
these hills where it's hot and rains all the time, and in the rain
forests there are these very tail trees and right in the top branches
of the trees there are these like great big flowers called
bromeliads, and water gets into the flowers and makes little
pools and there's a type of frog that lays eggs in the pools and
tadpoles hatch and grow into new frogs and these little frogs live
their whole lives in the flowers right at the top of the trees and
don't even know about the ground.' (Truckers: 42)
But Pratchett's intellectual tic, as it were, is always to ask the next
question. When even Dorcas, the nome of science, eventually realizes
the virtue of imagination, the effect is to put forward the exact
opposite of, for example, the world-view of The Wind in the Willows or
The Lord of the Rings:
Of course there were a lot of questions, but right now the answers
didn't matter; it was enough j ust to enjoy the questions, and
know that the world was full of astonishing things, and that he
wasn't a frog.
Or at least he was the kind of frog who was interested in how
flowers grew and whether you could get to other flowers if you
jumped hard enough.
And, j ust when you'd got out of the flower, and were feeling
really proud of yourself, you'd look at the new, big, wide endless
world around you.
And eventually you'd notice that it had petals around the
horizon. (Truckers: 153)
That is not to say that, for all The Bromeliad's seriousness of purpose,
there is not plenty of wish'fulfilment (or, as Pratchett might j ust
observe, there might be if this didn't happen to be fiction). When
Masklin and the 'outside' nomes arrive in the Department Store
(already populated (under the floors) by a complicated nome society),
and are held up by the Corsetri bandits, there is one of those satisfying
scenes (for me, at least) out of innumerable films, from A Fistf ul of
Dollars to Crocodile Dundee, in which the apparently innocent outsiders
demolish the evil insiders. For Masklin, Grimma, and the elderly
Granny Morkie and Torrit, the idea of theft is a new one.
'We've decided,' [Masklin said], 'If it's the same to you, we keep
what we have. Sorry
Two bandits grabbed Granny Morkie.
TERRY PRATCHETT 101
This turned out to be a mistake. Her bony right hand flashed
out and there were two ringing slaps.
'Cheek!' she snapped, as the nomes staggered sideways,
clutching their ears.
A bandit who tried to hold old Torrit got a pointed elbow in his
stomach. One waved a knife at Grimma, who caught his wrist;
the knife dropped from his hand and he sank to his knees, making
pathetic bubbling noises.
Masklin leaned down, grabbed a handful of the chiefs shirt in
one hand, and lifted him up to eye-level.
'I'm not sure we fully understand this custom,' he said, 'But
nomes shouldn't hurt other nomes . . . So I think perhaps it would
be a good idea if you go away, don't you.
7
' (Truckers, 61)
In essence, exactly the same scene has been enacted in those children's
books that walk along the edges of fantasy, such as Little Lord
Fauntleroy or Pollyanna, although the violence there is verbal.
If, however, such scenes are taken as a gauge of the lack of
seriousness or quality of the book (things are more difficult in real life,
in real books) then one might consider the world that Masklin and his
rural nomes enter. The nome society of Arnold Bros (est. 1905) may
seem at first sight to merely be a source of fun. Not only are they (like
Mary Norton's Borrowers) named after where they live - the del
Icatessens, the de Haberdasheri, the Stationeri - but (also like the
Borrowers) they adapt to their surroundings - the Klothians, for
example, are a gentle, mystic people, living on tea and biscuits and
yoghurt from the Staff Rest Room. And the nomes constantly
misunderstand human language around them - Prices Slashed (a
monster that stalks the store), Everything Must Go ('"Arnold Bros
(est. 1905)'s way of telling us that we must lead good lives because we
all die eventually"' (78)), Final Reductions, and, of course, the fire
bucket.
But much of this misunderstanding is incorporated into the religion
the nomes live by - are controlled by - the religion of Arnold Bros (est.
1905). It is a solipsistic religion; the Stationeri hold the power: they
can read. They are a male Priesthood in which the 'outside' does not -
cannot - exist. When Masklin and his people arrive, the Abbot and his
Monks cannot - will not - see them. The Abbot, however, is a
pragmatist, and meets Masklin in private:
'I don't understand!' [Masklin] said. 'You can see me! Ten
minutes ago you said I didn't even exist and now you're talking to
me!'
'There is nothing strange about it,' said the Abbot. Ten
minutes ago it was official. Goodness me, I can't go around letting
people believe I've been wrong all along, can I? The Abbots have
been denying there is anything Outside for generations. I can't
suddenly say they were all wrong. People would think I've gone
mad . . . The important thing about being a leader is not being
right or wrong, but being certain . . . Of course, it helps to be right
as well.' (Truckers: 71-2)
Masklin slowly comes to appreciate the practicality (if not the
wisdom) of such utterances, in much the same way as many other
fantasy heroes, but it is the continual stress on the fact that, as the
Abbot also says, ' "People are always a lot more complicated than you
think ... It's very important to remember that"' (73), that sets
Pratchett's books apart. This is fiction, and all fiction simplifies, but the
painful progress of the new Abbot, Gurder, and his struggles with his
faith are complex and serious. Religion is seen obliquely by Masklin,
who had never thought of it. 'There had never been any religion or
politics back home. The world was j ust too big to worry about things
like that' (79).
According to Gurder, the big pink humans that stood in
Fashions, and Kiddies Klothes and Young Living, and never
moved at all, were those who had incurred Arnold Bros (est.
1905)'s displeasure, they had been turned into horrible pink stuff,
and some said they could even be taken apart. But certain
Klothian philosophers said no, they were particularly good
humans, who had been allowed to stay in the Store for ever
and not made to disappear at Closing Time. Religion was very
hard to understand. (150)
But Gurder has his doubts, and begins to grasp at straws. When the
nomes board a truck to escape the destruction of the store, and the
truck first moves, he interprets it as part of his faith.
'We actually moved!' he was whispering. 'Arnold Bros (est. 1905)
was right. Everything Must Go!' (163)
But when he realizes that there is more to the world than the store:
that there is an outside:
Gurder was trembling. 'There's no roof!' he moaned. 'And it's so
big!'
Masklin patted him on the shoulder,
TERRY PRATCHETT 103
'Of course, all this is new to you,' he said. 'You mustn't worry if
you don't understand everything.'
'You're secretly laughing at me, aren't you!' said Gurder.
'Not really. I know what it's like to feel frightened.' (171)
Masklin's modest, human and humane response seems to be
Pratchett's baseline. Faith, the sub-text seems to say is real, regardless:
'I shall ask Arnold Bros (est. 1905) to guide us and lead us,' said
Gurder firmly.
'Yes, good,' said Masklin. 'Good idea. And why not.
7
But now
we really must -'
'Has his Sign not said If You Do Not See What You Require
Please Ask?' said Gurder.
Masklin took him firmly by the arm. Everyone needs some-
thing, he thought. And you never know. (174)
But tolerance is one thing. The next generation evangelical,
Nisodemus, who even embarrasses Gurder (Diggers: 30), and who
eventually 'wasn't able to listen to anything except for little voices
deep inside his head' (93) is a chilling portrait of a fanatic, rousing the
quiescent majority with his plan to return to the good old days:
It was magnificent in its way, that plan. It was like a machine
where every single bit was perfectly made, but had been put
together by a one-handed nome in the dark. It was crammed full
of good ideas which you couldn't sensibly argue with, but they
had been turned upside-down. The trouble was, they were still
ones you couldn't sensibly argue with, because a good idea was
still in there somewhere. (61)
Pratchett's conclusion is rather more gentle than in some of the
other books (for example, in Pyramids, where Dios, the High Priest, is
eternally in charge). In Wings, when it is revealed that the original
Arnold Bros had actually seen the nomes, Masklin says to Gurder: 'You
know you believed in Arnold Bros (est. 1905) ... Well, he believed in
you too' (Wings 134).
On the other hand, although Pratchett tends to emphasize that one
must make up one's own mind about spiritual matters (as in Johnny and
the Dead), the innocent eye of the characters is manipulated by a
narrator who might not be exactly innocent:
'Do you know, humans think the world was made by a sort of big
human?'
'Get away?'
'It took a week.'
'I expect it had some help, then,' said Dorcas. 'You know. With
the heavy stuff . . . Only humans could believe something like
that. There's a good few month's work, if I'm any judge.' (59)
In terms of traditional fantasy, The Bromeliad has an explicitly
conventional structure. The quest that Masklin has laid upon him by
the dying Abbot is quite clear:
'I don't say you're blessed with brains . . . In fact I reckon you're
the stupid but dutiful kind who gets to be leader when there's no
glory in it. You're the kind who sees things through. Take them
home. Take them home.' (Truckers: 100)
The trilogy, then, may have the trappings of science, but it is a
fantasy for humans and for nomes. Pratchett's penchant for allusion
links the fantasy and the reality. As Dorcas the technician says:
'Amazing things, levers. Give me a lever long enough, and a firm place
to stand, and I could move the Store' (141), and, of course, allusions
turn into jokes: Grimma has been reading a lot.
'We're not going to run away again,' she said flatly. 'We shall fight
them in the lane. We shall fight them at the gates. We shall fight
them in the quarry. And we shall never surrender.'
'What does "surrender" mean.
7
' asked Dorcas.
'We don't know the meaning of surrender', said Grimma.
'Well, I don't,' said Dorcas. (73)
Changing ways of thinking: the alternative worlds of
Johnny Maxwell
In the Johnny Maxwell books, because they are focalized through
children, the distinction between children's and adults' books is much
more obvious. This is the world seen through the eyes of street-wise
(and street-bewildered) teenagers, Pratchett's indignation at what
humans have done to the world is translated into indignation at what
adults have done to the world. The nomes may not be able to
understand the stupidity of humans, but it is not really any of their
business; Johnny and his friends have to come to terms with reality, but
at the same time realize the potentialities of a world only half-seen by
'normal people'. Johnny provides the innocent eye:
Normal people j ust ignored almost everything that was going on
around them, so that they could concentrate on important things
like, well, getting up, going to the lavatory and getting on with
TERRY PRATCHETT 105
their lives. Whereas Johnny just opened his eyes in the morning
and the whole universe hit him in the face. (Johnny and the Dead:
7)
It is j ust such innocence that blurs the distinction between fantasy and
reality and between this world and alternative worlds - but in this case
it is an innocence mixed with knowingness. Johnny may be a kind of
shaman, but there is nothing mystic about him, at least to his friends:
'Huh, you'd have to be mad even to understand time travel,' said
Wobbler eventually.
'Job opportunity for you there, Johnny,' said Bigmac.
'Bigmac,' said Yo-less, in a warning voice.
'It's all right,' said Johnny, 'the doctor said I j ust worry about
things too much.' (Johnny and the Bomb: 21)
These books, then, are addressed to self-aware readers: the teenagers
know about psychology and marriage break-ups, and urban living and
racism: none of it is a surprise, none of it is for the reader to deduce as a
sub-text. The characters are all immersed in the popular culture of
science-fiction films, and fantasy computer games, and children's
fiction. As Wobbler says, towards the end of Johnny and the Dead:
'Well, that's it, then ... Game over. Let's go home . . . Nasty men
foiled. Kids save the day. Everyone gets a bun' (172-3)
But it is exactly this self-awareness that makes the fantasy worlds
that the characters enter so striking: these worlds are genuine
extensions of a world gone stale, circumscribed by incompetent town-
planners and over-competent games-designers.
Absorbing new forms: Only You Can Save Mankind
There is a sense, then, in which the Johnny Maxwell books are actually
about fantasy: the matter is continually discussed - fantasy is not a
realm where you find out and follow other people's arcane rules, it is a
place where you make your own moral decisions and invent ways of
implementing them. In both Only You Can Save Mankind, and Johrary
and the Bomb, the children come to realize that they are in control.
When Kirsty and Johnny find familiar controls in their spaceship,
Johnny points out that of course they are familiar: ' "This is in our
heads, remember. It has to be things we know
111
(Mankind: 153).
The conventional devices of fantasy writing are kept firmly in place
by the fact that the characters know what the generic rules are. Only
You Can Save Mankind is particularly rich in this, combining as it does
personal fantasies set within other people's fantasies - the computer
games - and a sardonic realism.
The premise of the book, that the invaders from space in the
eponymous game are tired of being shot at and destroyed, and actually
surrender, throws up a complex series of moral dilemmas - although
reviewers have found the parallels with the Gulf War a little heavy-
handed: There was a film on the News showing some missiles
streaking over some city. It was quite good' (22). Johnny is also going
through what he calls Trying Times, and Pratchett, very much in the
way that he demolishes whole genres of 'high' fantasy in the Discworld
books, takes on the huge and solemn genre of the teenage problem
novel. There are toe-curlingly embarrassing talks with his father:
On top of it all, his father came upstairs to be fatherly. This
happened about once a fortnight. There didn't seem to be any
way of stopping it. (29)
But the insouciant Johnny develops a stolid cynicism about the whole
business, feeding himself, and exploiting the situation with his
teachers, apparently without any of the rage or blaming or overt
desperation of many of his fictional counterparts.
Anyway, there had to be a good side to the Trying Times
everyone was going through in this house. If you hung around in
your room and generally kept your head down, stuff like
computers sort of happened. It made everyone feel better. (19)
His friends agree:
'You still having trouble at home?' said Yo-less.
'It's all gone quiet,' said Johnny.
'That can be worse than shouting'
'Yes.'
'It's not that bad when your mum and dad split up,' said
Wobbler, 'although you get to see more museums than is good for
you.' (43)
This is the angst of the knowledgeable, postmodernist 1990s:
disintegration is the normal state of things. As a result, the device of
fantasy being a sublimation of psychological problems is, as it were,
exploded. (The most classic British examples of this sub-genre are
probably Penelope Farmer's A Castle of Bone (1973), Catherine Storr's
Marianne Dreams (1958: USA - The Magic Drawing Pencil), and
William Mayne's A Game of Dark (1971) - although there are
innumerable others. For a discussion of these kinds of texts, see Rustin
TERRY PRATCHETT 107
and Rustin, 1987.) Yo-less, Johnny's friend who is aiming, seriously, to
be a doctor, has worked it out.
'Well . . . your mum and dad are splitting up, right? ... So you
project your ... um . . . suppressed emotions onto a computer
game. Happens all the time . . . You can't solve real problems, so
you turn them into problems you can solve. Like . . . if this was
thirty years ago, you'd probably dream about fighting dragons or
something. It's projected fantasy.' (28)
The thematic similarities between A Game of Dark, described by
Alison Lurie as 'a tale in the tradition of Jorge Luis Borges or Gabriel
Garcia Marquez' (184) and usually accepted as a major and serious
work of a major and serious children's writer, and Only You Can Save
Mankind are striking. In both, the protagonists find themselves in moral
dilemmas, and in both, in contrast to many other fantasies of this type,
there is only a partial resolution. Donald, in A Game of Dark, having
killed the loathely worm in his fantasy by radical (and thus traditionally
dishonourable) means, and having listened to his father die in the real
world, 'went to sleep, consolate' (126). Johnny, having freed the
Scree Wee fleet, and having killed the gunnery officer, lies in bed:
He snuggled down, treasuring this time between dreaming and
waking . . .
These were still Trying Times. There was still school. Nothing
actually was better, probably. No-one was doing anything with a
magic wand.
But the fleet had got away. Compared to that, everything else
was . . . well, not easy. But less like a wall and more like steps.
(172)
Only You Can Save Mankind is, then, a new approach to modern
fantasy. It has the same motivations, the same psychology - but these
are now mixed with the stuff of the shopping mall, rather than the
medieval world, and the rules of computer games rather than the rules
of some wizardly culture. The fundamental problems that theorists (at
least) have about dreams, are confronted head-on. As Johnny ponders,
'You get so much better graphics in your dreams' (22). And we do,
after all know what's really going on in dreams:
He wondered why people made such a fuss about dreams ...
when you got down to it dreams were often horrible, and they felt
reaL Dreams always started out well and then they went wrong,
no matter what you did. You couldn't trust dreams. (58)
The philosophical problem that Carroll touches on in Through the
Looking Glass, of who is actually doing the dreaming, is mirrored - and
taken one step further, when Johnny dreams himself into the space-
craft.
Right. So he was back in real life again. When he got back to ...
when he got back to ... He'd have to have a word with the
medics about this odd recurring dream that he was a boy in -
No! he thought. I'm me! Not a pilot in a computer game! If I
start thinking like that then I'll really die! (74)
But, unlike most of its predecessors, Only You Can Save Mankind has
characters who are fairly down to earth:
'Look, have you ever wondered what's real and what isn't?'
'Bloody stupid thing to wonder,' said Bigmac. (96)
It takes a very confident writer to, as it were, expose the nuts and
bolts of his craft - to mock the very conventions that he's using. But to
do anything less, Pratchett seems to imply, would be to underestimate
the readers - and to do less than the other media do.
The trouble with all the aliens he'd seen was that they either
wanted to eat you or play music at you until you became better
people. You never got the sort who wanted to do something
ordinary like borrow the lawn mower. (41)
And, besides these complex areas, Pratchett's satirical finger is
always itching on the 'fire' button of the literary joystick: Australian
Soap Operas (Coders), plastic models in cereal packets, the Neil
Armstrong Shopping Mall, education, mindless language (' "Way to go,
eh?". "Way to go where?" . . . "We're really kicking some butt!" "Some
but what?"' (43)) - and TV journalists who trivialize death. And often
several targets get hit at once.
There was an extended News, which meant that Cobbers was
postponed. There were the same pictures of missiles streaking
across a city that he'd seen the night before, except that now
there were more journalists in sand-coloured shirts with lots of
pockets talking excitedly about them.
He heard his mother downstairs complain about Cobbers, and
by the sound of the raised voices that started Trying Times again.
There was some History homework about Christopher
Columbus. He looked him up in the encyclopaedia and copied
out four hundred words, which usually worked. He drew a picture
TERRY PRATCHETT 109
of Columbus as well, and coloured it in. (29)
All of this keeps readers on their toes, but it should not be
overlooked that Pratchett's characters are (and increasingly are) three-
dimensional. From Bigmac the aspiring skinhead, whose mates are
killed (we assume) in a stolen car, to Kirsty the superconndent, highly
intelligent girl with a shelf of awards and no friends, his characters
challenge cliches - and are all, by implication, vulnerable. His
technique even allows - or requires - his readers occasionally to judge
even the most sympathetic of them. When the (female) commander of
the invading fleet asks Johnny what the word sexist means, Johnny
does his best:
'Oh, that. It j ust means you should treat people as people and, you
know ... not j ust assume girls can't do stuff. We got a talk about
it at school. There's lots of stuff most girls can't do, but you've got
to pretend they can, so that more of them will. That's all of it,
really.'
'Presumably there's, uh, stuf f boys can't do
1
.'
'Oh, yeah. But that's j ust girls' stuff,' said Johnny. 'Anyway,
some girls go and become engineers and things, so they can do
proper stuff if they want.' (83)
It is possible to argue that Only You Can Save Mankind is a children's
book because its morals are too obviously stated for 'adult' taste: 'I'm
not even sure there are aliens. Only different kinds of us' (171). But, as
ever, Pratchett stays awake:
Kirsty looked thoughtful.
'Do you know,' she said, 'there was an African tribe once
whose nearest word for "enemy" was "a friend we haven't met
yet"?'
Johnny smiled. 'Right,' he said. That's how -'
'But they were all killed and eaten in eighteen hundred and
two,' said Kirsty. 'Except for those who were sold as slaves. The
last one died in Mississippi in eighteen sixty-four, and he was very
upset.'
'You j ust made that up,' said Johnny. (124)
Intermission: Johnny and the Dead
Johnny and the Dead is perhaps the least fantastic of all Pratchett's
novels, but as before, the fantasy (of the cheerful dead protesting about
the sale of their graveyard) works because of the realism that it
overlays. Perhaps most importantly, the characters of Wobbler,
Bigmac, Yo-less and Johnny have been deepened and detailed; their
endless, oblique conversations - similar to those in Jan Mark's Enough
is Too Much Already (1988) - both add subtlety to their portraits and
allow Pratchett to pepper his usual targets for derision.
The book's fantasy actually operates most forcefully on quite another
plane - that of the small forces of good overcoming the impersonal
multinational company. In the set-piece public inquiry scene, the
platform party is routed by Johnny and old Mr Atterbury:
'The boy is right. Too much has been taken away, I do know that.
You dug up the High Street. It had a lot of small shops. People
lived there. Now it's all walkways and plastic signs and people are
afraid of it at night. Afraid of the town where they live! I'd be
ashamed of that, if I was you. (125)
But, characteristically, in the end, the victory is only symbolic: the
dead, liberated, no longer need the graveyard.
Pratchett's guns are trained on the past horrors of the Pals'
Regiments, but he also spares some shot for other targets. There is the
'traditional English pub, with a "Nuke the Cook" video machine that
Shakespeare himself might have played' (117), the Joshua N'Clement
Block (' "People have got to live somewhere," said Yo-less. "Reckon
the man who designed it lives here?'" (31)), television (Grandad
watches Video Whoopsy incessantly), and, of course Cobbers ('tonight
Janine is going to tell Mick that Doraleen took Ron's surfboard -'
(29)). And racism:
'I've got a question, too,' said Yo-less, standing up.
The chairman, who had her mouth open, hesitated. Yo-less
was beaming at her, defying her to tell him to sit down.
'We'll take the question from the other young man, the one in
the shirt - not, not you, the -' she began.
The black one,' said Yo-less helpfully. (120)
As before, Johnny is passing through Trying Times (There was a
vague feeling that it might all work out, now that people had stopped
trying to be sensible. On the whole he tried not to think about it' (8))
and his ability to see the dead produces a rational explanation from his
friends: Yo-less says,
'Now, personally, I think you're very nearly totally disturbed and
suffering from psychosomatic a and hearing voices and seeing
delusions ... and probably ought to be locked up in one of those
TERRY PRATCHETT 111
white jackets with the stylish long sleeves. But that doesn't
matter, 'cos we're friends.'
'I'm touched,' said Johnny.
'Probably,' said Wobbler, 'but we don't care, do we guys?' (49)
The fantasy, the social concern, and the satire all converge and
overlap. When Johnny is thinking of telling Mr Attebury that he has
seen the ghostly Pals' Regiment march by, Mr Vicenti, one of the dead,
stops him:
'If you did something like that a few hundred years ago you'd
probably be hung for witchcraft. Last century they'd lock you up.
I don't know what they'd do now.'
Johnny relaxed a little . . .
'Put me on television, I expect,' he said, walking along the
road.
'Well, we don't want that,' said Mr Vicenti. (103)
Johnny and the Dead is, as ever, multi-referential (even one of the
Discworld characters, Death, makes a guest appearance), and by the
end of the book, Pratchett has laid the foundations for another
remarkable, intellectual, multilayered, and multi-accessible book,
Johnny and the Bomb.
The trouser legs: Johnny and the Bomb
In the Discworld Companion, Pratchett and Briggs observe that
There is probably a law, or at least a pretty strict guideline, that
says that every book with the word 'Chaos', 'Time' or 'Fractal' in
the title must, on some page, include an illustration of the
Trousers of Time . . . The trousers are used to demonstrate for
very slow people the bifurcating nature of Time - how, for
example, one simple choice can cause the universe to branch oft
into two separate realities. (1997: 393-4)
Or, an infinite number of parallel universes: 'Everything that happens
. . . stays happened. Somewhere. There's lots of times side by side'
(Johnny and the Bomb: 156). The conventional wisdom of time travel,
that you cannot change anything, is replaced by the idea that you must
inevitably change things, and when you do, you produce different,
parallel worlds. Although, naturally enough in a book that proceeds
largely by discussion, not everyone agrees:
'Let's face it,' said Yo-less, 'anything we do changes the future . . .
Any little thing changes the whole of history.'
'That's daft,' said Bigmac. 'I mean, rivers still flow the same
way no matter how the little fish swim.' (166)
The next question then, is how you travel between these parallel
times, and the mode of travel is provided by the old bag-lady who
pushes the supermarket trolley loaded with black plastic sacks, Mrs
Tachyon, whom we have already briefly encountered in Johnny and the
Bomb. (Also naturally enough, Johnny, who has read the books and
seen the films, has trouble with a time machine that doesn't have
flashing lights (65).) At this point, in Pratchett-land we might well
expect to encounter a footnote on the lines of:
The Oxf ord Concise Colour Science Dictionary (Oxford University
Press, 1997, 713) defines (in part), Tachyon as 'a hypothetical
particle that has a speed in excess of the speed of light ... No
such particle has yet been detected'.
This isn't as Johnny says, magic, ' "It's probably just very, very very
strange science"' (161) although, as the others observe, what is the
difference? Mrs Tachyon, who speaks a continual flow of catchphrases
from random years of the twentieth century, is thought to be mad - but
in her 'lucid' moments (and everything is relative), she gives Johnny
the key idea. Whereas Kirsty assumes that it is Mrs Tachyon's fault
that there is no communication, Johnny is totally open-minded, in his
innocently shaman-like way:
She nodded at Johnny.
'What's the word on the street, mister man.
7
'
Johnny tried to think like Mrs Tachyon.
'Er . . . "No Parking?"' he suggested.
'That's what you think. Them's bags of time, mister man. Mind
my bike! Where your mind goes, the rest of you's bound to follow.
Here today and gone yesterday. Doing it's the trick.
1
Eh?' (49)
And so Johnny is liberated into sampling the various versions of time
by opening his mind. When we get a glimpse into Mrs Tachyon's mind
we find, as it were, the ultimate advanced Zen: 'Mrs Tachyon
remembered everything, and had long ago given up wondering whether
the things she remembered had already happened or not' (237).
Johnny can tap into this world because his imagination 'is so big that
it's outside his head' (156), and all of this contrasts strongly with the
real, 'rational' world of Trying Times and adult behaviour:
She probably is mad, he thought. Or eccentric, anyway . . . Yes.
Eccentric. But she wouldn't do things like dropping bombs on
TERRY PRATCHETT 113
Paradise Street. You have to be sane to think of things like that.
She's totally round the bend. But perhaps she gets a better view
from there. (227-8)
The implication of the theory, that whatever changes the characters
make to events are only changes to one version, and do not stop
anything unpleasant happening in another version, is left hanging.
Which is perhaps j ust as well, as we are close to the determinism which
so undercuts the drama of C. S. Lewis's books - and much other high
fantasy.
But, needless to say, there is so much else going on in Johnny and the
Bomb that it is easy to overlook this (or at least to store it away for later
consideration) and one of the things that is going on is the thorough
demolition of the cliches of children's fantasy. One of these is that
children are not believed by adults, or by other children. This doesn't
happen with the redoubtable Kirsty - although she does believe for the
wrong, media-induced, reasons:
'I've read books and books about that sort of thing, and they're
full of unintelligent children who go around saying "gosh". They
just drift along having an adventure, for goodness' sake. They
never seem to think of it as any kind of opportunity.' (64)
As we have seen, this leads us to the knowingness of the characters.
When the group first travels (in time, or into a different version of
time) there is a virtuoso display of self-referentiality:
Johnny opened his eyes, the ground sloped up all around him.
There were low bushes at the top.
'If I asked what happened,' said Yo-less, from somewhere under
Bigmac, 'what'd you say?'
'I think we may have travelled in time,' said Johnny . . .
'Which way did we go?' said Yo-less, still talking in his
deliberate voice. 'Are we talking dinosaurs, or mutant robots? I
want to know this before I open my eyes.'
Kirsty groaned.
'Oh dear, it's going to be that kind of adventure after all,' she
hissed, sitting up. 'It's j ust the sort of thing I didn't want to
happen. Me, and four token boys. Oh, dear. Oh, dear. It's only a
mercy we haven't got a dog.' She sat up and brushed some grass
off her coat. 'Anyone got the least idea where we are?' (86)
The Johnny Maxwell books are remarkably economical, in that even
the smallest detail helps to round out the characters: Pratchett
disproves the theory that the novel of character and the story of
fantasy cannot coexist. The characters may exist primarily for the
service of the story or the ideas, but that does not make Yo'less's
negotiation of the swamps of racism any less affecting, or Kirsty's
gradual humanization any less subtle. Nor is there ever any intellectual
compromise, as when it is revealed that Kirsty has a collection of 'Star
Trek' videos:
'Just shut up! Just because the programme happens to be an
accurate reflection of late 20th century social concerns, actually,
it doesn't mean you can go around winding people up just
because they've been taking an academic interest! ... So I watch
some science fiction films . . . At least I do it in a spirit of
intelligent deconstruction. I don't j ust sit there saying "Cor,
lasers, brill!"'
'No-one said you did,' said Yo-less, managing to sound
infuriatingly reasonable.
'You're not going to let me forget this, are you?' said Kirsty.
(165)
The alternative worlds of Terry Pratchett's books may be as much in
his characters' heads, and as much in the overlap between other
writers' and readers' imaginations as 'elsewhere'. But he epitomizes the
way in which fantasy is deeply and inevitably embedded in some kind
of 'realism' - bearing in mind that what exactly constitutes realism is
infinitely difficult. When this is wedded to a combination of innocent
character and sardonic narrator, the complexity is considerable.
[Johnny] hadn't expected time travel to be this hard. He thought
of all those wasted lessons when they could have been telling him
what to do if some mad woman left him a trolley full of time.
School never taught you anything that was useful in real life.
There probably wasn't a single text book that told you what to do
if it turned out you were living next door to Elvis Presley. (125)
Or, as Sergeant Comely reflects in ]ohnny and the Bomb, 'Just because
they made silly films about aliens and things didn't actually mean, did
it, that it couldn't ever happen' (134).
For anyone who can understand/for adults of all ages.
A note on the Discworld
The two somewhat gnomic pronouncements that appear in some
editions of Pratchett's books might best be seen as inclusive invitations
to readers, or an attempt to pick a fight with those who equate fantasy
TERRY PRATCHETT 115
with childishness and children's literature with an even more intense
form of childishness.
As we have seen, children's books and adults' books, if they can be
separated at all, can be separated by point of view, and the point of
view taken in the Discworld novels generally assumes an adult
audience. For example, take Pratchett's ideas about stories and
childhood. In Hogfather, one of his ironically competent female heroes,
Susan Sto Helit (Death's grand-daughter) has become a governess,
somewhat in the ruthless mode of Mary Poppins:
It was a quiet day for Susan, although on the way to the park
Gawain trod on a crack in the pavement. On purpose.
One of the many terrors conjured up by the previous
governess's happy way with children had been the bears that
waited around in the street to eat you if you stood on the cracks.
Susan had taken to carrying the poker under her respectable
coat. One wallop generally did the trick. They were amazed that
anyone else saw them.
'Gawain?' she said, eyeing a nervous bear who had suddenly
spotted her and was now trying to edge away nonchalantly.
'Yes?'
'You meant to tread on that crack so I'd have to thump some
poor creature whose only fault is wanting to tear you limb from
limb.'
'I was just skipping -'
'Quite. Real children don't go hoppity-skip unless they are on
drugs.'
He grinned at her.
'If I catch you being twee again I will knot your arms behind
your head,' said Susan levelly ...
The previous governess had used various monsters and
bogeymen as a form of discipline. There was always something
waiting to eat or carry off bad boys and girls for crimes like
stuttering or defiantly and aggravatingly persisting in writing with
their left hand. There was always a Scissor Man waiting for a little
girl who sucked her thumb, always a bogeyman in the cellar. Of
such bricks is the innocence of childhood constructed. (Hog-
father: 36-7)
The whole attitude here is of adult addressing adult - and constructing
a certain kind of adult, sympathetic to the ideas. It does not exclude
children (only, perhaps those who do not know about When We Were
Very Young and Struwwelpeter - or whose oral cultures interweave with
those books), but it invites readers to regard children from an adult
point of view.
It is, after all, not whether one recognizes the denotations that
makes one a mature (or adult) reader, but the recognition of
connotations, and the sharing of an attitude of mind - or the
acceptance of the attitude of mind implied by the narrator. When,
therefore, the narrator describes the intelligence of the troll Detritus in
Jingo as 'falling somewhere between a cuttlefish and a line dancer' (21)
readers have to be quite quick on their mental feet.
Consequently, without implying a single actual boundary, we will
visit the Discworld only briefly, and only to point out some of its more
obvious delights. Here is a complete (or at least potentially complete)
other world, carried (famously) through space on the shoulders of four
giant elephants who are standing on the back of the Great A'Tuin, a
ten-thousand-mile-long star turtle. It has a strong magic field which
slows down light, and distorts virtually everything: it has villages and
cities, countries and continents, with their own climates and laws
and legends and science; it is populated by a vast array of characters
and species borrowed from a vast range of mythologies and legends and
imaginations ...
Or, to put it another way, here is a setting where literary genres and
social movements can be satirized, gently or savagely, according to
need, and where Pratchett's constant linguistic and philosophical
awareness, not to say cynicism, can be matched against the 'real' world.
For newcomers, the city of Ankh'Morpork would be a good place to
start. As Pratchett describes it, it is a great deal more subtle and
intricate than many places of fantasy, j ust as his characters are more
subtle and intricate than the genre seems to require.
I needed a working background. I wanted to get the feel of a real
society operating . . . of a city actually working. Ankh-Morpork is
almost, now, what a city like London would be if no one had built
anything new since about 1600, no one had discovered steam or
electricity, and all the classic fantasy creatures had turned out to
be real and wanted a job. The dwarfs have an Equal Heights
pressure group and trolls have started the Silicon Anti-
Defamation League to beat up people who suggest that, well,
trolls beat up people.
[In creating a fantasy city] you had to start out by wondering
how the fresh water got in and the sewage got out . . . World
building from the bottom up, to use a happy phrase, is more
fruitful than doing it from the top down. (Pratchett and Briggs,
TERRY PRATCHETT 117
1997: 474-5)
If we feel that certain things are more likely to be the concern of adults
than of children, such as the principles of civil government, the
behaviour of academics, or the ethics of the movie business, then the
Discworld is more likely to be seen as adult reading matter. But it is
difficult to tell: there may well be children fascinated by the habits of
pieces of luggage - like the homicidal magical Luggage which attaches
itself to the wizard Rincewind:
The Luggage might be magical. It might be terrible. But in its
enigmatic soul it was kin to every other piece of luggage
throughout the multiverse, and preferred to spend its winters
hibernating on top of a wardrobe. (Sorcery: 22)
Equally, the battle between witches' and wizards' magic in Equal Rites,
which echoes, anarchically, but no less seriously, the theme of Le
Guin's Tehanu:
'I don't think there's ever been a lady wizard before,' said
Cutangle. 'I rather think it might be against the lore. Wouldn't
you rather be a witch? I understand it's a fine career for girls.'
(181)
And at what point does an ironic aside on titillating graphics become
funny to an adolescent? The second of the Discworld novels, The Light
Fantastic (which introduces, for example, Cohen the Barbarian)
features the freelance woman with a sword, the red-headed Herrena
the Harridan:
Now, there is a tendency at a point like this to look over one's
shoulder at the cover artist and start going on at length about
leather, thighboots and naked blades.
Words like 'full', 'round' and even 'pert' creep into the
narrative, until the writer has to go and have a cold shower and
lie down.
Which is all rather silly, because any woman setting out to
make a living by the sword isn't about to go around looking like
something off the cover of the more advanced kind of lingerie
catalogue for the specialized buyer.
. . . She was currently quite sensibly dressed in light chain mail,
soft boots, and a short sword.
All right, maybe the boots were leather. But not black.
Riding with her were a number of swarthy men that will
certainly be killed before too long anyway, so a description is
probably not essential. There was absolutely nothing pert about
any of them.
Look, they can wear leather if you like. (117)
The narrative stance, which implies a complicity between narrator
and readers, allows an allusive playfulness: in Guards! Guards! for
example, chunks of dialogue are lifted (with slight modifications) from
Dirty Harry and Casablanca - as well as the conversation between
various heroes, assembled to fight the dragon, and lamenting the state
of the modern world:
'Monsters are getting more uppity, too,' said another. 'I heard
where this guy, he killed this monster in this lake, no problem,
stuck its arm up over the door -'
Tour encourjay lays ortras,' said one of the listeners.
'Right, and you know what? Its mum come and complained. Its
actual mum come right down to the hall next day and
complained. Actually complained. That's the respect you get.'
(114)
Of such trivial tales, of course, are winners of the British Whitbread
Award made. Nothing is, as they say, sacred, perhaps especially the
ancestors of Pratchett's own genre. Here is a cheerful aside on ancient
poetry:
Five generations ago one of her ancestors had halted his band of
nomadic cutthroats a few miles from the mound of Sto Lat and
had regarded the sleeping city with a peculiarly determined
expression that said: this'll do. Just because you're born in the
saddle doesn't mean you have to die in the bloody thing.
A footnote adds:
The speech [that he made] has been passed on to later
generations in an epic poem commissioned by his son, who
wasn't born in the saddle and could eat with a knife and fork. It
began:
'See yonder the stolid foemen slumber
Fat with stolen gold, corrupt of mind.
Let the spears of your wrath be as the steppe fire on a windy
day in the dry season . . . '
And went on for three hours. Reality, which can't usually afford
to pay poets, records that in fact the entire speech ran:
TERRY PRATCHETT 119
'Lads, most of them are still in bed, we should go through
them like kzak fruit through a short grandmother, and I for
one have had it right up to here with yurts, okay?' (Mort:
114-15)
But if academia and high culture have not really come to grips with
the playful, for all its theoretical validity, they might appreciate
Pratchett for the complete course in narratology that the Discworld
novels provide. Academics who have laboriously catalogued and
pondered on narrative devices, ways of telling, and authorial stance,
along with its encyclopaedia-load of terminology, might reflect on what
is going on in a passage such as this from Mort (the first of a sequence
featuring Death (who always speaks in CAPITALS) as a central
character). At one point, the Princess Keli is talking to Cutwell the
wizard in the city of Sto Lat; elsewhere, Death is about to talk to his
apprentice, Mort.
'You're a wizard. I think there's something you ought to know,'
said the princess.
THERE IS? said Death.
(That was a cinematic trick adapted for print. Death wasn't
talking to the princess. He was actually in his study, talking to
Mort. But it was quite effective, wasn't it? It's probably called a
fast dissolve, or a crosscut/zoom. Or something. An industry
where a senior technician is called a Best Boy might call it
anything.) (116)
Reading Terry Pratchett, then can be an unnerving as well as an
invigorating experience, as if he is cheerfully cutting off the literary
branch on which he is sitting, but managing to efficiently levitate at
the same time. He can be read for his ingenuity or his insights (The
Geneva Convention is 'like finding a tiny bit of the Middle Ages in the
middle of all the missiles and things' (Only You can Save Mankind: 60));
for his satire or his philosophy ('All the witches who'd lived in her
cottage were bookish types. They thought you could see life through
books but you couldn't, the reason being that the words got in the way'
(Carpe jugulum: 31-2)); or even his bad jokes: 'It would seem that you
have no useful skill or talent whatsoever ... Have you thought of going
into teaching?' (Mort: 185)).
But, whatever the reason, we are reading a writer committed to
expanding the mind:
So let's not be frightened when children read fantasy. It is
compost for a healthy mind. It stimulates the inquisitive nodes ...
[TJhere is some evidence that a rich internal fantasy life is as
good and necessary for a child as healthy soil is for a plant, and for
much the same reasons ... Like the fairy tales that were its
forebears, fantasy needs no excuses. ('Let there Be Dragons': 7)
References
Butler, A. M., James, E. and Mendleson, F. (nd [2000]) Terry
Pratchett: Guilty of Literature, Reading: The Science Fiction
Foundation.
Hunt, P. (1992) "Tread softly for you tread on my dreams":
Academicising Arthur Ransome', I nternational Review of Children's
Literature and Librarianship 7(1): 1-10.
Kuznets, L. R. (1994) When Toys Come Alive. Narratives of Animation,
Metamorphosis and Development, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Lurie, A. (1990) Don't Tell the Grown-Ups, London: Bloomsbury.
Mayne, W. (1974) A Game of Dark, (Hamish Hamilton, 1971),
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Manlove, C. (1999) The Fantasy Literature of England, London:
Macmillan.
Pratchett, T. (1987) Equal Rites, London: (Gollancz, 1987), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1988) Mort, London: (Gollancz, 1987), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1989) Sorcery, London: (Gollancz, 1988), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1990) Guards! Guards!, London: (Gollancz, 1989),
Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1993) The Carpet People, (Colin Smythe, 1971),
London: (Doubleday, 1992), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1993) Only You Can Save Mankind, London: (Double-
day, 1992), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1994) Jo/mrry and the Dead, London: (Doubleday, 1993),
Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1994) Men at Arms, London: (Gollancz, 1993), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1994) The Light Fantastic, (Colin Smythe, 1986),
London: Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1995) 'Let there be dragons', Boob for Keeps, 83, 6-7.
Pratchett, T. (1997) Hogf ather, London: (Gollancz, 1996), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1997) Jo/mrry and the Bomb, London: (Doubleday, 1996),
Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1998) Jingo, London: (Gollancz, 1997), Corgi.
Pratchett, T. (1998) The Bromeliad, London: Doubleday [Truckers,
London: Doubleday, 1989; Diggers, London: Doubleday, 1990; Wings,
London: Doubleday, 1990].
TERRY PRATCHETT 121
Pratchett, T. (1999) Carpe Jugu/um, London: (Doubleday, 1998),
Corgi.
Pratchett, T. and Briggs, S. (1997) The Discworld Companion, London:
Vista.
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Verso.
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Winoker, J. (1987) Writers on Writing, London: Headline.
CHAPTER 4
Philip Pullman
Millicent Lenz
I 'm trying to write a book about what it means to be human, to grow up,
to suf f er and learn.
(Philip Pullman, 'Achuka I nterview')
His Dark Materials: alternative worlds for the twenty-
first century
Pullman's His Dark Materials trilogy consists of Northern Lights (NL)
(1995), The Subtle Knife (SK) (1997), and The Amber Spyglass (AS)
(2000). Northern Lights was published in the USA as The Golden
Compass (1996). Page references to all books in the trilogy cite the US
editions.
The 'Big* Questions In His Dark Materials
'Where is God . . . If he's alive.
7
And why doesn't he speak any
more.
7
' (Mrs Coulter in The Amber Spyglass: 328)
In the contemporary world, stories on themes 'too large for adult
fiction [can] only be dealt with adequately in a children's book'. So
said Philip Pullman in his Carnegie Medal acceptance speech. Authors
of books for children do not disdain to satisfy the universal human
hunger for 'story, plot, and character', and their works provide a spin-
off benefit, a social one, for stories are much more potent than moral
precepts in teaching 'the world we create . . . the morality we live by ...
We don't need lists of rights and wrongs, tables of do's and don'ts: we
need books, time, and silence. Thou shalt not is soon forgotten, but
once upon a time lasts forever'.
His Dark Materials interweaves an engrossing, breath-taking
adventure story with a deeply felt examination of existential questions,
such as Mrs Coulter's anguished plea to know whether God is, as
Nietzsche asserted, 'dead', or why, if he still lives, he has grown mute.
In his bold willingness to take on this and other 'big' questions (such as
PHILIP PULLMAN 123
the nature of sin, the fall, the war between the Kingdom of Heaven
and the rebel angels), Pullman differs from more timid contemporary
writers. His intellectual audacity has been praised by Nick Gevers, who
remarks that his occasional didacticism (inevitable in children's books
and never in Pullman's case patronizing) is offset by the deep
metaphysical implications of his 'playing with John Milton's dark
materials, with all their grounding in Biblical and Calvinist ontology
and moral philosophy . . . so dogmatic conceptions of God are
interrogated, as is the magnetism of Satanic evil' (Gevers, Northern
Lights). The subject of His Dark Materials is nothing less than the story
of how human beings, at this critical time in history, might evolve
towards a higher level of consciousness.
The trilogy speaks to the existential state of humanity at the
beginning of the new millennium, a condition where 'the maps no
longer fit the territories' (Houston, 2000: 1). Pullman's many'layered
story works on one level as a suspenseful fantasy adventure for
children, yet read reflectively, it also yields for an older audience a new
map to define our place in the universe. It is a wake-up call to respond
to the threat of disasters on the individual and collective levels:
widespread despair and souMoss, social chaos, political upheaval,
ecological ruin, massive wars, a catastrophe of apocalyptic dimensions.
All this is expressed in the overarching metaphor - the toppling of the
'Kingdom' of Heaven - so the 'Republic' of Heaven may be built in its
stead.
His Dark Materials: Intertextuality, Influences
Pullman at the close of The Amber Spyglass describes his process as
'Read like a butterfly, write like a bee.' Three nectar-rich sources have
fed his imagination: On the Marionette [Puppet] Theatre by Heinrich
von Kleist; John Milton's Paradise Lost, and the works of William
Blake. All of these are (to shift the metaphor) woven into the tissue of
the three novels and give depth to his treatment of 'big' metaphysical
questions. His Dark Materials, a phrase drawn from Milton's Paradise
Lost (II, 910-20) describes the chaotic mix of the four elements -
water, earth, air and fire - left over from the creation of Earth, now
swirling around in the 'wild abyss'. This massive chaos is the cauldron
of unbridled Energy, where the forces of life struggle against the forces
of death, seen through the eyes of the watchful, 'wary fiend', who
thinks that the 'almighty maker' may use this cosmic junk 'to create
more worlds'. By this rich borrowing from Paradise Lost, Pullman sets
the scene for a drama of cosmic scope: the destinies of entire worlds
hang in the balance.
Pullman realigns the 'hero' and 'villain' roles: his 'Satan' (Lord
Asriel) and the 'fallen' angels are engaged in a morally justified battle
to unseat a corrupt 'Authority'. In aligning the rebellious angels with
good and freedom, 'rather than authority, repression, and cruelty',
Pullman says, 'I'm in a long tradition. William Blake consciously and
Milton unconsciously wrote about this, so I'm in a line with the English
dissenters' (Cooper, 2000: 355). He also draws upon Kleist's essay 'On
the Marionette Theater', deriving metaphors for the Fall - 'the
business of losing innocence and finding experience' (quoted in
Parsons and Nicholson, 1999: 117-18). He recalls with pleasure the
moment when his writerly imagination connected the paradox 'that
the loss of innocence is the beginning of wisdom' (Pullman, 1999: 31)
to distinguishing between the daemons of children (making them
'shape-shifting'), and those of adults (who settle into one fixed form
(Parsons and Nicholson, 1999: 128)).
Kleist uses three exempla to explain the Fall from natural grace: a
story of a puppet; a parable of a boy's 'fall' into self-consciousness on
discovering his resemblance to a certain Roman statue; and a story
about a man who fenced, unsuccessfully, with a chained bear. Kleist's
narrator meets a Mr C., a dancer, who elaborates upon his theory that
a dancer should learn from a puppet, for in its lack of self-
consciousness, the puppet is wholly attuned to 'its centre of gravity'
- the line that traces 'the path of the dancer's sou/'. Therefore the puppet
is 'incapable of affectation': affectation occurs only 'when the soul (vis
matrix - 'moving f orce
1
) is located at any other point than the center of
gravity of a movement'. Unhappily, humans lose their graceful balance
when they eat from the tree of knowledge and become self-conscious
and 'affected'. Henceforth, as for Adam and Eve, 'Paradise is locked
and bolted and the cherub is behind us. We must make a journey
around the world, to see if a back door has perhaps been left open.'
Only through an unguarded back door might a human have another
chance at regaining paradise and a new innocence (Kleist, 1982: 211-
13). Puppets have a second advantage over humans: countergravity, or
'the force that lifts them into the air [which is] greater than that which
pulls them to the ground'. Thus they can achieve an inhuman
lightness, only touching the solid platform below them and thereby
'reanimating the spring of their limbs'. No mere human being can do
this (214).
The second tale is from the narrator's own experience: he once saw a
youth lose his innocence of movement when by a glance in a mirror he
happened to perceive his resemblance to a Roman statue, 'Spinario',
depicting a youth removing a thorn from his foot. From that time
PHILIP PULLMAN 125
forward, his self-consciousness put him out of line with his centre of
gravity, resulting in gracelessness.
The third story of a fencing match between Mr C. and a bear is the
source of the fencing scene between Lyra and the armoured bear lorek
Byrnison, in Northern Lights (225 ff.). Mr C. is easily outdone by the
animal, who seems able to read his soul and can not be fooled (Kleist,
1982: 216). This anecdote also supplies the germ of the idea that bears
in their natural state are immune to trickery: as lorek says, ' "We see
tricks and deceit as plain as arms and legs. We can see in a way humans
have forgotten'" (NL: 226). (The pretentious lofur Raknison, who
tries to become 'human', thus sacrificing his integrity, can however be
deceived, and Lyra tricks him by pretending to be a daemon and falsely
offering to serve him (334 ff.).)
From Kleist, Pullman derives his 'theory of grace': Grace 'appears
most strongly in those parts of nature that are inanimate (the puppets),
or animal (like the bear), or innocent and unformed (like the child)'.
Humans lose this grace as they mature, but it can be regained through
'discipline, pain, suffering', and the regained grace is more valuable, for
it is accompanied by wisdom. In contrast to C. S. Lewis, whose view of
the Fall is 'pessimistic and defeatist', Pullman much prefers Kleist's
optimistic view - sometimes called 'the fortunate fall' by theologians.
This perspective underlies his portrayal of Lyra as an Eve figure. The
narrator of von Kleist's story expresses the paradox: 'That means . . .
that we would have to eat of the tree of knowledge a second time to
fall back into the state of innocence' (Kleist, 1982: 216). The idea that
regained grace is more valuable than the grace lost in the Fall is
reflected in Lyra's loss of the ability to read the alethiometer and the
angel Xaphania's comforting words: ' "You read it by grace . . . and you
can regain it by work . . . Grace attained like that is deeper and fuller
than grace that comes freely'" (AS: 491).
Pullman also draws heavily upon William Blake's dialectic of
contraries: innocence/experience, heaven/hell, as well as what this
dialectic implies - that the soul must pass through the fallen world to
achieve its salvation in a new, higher innocence, thereby fitting it to
enter the New Jerusalem of the redeemed imagination (see Blake's The
Marriage of Heaven and Hell).
There are other, less lofty influences on Pullman's writing: his
boyhood love for the comics - 'Superman' and 'Batman', for example,
gangster and cowboy serials, movies and stories of adventurers. He
took Lee Scoresby's first name from Lee Van Cleef, the actor who
appears with Clint Eastwood in the 'spaghetti' westerns, and his last
from 'an Arctic explorer called William Scoresby' ('Darkness Visible,'
part 1). From his earliest days he has been fond of'a good yarn,' and he
speaks affectionately of the power of his grandfather's eclectic mix of
everything from Bible stories to tales told by the murderers to whom, as
chaplain to the inmates of Norwich Jail, his grandfather had
ministered. Remembering how he was 'gripped' as an eight-year-old
by a teacher's reading of Coleridge's The Ancient Mariner', he honed
his skills of storytelling by retelling such classics as the I liad and the
Odyssey to his own middle-grade students. Thus he developed his
bardic technique (interview with Fox, 1997: 12).
This accumulated wealth of story gives His Dark Materials an
astonishing degree of intertextuality, which reaches its zenith in The
Amber Spyglass. Lyra and Will are co-protagonists in a quest that takes
them through several alternative worlds, including the barren land-
scape of the world of the dead. Throughout, Pullman weaves in
allusions to various masterpieces, notably Dante's Inferno and the story
of the 'Harrowing of Hell' (popular in Old English poetry and Middle
English drama, wherein Christ descends into Hell and frees the souls
held captive since the beginning of the world). The stark personifica-
tion of Death is reminiscent of the medieval mystery play, Everyman
('Lyra and Her Death'); the children's quest then connects with the
Miltonic struggle between the forces of oppression (the cohorts of the
'Authority') and those of liberation (led by Lord Asriel and Xaphania -
a Sophia or 'Wisdom' figure). In the book's closing chapters, the myth
of the Garden of Eden is re-interpreted through the dawning sexuality
of Lyra and Will, posing the Energy of Eternal Delight against its
contrary, the Endless Night that will ensue if Dust (consciousness)
seeps out of the world.
His Dark Materials thus portrays what is means 'to be human, to
grow up, to suffer, and to learn', in the face of daunting odds: two near-
adolescents face world-shattering adversaries, narrowly escape falling
into the abyss of despair, and return to their respective worlds
transformed by their experiences. The kiss that marks their 'fall' into
sexual awareness is more properly an ascent into a revelation, as the
author says, 'of the myriad possibilities of life' (Cooper, 2000: 355).
Settings in His Dark Materials: parallel worlds in an
indeterminate time
His Dark Materials inhabits a number of alternative worlds, settings
that mix the familiar and the startling, blending features from the
historical late nineteenth and twentieth centuries with others from an
imagined 'elsewhere' or a hypothetical near future. Opposite the
'Contents' page of Northern Lights a note places the action in 'a
PHILIP PULLMAN 127
universe like ours, but different in many ways'; the setting of The Subtle
Knif e is projected to be in 'the universe we know'; and that of the third
novel - The Amber Spyglass - will move 'between the universes'.
Pullman modified this plan when he realized the need to go 'back and
forth' between worlds in Book Two (<http:/ / www.achuka.co.uk/
ppint.htm> - question five).
The most crucial difference between Lyra's world and our own is a
'doubling' of the human form and psyche through the visible 'souls' -
daemons. Bolvanger, site of the cruel scientific experiments in severing
the daemons of prepubescent children (shades of the Mengelian
horrors of the Nazi era) is situated in the Far North, which the
lascivious and misogynist priest, Father Semyon Borisovitch, calls a
habitat of'devilish' things - accursed bears and seductive witches (AS:
100), of which more will be said later.
The Subtle Knif e, opening in Will Parry's world (recognizably 'ours,'
where humans have no external daemons) moves quickly into an
otherworld setting - a strange, deserted tropical city, 'Cittagazze'
(Italian citta = city, gazza = magpies, 'the city of magpies'), where
again humans lack visible daemons, but are haunted by 'Spectres', who
feed upon the internal souls of adults. The Amber Spyglass follows Dr
Mary Malone on her quest to fulfil her 'Serpent' role into the
alternative world of the marvellous creatures called the mule/a,
wheeled creatures with the power to see Dust: with their help and their
shared creation of the amber spyglass, she discovers the true nature of
Dust. Its most searing dramatic action takes place in the world of the
dead, to which Will and Lyra gain entrance at a terrible cost.
The events of these alternative worlds 'sideshadow' actual happen-
ings in our own time: 'intercision', for instance, mirrors the actual
abuse of children, including genital mutilation (SK: 49-50) in some
contemporary cultures, bearing out Peter Hunt's point that 'the one
thing that can rarely be said of fantasy is that it has nothing to do with
reality' (Introduction).
The historical 'time' of the narratives is indeterminate; as Jane
Langton remarks in a review of Northern Lights/The Golden Compass,
Time here is edgy' (1996: 34). Thus certain details - 'naphtha lights',
zeppelins, and the powerful centralization of authority in the
Calvinistic 'Consistorial Court of Discipline' are indicative of earlier
technologies and eras, whereas some aspects of scientific knowledge
(the Barnard-Stokes hypothesis, for instance) are recognizably derived
from today's quantum physics.
The Idea of the North'
The Idea of the North' has special significance in the trilogy. The
Northern Lights, with all their associations of danger, mystery, and
otherworldliness, contribute much to the power of place. It is also the
place where the Veil' between the worlds is 'thin', and in The Amber
Spyglass it is revealed to be where Lyra and Will unwittingly experience
a rite of transformation, gaining the power to separate from their
daemons without soul-death (AS: 472-3). Early in the first book, the
North radiates magnetic power: Lord Asriel's photograms, which Lyra
hears about as she hides in the cupboard in Jordan College, include
a magnificent one of the Aurora Borealis, and even of a glowing
city visible beyond the Aurora. By means of a special emulsion, he
also has captured the all-important Dust streaming from an adult
and absent from an adjacent child. (NL: 2)
From this point onward, Lyra's internal compass points North: she will
go there, and it is her ability to read the alethiometer that convinces
the 'Gyptian' John Faa to take her along on the perilous arctic
expedition. Frieda Bostian notes how 'Geographically, the region has
few recognizable boundaries' (ice sheets complicate making distinc-
tions, and moreover, the magnetic North Pole actually moves, and
watersheds - another usual means of geographical demarcation - are
absent): 'the usual boundaries and rules simply don't apply' (4).
The intensely luminous language in which Pullman portrays the
heavenly city illustrates his word-painting technique at its finest. Seen
through Lyra's eyes,
The sight filled the northern sky; the immensity of it was scarcely
conceivable. As from Heaven itself, great curtains of delicate
light hung and trembled. Pale green and rose-pink, and as
transparent as the most fragile fabric, and at the bottom edge a
profound and fiery crimson like the fires of Hell, they swung and
shimmered loosely with more grace than the most skilled dancer.
(NL: 184)
The beauty is almost 'holy,' and Lyra's response to the sublime sight is
to enter 'the same kind of trance as when she consulted the
alethiometer' (NL: 184).
The power and glory of the Aurora have so bewitched Lord Asriel
that he is willing to sacrifice Roger to his bridge-building (an instance
of the horror that results when the cerebrum is severed from the
heart). In a stunningly Mephistophelean scene, replete with musical
and poetic allusions, he proclaims that his piercing of the vault of
PHILIP PULLMAN 129
heaven means ' "The end of all those centuries of darkness! Look at
that light up there: that's the sun of another world! Feel the warmth of
it on your skin, now!'" (394). The poetic apogee comes a moment
later, when he sees the palm trees waving on a shore in the new world
and asks,' "Can you feel that wind? A wind from another world! Feel it
on your hair, your face"' (394). As Pullman wrote in a posting to
<child_lit listserv> (27 July 2000), this passage echoes the German
poet Stefan George, in his poem 'Entrueckung' [Transcendence]: 'Ich
f uhle luf t von anderem planeten [I feel an air from other planets
blowing]. Pullman gives a musical analogy: 'Schoenberg's String
Quartet No. 2 in F Sharp Minor . . . incorporates a setting of the poem
for soprano. It's the point at which the composer finally leaves tonality
altogether and launches into the new world of no fixed keys: a
profoundly dramatic moment.' The literary parallel is equally dramatic,
as Asriel has opened new worlds of unimaginable wonders and -
though yet undefined - equally unimaginable terrors.
Alternative worlds in His Dark Materials: conceptual
bases
The Barnard-Stokes 'business' and the Church
Paul Witcover notes Pullman's use of the 'many worlds' theory from
today's quantum physics, which holds that 'every possible outcome of
an action or event - no matter how large or small - spawns a universe
of its own' (para. 2). The eavesdropping Lyra, hiding in the wardrobe of
the Retiring Room in the opening scene (the image that Pullman has
called the germ of Northern Lights (Nilsen: 217)) overhears an allusion
to the 'heretical' 'Barnard-Stokes' business, in response to Lord Asriel's
slide showing a city in the sky (contemptuously dismissed by the Dean
as '"A city in another world, no doubt?"'). The 'other-world theory'
comes up again in 'The Idea of the North' when the Master of Jordan
College explains the 'Barnard-Stokes business' to the Librarian, telling
how the two renegade theologians after whom the theory is named
postulated '"the existence of numerous other worlds like this one,
neither heaven nor hell, but material and sinful. They are there, close
by, but invisible and unreachable"' - heresy in the eyes of the Church,
which holds instead that '"there are two worlds: the world of
everything we can see and hear and touch, and another world, the
spiritual world of heaven and hell."' Thus, Barnard and Stokes were
'silenced' (NL: 34) for daring to venture a scientific hypothesis
inconsistent with Church doctrine.
Lord AsriePs discourse on science and theology in Northern Lights
Prior to the climax of Northern Lights (Chapter 26, 'Lord Asriel's
Welcome'), Pullman offers, through Asriel, the most complete and
coherent explanation of the key scientific and theological notions
woven into the fabric of His Dark Materials. Asriel, in exile and under
house arrest in rather lavish accommodations in Svalbard, has been
shocked by the appearance of Lyra, who has dared many dangers to
deliver the alethiometer, mistakenly supposing this to be her 'mission'.
Asriel's reception of her and Roger is exceedingly strange - first eager
and 'triumphant', then, as he realizes who she is, displays the utmost
horror. Too late Lyra realizes the truth: he requires a child to sacrifice
for the sake of his bizarre scientific experiment, and he momentarily
believed an accursed fate had sent him his own daughter to be the
victim. Roger becomes the surrogate (366). Asriel coldly dismisses
Lyra's 'sentimentality' (369) but listens to her story and finally allows
her to question him. His answers provide a scientific and theological
framework for alternative worlds, Dust, and 'sin'.
First, Rusakov particles, or Dust, the Dust that makes the
alethiometer work. A Russian researcher, Rusakov by name,
discovered a new kind of elementary particle - peculiar for its
propensity to cling to adolescents and adults, though it ignored
children. Distressed by Rusakov's strange discovery, the Consistorial
Court of Discipline first persecuted him, but faced with the irrefutable
scientific evidence, had to admit Dust existed. They then turned it to
their own purposes, declaring it evidence of original sin (371).
Not surprisingly, the bible of Lyra's world has its own slant on
Original Sin based on a Genesis 3 consistent with her universe. The
familiar plot of the Adam and Eve story remains, but details differ: the
humans are promised by the Serpent that their daemons 'shall assume
their true f orms, and ye shall be as gods, knowing good and evil' (372).
Predictably, when the couple eats the forbidden fruit, all transpires as
the Serpent had promised, and as Lord Asriel says, '"Sin and shame
and death [came into the world]"'. The connection to Dust comes
from the Biblical admonition, 'Dust thou art, and to dust shah thou
return (373). Thus, the loss of innocence and its consequence, death,
became inseparably linked with Rusakov's 'Dust', and the Particles
became known by the metaphorical name.
Lyra has heard of Dust before, in Mrs Coulter's declaration that it is
' "an emanation from the dark principle itself' (96). With the medieval
precedent of 'oblates' (offerings), children given to the church to be
monks or nuns, Mrs Coulter formed the 'Gobblers' (the hideous
General Oblation Board) to kidnap pre-pubescent children and subject
PHILIP PULLMAN 131
them to 'intercision' in the obscurity of the Far North. Citing
precedent, the Church did not object, for in earlier times, it was
common practice to mutilate boys for the purpose of providing castrati,
'"great singers, wonderful artists'" (374). (Compare the making of
eunuchs in Le Guin's The Tombs of Atuan, where sexual mutilation is
similarly a sign of the evil and sterility of the culture.) The brutality of
intercision is not limited to children in Mrs Coulter's alternative world:
the making of zombies is practised in Africa; there are intercised staff
workers at The Station' (euphemism for Bolvangar), adults who make
perfect cogs in a war machine. The verbal associations with The
Killing Fields' and the surgical operation known as 'lobotomy' in our
own world underscore Pullman's social/political criticism of 'real' world
atrocities.
The 'other universe' behind the Northern Lights is, as Asriel tells
Lyra,
'One of uncountable billions of parallel worlds. The witches have
known about them for centuries, but the first theologians to
prove their existence mathematically were excommunicated fifty
or more years ago.' (NL: 376)
Using the mundane example of tossing a coin, he illustrates how when
one possibility collapses in this world, another world splits off from this
one, where the other 'possibility' - the one that did not happen here -
springs into being (NL: 377).
There is an analogy here with a writer's creation of alternative
fantasy worlds: by posing 'what if?' questions, the writer brings these
'possible' other worlds into being imaginatively, through the astonish-
ing 'energy' of words, happily an enterprise requiring no blood sacrifice.
Alternative worlds in The Subtle Knife
In The Subtle Knif e the speculation on alternative worlds continues
when Will and Lyra think about
how many tiny chances had conspired to bring them to this place.
Each of those chances might have gone a different way. Perhaps
in another world another Will had not seen the window in
Sunderland Avenue, and had wandered on tired and lost toward
the Midlands until he was caught. And in another world another
Pantalaimon had persuaded another Lyra not to stay in the
retiring room, and another Lord Asriel had been poisoned, and
another Roger had survived to play with that Lyra forever on the
roofs and in the alleys of another unchanging Oxford. (SK: 265)
Thus Pullman engages with the 'what if?' questions over the Roads Not
Taken. His thoughts on this concept, termed the 'phase space' in
dynamics, and how it applies to his choices as a writer, are further
elaborated in his Patrick Hardy Lecture, 'Let's write it in red' (1998: 47 ff.).
In the close of Northern Lights, Asriel makes a Promethean pledge to
destroy '"all the Dust, all the death, the sin, the misery, the
destructiveness in the world . . . Death is going to die"' (377) - a
statement he disavows in The Amber Spyglass, telling Marisa Coulter
that he knew she would prefer a lie to hearing his true intention (AS:
381). (His stated intention to destroy death compares with Cob's
attempt to escape mortality in Le Guin's The Farthest Shore, where
similarly the hubristic denial of natural processes bodes colossal
disaster, including irreversible damage to the world's ecology.)
Alternative worlds in The Amber Spyglass
Besides expanding on the alternative worlds of the preceding two
books, The Amber Spyglass reveals the existence of a time limit on the
individual's survival in an alien world. Will's father's ghost warns in
their parting scene:
'Your daemon can only live its full life in the world it was born in.
Elsewhere it will eventually sicken and die. We can travel, if
there are openings into other worlds, but we can only live in our
own.' (AS: 363)
Lord Asriel's 'great enterprise' will fail, for this reason: ' "We have to
build the Republic of Heaven where we are, because for us there is no
elsewhere"' (AS: 363). Thus he states a key theme of His Dark
Materials: there are limits, and the survival of human beings and their
daemons is linked to a 'local' universe. The speech foreshadows the
destinies of Lyra and Will as star-crossed lovers, whose separation is
sealed by their births into different worlds.
Dr Mary Malone's adventures continue in a new universe of the
Mulefa, the lovable deer-sized, wheeled mammals with horned heads
and short trunks like elephants (AS: 90). Pullman remarks that the
Mulefa 'embody harmony with the environment' and laughingly likens
their approach to life to that of Californians - 'a state of happy
fulfillment in the physical processes of life' ('Darkness Visible', Pt. 2).
In their respect for the integrity of nature, their sustainable energy
source (the 'renewable' seed pod 'oil'), and their creatively synergistic
relationship with other sentient beings, they are living exemplars of
ideal ecologists. In their world, Malone becomes a cultural anthro-
pologist (a la Margaret Mead), learning their language, compiling a
PHILIP PULLMAN 133
dictionary, and through their mutual 'invention' of the amber spyglass,
finally coming to an understanding of how 'sraf (their equivalent of
'Dust' or shadow particles) connects with her own research into the
nature of consciousness (AS: 131, 235-6).
Yet another alternative world enters the narrative at the close of the
first chapter, through the italicized passage narrating Lyra's dream. She
lies, Sleeping-Beauty-like, in the cave where she is protected - and
drugged and imprisoned - by Mrs Coulter (one of a number of fairy-
tale elements that add texture to the story). The ghost of Roger cries to
her out of a company of shadowy, voiceless figures, situated on 'a great
plain where no light shone f rom the iron'dark sky, a place out of time
where millions of feet had flattened the ground, 'the end of all places
and the last of all the worlds' (AS: 8). A dismal place, evocative of the
classical limbo, complete with a Charon-like boatman, 'crippled and
bent ... aged beyond age' (AS: 280). The hapless inhabitants are
tormented by harpies, as Lyra discovers later. The cinematic technique
of 'cutting' from Lyra's world to Roger's continues, effectively creating
the dramatic expectation that the worlds will converge. The 'ghosts'
dramatically contrast with the live, warm presences of Will, Lyra, the
Gallivespians, and their dragonfly steeds (supposed to be daemons by
the bereft ghost-children): the living feel the 'light and lifeless' shades
pass through their bodies, 'to warm themselves at the flowing blood
and the strong-beating hearts' and hear their whispers 'no louder than
dry leaves falling' (AS: 296-7). (Compare the poignancy of the scene
from Homer's Odyssey wherein Odysseus tries to embrace the shade of
his dead mother in Hades (II, 204 ff.).)
Human nature in His Dark Materials
Human is that moment when the universe becomes aware of
itself. (Teilhard de Chardin)
Pullman's depiction of human nature contradicts the view of
mainstream Christian theology, which views the child as intrinsically
'sinful' by nature. Rather, if Lyra may serve as a guide, the child is
'mischievous', rebellious against adult authority, but in a state of
unconscious 'grace'. There is no sentimentality in Pullman's view,
however, as may be seen in the abandoned children of Cittagazze, who
behave in a lawless, bloodthirsty manner towards Will and Lyra
(compare William Golding's teacher-less children in Lord of the Flies).
These abandoned urchins are a special case, but the children of Will's
world also exhibit cruelty in their treatment of his emotionally
disturbed mother: as he tells Lyra, 'She was j ust different and they
hated her' (SK: 262). On the other hand, Will and Lyra, though still
children themselves, show compassion; Lyra, for example, overcomes
her instinctive revulsion and holds the 'hideously mutilated creature'
safe as she clings to lorek Byrnison on their return to the campsite of
Harder Coram (NL: 216). Will similarly shows compassion for his
mother. The simplistic categories of 'good' and 'evil' do not fit. Rather,
the children display the capacity for both good and evil acts. Dr
Malone's observation applies: 'good' and 'evil' are '"names for what
people do, not what they are . . . People are too complicated to have
simple labels'" (AS: 447).
From Pullman's perspective, 'Sin, or what churches have called sin,
is in fact a very important stage in human development' (Parsons and
Nicholson, 1999: 124). He says in his interview with Julia Eccleshare:
What I really wanted to do was Paradise Lost in 1200 pages. From
the beginning I knew the shape of the story. It's the story of the
Fall, which is the story of how what some would call sin, but I
would call consciousness, comes to us. (1996: 15)
The 'fall' into consciousness is 'good,' and thus it follows that Eve must
be tempted. Satan in this scenario 'is understood to be good rather
than evil'. In the Biblical story (Genesis 3), Satan was instrumental in
bringing about what Pullman calls 'the best thing, the most important
thing that ever happened to us, and if we had our heads on straight on
this issue, we would have churches dedicated to Eve instead of the
Virgin Mary' (Parsons and Nicholson, 1999: 119).
Much has been written about John Milton's and others' treatments
of this idea of' the fortunate fall' ('f elix culpa
1
), but it can be summed up
in the words of the medieval hymn, 'O Felix Cu/pa,' paraphrased by
Salandra: 'O happy SinJO blessed crime |O precious theft (Dear
disobedience! Adam, blest thief not of the Apple (But of Mercy,
Clemency, and Glory' (quoted in Milton: 465 as note to Adam's cry in
Paradise Lost, XII, 469-78). Pullman's view does not posit the necessity
of a divine redemption, nor of the 'Mercy' and 'Clemency' of medieval
theology; rather, a young girl - Lyra - unwittingly plays the role of
'saviour' of humanity (with Will's participation), in ignorance of her
importance in the grand scheme of things, and with the blessing of Dr
Malone, the rebel angels, the witches, Lee Scoresby, and indeed all
those who love her.
The Amber Spyglass elaborates on human nature as tripartite. After
the alethiometer tells Lyra the knife will enable her and Will to visit
the Land of the Dead, Will declares there has to be 'a third part': a part
different from the body and its daemon (AS: 166). Later, in another
PHILIP PULLMAN 135
context, Dr Malone draws a parallel with Catholic teaching: St Paul
said the human is composed of ' "spirit ['ghost'] and soul ['daemon']
and body'" (AS: 439).
Mary Malone as 'Serpent' and visionary
Mary plays the Serpent by telling Lyra and Will the story of her own
awakening to sexual awareness, in which a taste of marzipan plays a
pivotal part (AS: 441 ff.). The marzipan calls for comparison with
Marcel Proust's taste of madeleine in Marcel Proust's A la recherche du
temps perdu - where it functions to represent the simultaneity of past
and present in memory. Here, Mary's story of its role in stirring her
sexual desires serves as a catalyst for the arousal of sensual awareness
in Lyra and Will. This is rendered in a striking metaphor in Lyra's
case:
[She] felt as if she had been handed the key to a great house she
hadn't known was there, a house that was somehow inside her,
and as she turned the key, deep in the darkness of the building
she felt other doors opening too, and lights coming on ... [It]
stood waiting, quiet, expectant. (AS: 444)
Mary Malone's spiritual autobiography prepares the groundwork for the
resolution of The Amber Spyglass. From the time she is first introduced
in The Subtle Knif e, it is evident that she seeks answers to questions of
what Paul Tillich calls 'ultimate concern'. Finding institutional religion
empty, she has left the Roman Catholic Church, sought enlightenment
in Eastern spiritual practice, experienced mystical communication with
'Angels' through her computer (with Lyra's help), and had an out-of-
body experience among the mulef a. During the latter, she gains insight
into the nature of Dust, realizing the shadow particles are conscious,
and moreover, every conscious creature is composed partly of 'shadow-
matter' or Dust (AS: 367-8). If consciousness continues to seep from
the world, all will dissolve into oblivion.
With these insights, Mary is 'ripe' for a mystical vision. In a unitary
moment under a night sky blazing with stars, she sees the entire world
as 'alive and conscious,' a sight that restores her lost conviction that
'the whole universe was alive, and that everything was connected to
everything else by threads of meaning' (AS: 449). Yet she wonders
what her own purpose in relationship to the universe may be. Her
experience with the mulef a and observation of their 'feedback system' -
their means for keeping 'thought, imagination, feeling' from withering
away - yields an answer. Suddenly she intuits her life's purpose: to help
nature itself, 'wind, moon, clouds, leaves, grass, all those lovely things',
in their struggle to keep the Shadow-particles in this universe' and
maintain the loving bond between Matter and Dust. In exultation, she
shouts, There is [a purpose] now!' (AS: 452): she vows to become the
'Catcher' of Consciousness. Her soul-growth is joyfully fulfilled when
Serafina Pekkala helps her to see her daemon through a kind of
'double-seeing' (AS: 505 ff.).
Pullman's view of human nature compared with 'creation theology*
Taken in its entirety, His Dark Materials validates a view of human
nature congruent with what theologian Matthew Fox calls 'creation
theology,' in contrast to fall/redemption theology. Creation theology
draws upon a mystical tradition that emphasizes 'original blessing' over
'original sin', 'biophilia' (love of life) over 'necrophilia' (love of death).
Fox speaks in favour of 'the ongoing power of the flowing energy of the
Creator', rejecting the 'redemption theology' emphasis on sin, and
observes:
Let there be no question about it: what has been most lacking in
society and religion in the West for the past six centuries has
been a Via Positiva, a way or path of affirmation, thanksgiving,
ecstasy. (1983: 33)
Alhough Pullman leaves the 'creator' mysterious, he nonetheless aligns
with the path of 'affirmation, thanksgiving, ecstasy'. In a pastoral
'Garden of Eden' scene, Will and Lyra share a picnic - first bread and
cheese, then some little red fruits - evoking the apple of the Tree of
the Knowledge of Good and Evil. The description is laden with blissful
sensuality: their lips touch, they kiss, and they passionately declare
their love (AS: 465-6). Their small act of loving awareness attracts
Dust and - like a 'single pebble' placed in exactly the right spot to start
diverting 'a mighty river' into a different course (AS: 478), they cause
the Dust to reverse its direction and flow back into the world of
conscious beings. Dust begins to fall 'like snowflakes', a 'golden rain',
and Mary Malone, in a moment of Blakean vision helped by her amber
spyglass, sees their true natures:
They would seem to be made of living gold. They would seem the
true image of what human beings always could be, once they had
come into their inheritance.
The Dust pouring down from the stars had found a living home
again, and these children-no-longer children, saturated with love,
were the cause of it all. (AS: 470)
Unwittingly, Lyra and Will are fulfilling their heroic missions, not
PHILIP PULLMAN 137
through conscious striving, but through being the microcosmic means
of saturating the macrocosm with loving awareness. Later in the book,
Pullman portrays their mutual attraction more fully through a scene in
which their daemons 'settle': Will, fully aware of the meaning of what
he is doing, strokes the 'fur of [Lyra's] red-gold daemon' (Pantalaimon,
now a lithe, sinuous, graceful ferret), causing her to gasp with pleasure,
and she reciprocates by caressing Will's now visible silky, warm, cat
daemon, and the two daemons settle into their 'shapes for life':
So, wondering whether any lovers before them had made this
blissful discovery, they lay together as the earth turned slowly and
the moon and stars blazed above them. (AS: 498-9)
With a delicacy and subtlety rare in contemporary literature, Pullman
preserves an aesthetic distance and ambiguity in his treatment of the
rapture of first love.
Returning to Original Blessing: Fox notes how the medieval mystic
Julian of Norwich (credited with inventing the world enjoy in English)
'calls those who dwell on sinfulness 'foolish', and he adds:
Joy beyond measure is part of everyone's potential experience. It
is part of recovering an erotic God who plays, takes pleasure,
births, celebrates, and feels passion. Eros and hope are part of the
blessings of existence. (Fox, 1983: 19)
The 'Authority' in Pullman's cosmology
King Ogunwe shocks Marisa Coulter when he says the 'Authority'
came into being by usurping power over the angels (AS: 209-10), thus
establishing the Kingdom of Heaven. This revelation begins Mrs
Coulter's movement towards allying with Lord Asriel and the rebels
against the Authority. When questioned in an interview about his
depiction of'YHWH' (one of many names for the Authority - see AS:
31 ff.) as 'an ancient, useless, befuddled god' Pullman made several
points. The Bible portrays God as ageing (companionable to Adam and
Eve in Genesis, but becoming the 'Ancient of Days' by the book of
Daniel); also, 'befuddlement' is an inaccurate characterization of the
'final glimpse', which shows the Authority departing in his chariot
'with profound and exhausted relief. Lyra expresses compassion for
him (AS: 410-11). Pullman observes: The depiction doesn't end on a
note of antipathy, but sympathy' (Cooper, 2000: 355). The Authority
won his place by deceit (AS: 32) and is thus hardly worthy of honour.
Will and Lyra, avenging the cliff-ghast's attack on the valiant
Chevalier Tialys, witness the Authority's end: 'demented and power-
less', he dissolves in the wind after blinking his eyes at Lyra in
'innocent wonder
1
(AS: 410-11).
The contemporary proliferation of phantasmical
creatures: Why?
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, many popular books for
children and young adults feature protagonists caught in dramatic
interplay with mythical, folkloric, phantom-like beings: vampires,
witches, daemons, wizards. Consider the Harry Potter books by J. K.
Rowling, the Earthsea books, the Chrestomanci novels by Diana
Wynne Jones, and - hardly to be mentioned in the same breath - the
Goosebumps and Fear Street series of R. L. Stine. For over a decade,
Stephen King's horror novels, replete with phenomena such as extra-
sensory perception and telekinesis, have topped the informal reading
interest polls of young adults, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer reigns
supreme in the television spin-off category. Why this proliferation of
marvellous characters at this particular point in time? Is it a
phenomenon in tune with the dark side of our fin de siecle collective
unconscious, still fraught with apocalyptic fears despite the nearly
glitch-free passing of Y2K into history? Are stories of encounters with
fearsome phantoms a way of engaging our deep-seated anxieties,
putting our spectral enemies to rest by battling them in our
imaginations - calling at the same time on friendly spirits (such as
Pullman's good witches or Le Guin's wise dragons) to help us survive,
and perhaps even to evolve to a higher level of consciousness?
This blossoming of the shadow side of consciousness in books for the
young has a brighter side as well. Pullman has noted in his Patrick
Hardy lecture how contemporary children's literature has a 'spacious-
ness' not found in adult literary fiction:
Children's books, for various reasons, at this time in our literary
history, open out on a wideness and amplitude - a moral and
mental spaciousness - that adult literary fiction seems to have
turned its back on. (1998: 44)
This may serve as an apt characterization of his own spacious
imaginative landscape in His Dark Materials.
Varieties of wondrous and spectral beings
Daemons
In Pullman's universe of uncountable billions of parallel worlds, the
marvellous beings are broadly speaking of two types: the first are
PHILIP PULLMAN 139
friendly allies, helpers in the struggle for survival, such as the witch
Serafina Pekkala, the armoured bear lorek Byrnison, the mulef a, and
the Gallivespians; the second are embodiments of dangerous and
destructive alien forces, most notably the Spectres and Mrs Coulter's
army of intercized soldiers. Daemons may belong to either category,
allies or enemies, for they are extensions of their human counterparts
and in keeping with the human's spiritual intention, as for instance
Mrs Coulter's golden monkey, whose every appearance heralds an evil
purpose (until late in The Amber Spyglass). Daemons are souls in
animal form, each twinned for life with a human being, 'a thinking,
talking, feeling, animal-shaped being [usually] of the opposite sex'
(Bethune: 58). Until a person attains the age of puberty, his or her
daemon can shift shape freely; with puberty, daemons become 'fixed' in
shapes that represent their respective human's established soul states.
Thus Pullman artfully conveys the fluidity of the child's nature versus
the rigidity of the adult's, and at the same time communicates to the
reader an immediate impression of a character's essence or, in the case
of the child, the current state of the soul: eleven-year-old Lyra's
daemon, Pantalaimon, is constantly shape-shifting. Daemons are
visible in Lyra's world, hidden within in Will's world ('a silent voice
in the mind', as John Parry says, The Subtle Knif e (213)), though it is
possible to learn to see them (AS: 505) much as some people can learn
to see 'auras'. They may be, like John Parry's osprey daemon, Sayan
Kotor, 'female, bird-formed, and beautiful,' (SK: 214), or slitheringly
horrid, like Sir Charles'/Lord Boreal's snake, concealed in his sleeve
(SK: 164).
Daemons are speaking, palpable, dialogic presences, perfect allies
against loneliness; it is as though (drawing for a moment on Jungian
theory), each person's anima or animus were an embodied presence, the
perfect alter ego or soul-mate. They may be viewed in the light of the
Jungian 'anima' and 'animus', the opposite sexual energy in the male
and female psyches, respectively. The bond between the person and his
or her daemon is a sacred one, as shown by the unspoken 'law' that no
one should ever touch another's daemon (NL: 142). If the emotional
bond to one's daemon is broken, as Gerard J. Senick has observed, the
break will cause extreme damage, even death (1999: 151). However, in
The Amber Spyglass Serafina Pekkala instructs Pantalaimon in witch
lore, revealing how certain humans can, like the witches, separate from
their daemons without soul-loss (AS: 472-3). The delight Mary
Malone shows on perceiving her daemon (revealed to be an Alpine
chough (AS: 506), similar to Will's sweet wonderment on finally seeing
his daemon (AS: 482), dramatizes the Tightness of cherishing these
'soul' guides. Seraftna Pekkala sums up the purpose of daemons when
she tells Pantalaimon,' "You must help your humans, not hinder them.
You must help them and guide them and encourage them towards
wisdom. That's what daemons are for"' (AS: 473).
Pullman said of his use of daemons, in the context of the stark
'psychological' realism of his fantasy, '"I use them to embody and
picture some truths about human personality which I couldn't picture
so easily without them"' ('Achuka Interview,' section 4); these words
connect well with Seraftna Pekkala's answer to Lyra's question about
why people have daemons, first, that no one knows, but "'It's what
makes us different from animals'" (NL: 316). Where the life of the
soul is concerned, fantasy is more 'real' than the literature of so-called
'realism', and daemons are part and parcel of Pullman's psychological
realism, no mere fantasy devices. The genesis of his daemons was
'sudden' and 'unexpected', but they do have 'a sort of provenance'.
One clear origin is Socrates' daemon. Another is the old idea of
'guardian angel' (<http:/ / www.achuka.co.uk/ ppint.htm>section 9).
His Dark Materials is 'not fantasy but stark realism' in the sense that 'it
is realistic, in psychological terms' ('Achuka Interview'). (It is
interesting to compare the 'truth' of the soul expressed through the
daemon with the concept of the person's 'true' name as the individual's
true essence in Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea books.)
There is actually a long tradition of using animals to symbolize moral
qualities of humans - think for example of Aesop's fables, or of myths
in many traditions which use animals as totemic representations of
human personality types, as for example the wolf for a 'predator'-type
person, the snake for the duplicitous, and so on. The daemon is
reminiscent of the animal guide in folklore, and like the animal guide,
the daemon 'knows the way', instinctively, the right path for the
character to travel.
In Northern Lights, Jerry, the able seaman, explains the difference
between child and adult daemons to Lyra at the point where she needs
reassurance that growing up and having your daemon become 'settled'
is not to be feared. At any rate you then know what kind of person you
are. When Lyra objects that a person's daemon might settle in a shape
repulsive to the individual, Jerry responds that there are plenty of folk
who wish they had a lion daemon yet end up with a poodle (NL: 167).
Being an adult entails accepting the narrowing of one's potential
possible 'shapes', learning to live with a diminishment of the protean
possibilities inherent in the child. As the wise seaman implies, there
may be some comfort to an adult in having a firmer basis for self-trust
and a clearer awareness of limits. Pullman emphasizes, however, that
PHILIP PULLMAN 141
the fixing of the daemon is not morally deterministic: one whose adult
daemon is a snake still for example has the choice of being a 'good
snake person' or a 'bad snake person' (Parsons and Nicholson, 1999:
128). Individual moral responsibility remains, regardless of the form in
which the daemon may 'settle'.
Spectres
In contrast to the soul-twin daemons, Pullman's Spectres, first
introduced in the world of Cittagazze, are soul-eaters, phantoms who
snatch and devour the daemons of any hapless adults who fall into
their clutches. Stanislaus Grumman, explaining Spectres to Lee
Scoresby, the aeronaut, compares them to vampires, but their diet is
not carnivorous; instead of blood, ' "the Spectres' food is attention. A
conscious and informed interest in the world"' (SJC: 280). Thus
children, less focused and intense in their attention, are not so
attractive to these predators. Since it is 'attention', consciousness,
which creates the world and makes it possible to delight in the energy
and worth of the phenomena presented to the mind, Spectres rob
humans of all that makes life valuable, leaving their victims dead-in-
life.
Spectres came into the world of Cittagazze through the misuse of the
technology of the Knife: Giocomo Paradisi explains how they appeared
when the intelligentsia of the Guild of the Torre degli Angeli -
'alchemists, philosophers, men of learning', were probing into the
deepest secrets of 'the bonds that held the smallest particles of matter
together'. (The parallel with nuclear research that resulted in splitting
the atom is unmistakable. There may also be an allusion here to the
medieval idea that certain knowledge is 'God's privetee, in Chaucer's
expression - not to be revealed to mere humans.) Pullman plays upon
the dual meanings of the word 'bonds' as 'something that binds' and
'something that could be bought and sold and exchanged and
converted' - bonds in the mercantile sense (SK: 187). The implication
is clear: another aspect of the misuse of knowledge is its corruption by
commercial interests. By undoing the 'bonds,' these scholars with more
knowledge than wisdom and more desire for gain than for protecting
the sanctity of relationships, let the Spectres into the world of
Cittagazze - though the actual origin of the Spectres remains a
mystery.
Later, in The Amber Spyglass, Lyra and Will learn from their
daemons the truth revealed by the witches - the connection between
the Subtle Knife's wounds to nature and the genesis of Spectres (AS:
483). In The Subtle Knif e, they are thought to come from another
world, or from the darkness of space (SK: 187). Joachim Lorenz
explains in his history of his world that the Spectres had caused the
people of Cittagazze to become thieves, like the magpies for which
their city is named, for they have lost their capacity to create (SK:
135). Once Cittagazze had been a rich and thriving city, replete with
arts and crafts, a cornucopia of harmony and plenty for its happy
citizens, an earthly paradise. The Spectres changed all that (134).
The Spectres are brought into close association with 'our' world
(Will Parry's world in The Subtle Knife) shortly after Will's battle with
Tullio to obtain the knife, which cost him two fingers of his left hand -
the sign of the bearer. Will sees that Tullio's obsessive behaviour
resembles that of his mother, and remarks that the Spectres in his
world may be called 'something else' (SK: 224). This seems to allude to
the hallucinations of paranoid schizophrenia. Just as daemons are
interiorized in Will's world, Spectres also are hidden within. The Liber
Angelorum (which Pullman cleverly attributes to an unreliable
narrator, leaving its authenticity in doubt) states the 'Spectres are
corrupted angels' (<http://www.randomhouse.com/features/golden-
compass/ subtleknife/ angelorum.html >).
Witches
Pullman's witches are tantalizing creations, and most of them belong to
the 'allies' category, with Serafina Pekkala the most prominent and
pivotal witch character (her name deriving from Seraph, a celestial
being who hovers above the deity's throne in ancient Hebrew belief).
Serafina responds to Lyra's curiosity about Serafina's seeming immunity
to the cold: witches f eel the cold, but it doesn't harm them, and they
refrain from wearing heavy clothing because they love the sensations of
' "the bright tingle of the stars, or the music of the Aurora, or best of all
the silky feeling of moonlight on our skin"' (NL: 313).
Besides having such potential for ecstasy, the witches have life spans
of as much as a thousand years: Serafina herself, at three hundred, is a
paragon of beauty. The deaths of witches are administered by the
goddess of the dead, Yambe-Akka, 'older than the tundra', whose
approach to the one whose time has come, all smiles and tenderness,
offers a gentle passage out of life (NL: 314), far preferable to a
rendezvous with Dr Kevorkian. This longevity has its downside, for it
renders the love between a witch and a human (for example, Serafina
Pekkala and Farder Coram) inherently tragic (NL: 315). Unlike
human beings, witches have never been 'worried about Dust', and
indeed, they have none of the troublesome propensity of humans to pry
into the secrets and strangenesses of the universe, such as the Tartars'
PHILIP PULLMAN 143
practice of making holes in their skulls (NL: 318).
Witches are at the centre of some of the novels' most transcendent
moments, as well as some of their most appallingly hideous. Pullman's
emotional range, from the height of joie de vivre to the depths of hellish
despair, can be illustrated in the contrast between the painful scene in
which Mrs Coulter tortures Lena Feldt in an effort to wring from her
the true name of Lyra, with the scene depicting the ecstatic experience
of Ruta Skadi, flying through the brilliance of the night sky with the
angels, possessed by a 'fierce joy' that is both spiritual and sensual
(SK:142). Pullman conveys her highly charged sexual energies when he
describes her as living 'so brilliantly in her nerves that she set up a
responding thrill in the nerves of anyone close by' (SK: 270).
In contrast to Skadi's buoyant joy in life is the agony of Lena Feldt
under torture. Trying to save herself, she screams out the true name of
Lyra: 'Eve! Mother of all! Eve, again! Mother Eve!' (SK: 314), but it is
alt in vain, for the Spectre devours her daemon anyway, and then feeds
on Lena Feldt herself. This is Pullman's consummate description of
death-in-life:
She felt a nausea of the soul, a hideous and sickening despair, a
melancholy weariness so profound that she was going to die of it.
Her last conscious thought was disgust at life; her senses had lied
to her. The world was not made of energy and delight but of
foulness, betrayal, and lassitude. Living was hateful, and death
was no better, and from end to end of the universe this was the
first and last and only truth. (SK: 314-15)
Witches are mortal, but because they live for hundreds of years, they
stand in contrast to 'short-lives', ordinary humans. They are however
like humans in their fallibility and pride, as Juta Kamainen illustrates
when she kills Stanislaus Grumman because he spurned her love.
Ironically, this occurs j ust moments after Grumman/Parry and Will
experience their epiphany of recognition, and the passionate witch kills
herself in remorse for mindlessly depriving Will of his father.
Cliff-ghasts
Cliff-ghasts are the ghastly beings that live on cliffs in the northern
regions of Lyra's world (NL: 224). They have 'leathery wings and
hooked claws . . . A flat head, with bulging eyes and a wide frog mouth'
plus an 'abominable stink' (NL: 320). They enter into the action of The
Subtle Knif e when 'a beast of leathery skin and matted fur' falls from the
sky and lands at the feet of Will and Lyra, shot down in a battle with
the witches (SK: 269). Rudi Skadi tells of overhearing the cliff-ghasts
talk gleefully of Aesahaettr (SK: 272). Aesahaettr is mistakenly thought
by Ruta Skadi and the other witches to be a person but is actually the
subtle knife. A spiteful pseudo-oracle, the 'Grandfather' of the ciiff-
ghasts, nastily prophesies victory for The Authority' over Lord Asriel
because the latter 'hasn't got Aesahaettr. Without Aesahaettr, he and
all his forces will go down to defeat. And then we shall feast for years,
my children!' (SK: 273).
Pullman's evocation of disgust at this point is in the tradition of
Jonathan Swift's depiction of the Yahoos, or better, his portrait of the
Struldbrugs of Laputa, cursed with perpetual life at the cost of
degeneracy. There is however a great difference: Pullman's spacious,
lyrical habit of mind has nothing in common with Swift's obsessive,
ingrained mood of savage indignation.
Armoured bears
Pullman's carefully crafted balancing of the portraits of the two
armoured bears, lorek Byrnison and lofur Raknison, exemplifies his
signature technique of 'doubling' (even the names have a certain
suggestion of 'twinning') - balancing the true princeliness of the former
with the pretensions of the latter, a usurper of the throne: the dignified
'father figure' is posed against the buffoon. The 'panser'bjomeS great
white sentient armoured bears, are introduced in Northern Lights as the
guards of the fortress of Svalbard, where Lord Asriel has been
imprisoned for his heretical stance vis-d-vis the Church (NL: 95). Lyra
comes to love lorek passionately, and he gives her the love and
protection Lord Asriel, her biological father, denies her. The doubling
of lorek and lofur in a structural sense demands their duel, and that is
brought about by Lyra's clever ruse - to pose as lofur's 'daemon' in an
attempt to see lorek restored to his rightful place as king of the bears.
In his portrayal of the physical rottenness of lofur Raknison's dung-
covered fortress, which reeks with perfume that fails to cover up the
stench, Pullman shows both the foolish bear's moral corruption and his
own command of the art of satire, including a Swiftian finesse in the
use of scatological imagery.
lorek Byrnison, being a bear, has no daemon, but he has so
wonderfully crafted his own armour that it might as well be one. He
says to Lyra, ' "A bear's armour is his soul, j ust as your daemon is your
soul"' (NL: 196-7). Thus, when it is stolen, he suffers as deeply as a
human severed from his or her daemon. He demands the restoration of
his armour as a condition of joining the campaign against Bolvangar
(NL: 182). Lyra actually restores the armour to him, with the help of
Scoresby (NL: 197ff.). Later, in a conversation with Lyra, lorek tells
PHILIP PULLMAN 145
how he made his own armour from 'sky metal', essentially, as Lyra
observes, making his own soul, something no human can do.
The starkest contrast between lorek and lofur comes through the
description of their clothing: lofur Raknison and his courtiers vie for
merit with their outward trappings of 'plumes and badges and tokens',
and some carry little dolls that seem to be pretend-daemons; in
contrast, lorek Byrnison is 'pure and certain and absolute' in his
demeanour even though his armour is 'rusty and dented' (SK: 345,
349), for 'he had made it and it fitted him. They were one. lofur was
not content with his armour; he wanted another soul as well. He was
restless while lorek was still.' As Lyra realizes, she is not seeing j ust two
bears, but 'two kinds of beardom ... two futures, two destinies' (SK:
349). lofur can be tricked because he lacks the 'grace' of a true internal
compass; hence Lyra's success in fooling him, and lorek's victory over
him in their unequal contest.
When lorek Byrnison gives Lyra a new name - 'Lyra Silvertongue' -
which she wins through her rhetorical skill in tricking lofur Raknison -
he is acting in the tradition of mentor figures in fantasy, who bestow
new names at a pivotal point in the protagonist's life. Thus the
moment marks a new self-awareness on Lyra's part, a strengthening of
the bond between her and the princely bear, and by foregrounding
Lyra's rhetorical skill, it foreshadows the storytelling theme so central
to The Amber Spyglass.
In The Amber Spyglass lorek first reappears in 'Scavengers,'
introducing the theme of ecological disaster: The whole of nature
was overturned' (AS: 37) and King lorek is preparing to move his bears
south to escape starvation. Serafina Pekkala's news of Lee Scoresby's
death persuades the armoured bear to go first in pursuit of Lyra to the
scene where Scoresby's uncorrupted remains lie preserved by the
witch's spell; once there, he shows his reverence by accepting the last
'gift' that Scorseby can give - his flesh and blood, in a kind of
sacramental meal (AS: 42). In a fortuitous meeting, Will's and lorek's
paths cross as they are both seeking Lyra. Initially enemies, Will and
lorek join their quests when Will's demonstration of the power of the
subtle knife enables him to play the role of peacemaker (AS: 106 ff. ).
'The Forge' shows lorek at his finest, a mythic, Hephaestus- or
Vulcan-like figure, reforging the broken subtle knife (broken when
Will loses his concentration, seeing his mother's face in Mrs Coulter's
(AS: 153)). lorek's pure, clear perceptions lead him to mistrust the
knife, and prophetically, he speaks, in Aristotelian fashion, of its
unknown 'intentions': ' "The intentions of a tool are what it does. A
hammer intends to strike, a vice intends to hold fast, a lever intends to
lift. They are what it is made for. But sometimes a tool may have uses
that you don't know'" (AS: 181). The oracular 'reading' Lyra receives
in response to a question posed to the alethiometer (should lorek
repair it or not?) helps little: * "The knife would be the death of Dust,
but ... it was the only way to keep Dust alive"' (AS: 183). It is Lyra's
pleading on behalf of Roger that moves the faithful bear to carry out
the task. Ironically, he feels he may be ' "as foolish as lofur Rakinson"'
in doing so - and he is so troubled by doubt (not a 'bear thing') that he
fears he is becoming human, denying his true, bear nature (AS: 191).
His integrity is reflected in the Zen-like advice he gives Will: he must
keep his attention on his task, for ' "If your mind is divided, the knife
will break'" (AS: 194). Indeed, lorek's bear 'conscience' seems purer
than any human's: yet his reluctant act, dubious in the light of his
scrupulosity, makes Lyra's and Will's epic journey to the World of the
Dead possible.
lorek's reappearance in 'Authority's End' seems anti-climactic,
though the reunion with Lee Scoresby's ghost gives the scene a human
warmth in contrast with the violence of the struggle. The aeronaut is
given a kind of 'apotheosis':
The last little scrap of the consciousness that had been the
aeronaut Lee Scoresby floated upwards, j ust as his great balloon
had done so many times . . . [and] passed through the heavy
clouds and came out under the brilliant stars, where the atoms of
his beloved daemon Hester were waiting for him. (AS: 418)
Angels
Angels are introduced in The Subtle Knif e, where they respond to
questions posed through the computer of Dr Mary Malone; they also
guard Stanislaus Grumman (up to a point), and later Lyra and Will.
Pullman's angels have a Blakean 'feel' about them, reminiscent of the
illuminated, architectonic figures of the great poet's artwork. They are
known to themselves as bene elim [Hebrew, sons - or progeny - of the
gods], as Joachim Lorenz, leader of a group of ill-starred exiles from
Cittagazze, explains to Serafma. Others call them 'Watchers.' They are
beings of spirit, and if they have flesh, it is of an ethereal sort different
from that of humans. Their calling is to carry messages from heaven to
earth (SK: 137). It is tempting to compare them, in their role as liminal
beings (intermediaries between the divine and the human realms) with
Le Guin's dragons; there is a further parallel in that both Pullman's
angels and Le Guin's dragons have intermingled with men and women
and had offspring by the latter, so that as it is written in The Liber
PHILIP PULLMAN 147
Angelorum, 'we can all claim to be descendants of angels' (though in
the case of Le Guin's Earthsea inhabitants, only some have dragon
lineage).
The Liber Angelorum purports to set down in a systematic fashion a
digest of angel lore, but its contents are spurious and its provenance
suspect. The dedicated bibliophile who patched it together had no way
of telling 'what was truth, what was speculation, or even what was stark
heresy, set down only in order to be refuted' (a description to arouse
torment in the mind of any archivist). Pullman has created an
admirable example of a postmodern text, a text with no fixed meaning.
Moreover, he shows how an author in a digital world can 'play' in his
own 'phase space'. 'Phase space' is 'the untrackable complexity of
changing systems ... to serve as a metaphor for . . . the notional space
which contains not j ust the actual consequences of the present
moment, but all the possible consequences' (Pullman, 1998: 47). In
'Playing in the phase space: contemporary forms of fictional pleasure,'
Margaret Mackey has pointed out that the concept of 'phase space' can
help us conceptualize how in the contemporary world stories have
'nebulous' boundaries, and are subject to forms of textual 'play' that
often cross media boundaries. New technologies make possible 'hybrid'
story forms: as for example, adaptations for film, television, audio,
video games, CD-ROMS, collaborative online fiction, web sites, and so
on. (In addition to the hypertext on the Liber Angelorum, there is a
hypertext giving the history of the alethiometer, instructions for how to
read it, and a glossary of its symbols <http://www.randomhouse.com/
features/goldencompass/goldencompass/aleth.html>). Mackey points
out how Pullman offers 'An example of textual play that challenges our
thinking about literary practice' in our era, as well as providing 'useful
critical vocabulary for discussing these matters' (1999: 17). Peter
Hunt's comments (89 above) on the extensions to Pratchett's
Discworld in cyberspace - where thousands of readers are combining
their imaginations to create 'a fluid, corporate fantasy' - deal with the
'phase space' phenomenon: the cyberplayground where co-created
hypernarratives are spawned.
The Liber Angelorum points out the 'envy' of angels for 'the power
and brilliance of our senses,' which should fill us humans with 'bliss' (a
central theme of the trilogy) as well as the angels' lack of all passions or
affections, except one - 'curiosity, or intellectual passion' (contradicted
incidentally by the passionate attachment between Balthamos and
Baruch in The Amber Spyglass, though as Baruch was 'once a man' (AS:
16), this may explain the apparent discrepancy).
Aesthetically, the most important quality of the angels is that they
are 'lighted beings' (SK: 139); they inspire some of Pullman's most
shimmering language, as when he calls their true form 'more like
architecture than organism, like huge st ruct ures composed of
intelligence and feeling' (SK: 140-1).
More word-painting occurs when Serafina, observing the angels
guarding the sleeping Will and Lyra, intuitively understands 'the idea
of pilgrimage' (though there is no word for it in her world): she
suddenly knows 'why these beings would wait for thousands of years
and travel vast distances in order to be close to something important,
and how they would feel differently for the rest of time, having been
briefly in its presence.' The vivid and cadenced language gives
substance to these 'beautiful pilgrims of rarefied light' (SK: 276) in a
scene heavy with overtones like those of a painting of a sacred scene
from the high Renaissance.
The two closely bonded angels who guard over Will (seen initially
without being named at the close of The Subtle Knif e), are Balthamos
and Baruch. Pullman sensitively portrays their passionately homoerotic
relationship (AS: 26). Lacking physical bodies, they seem psychically
almost one, as when Balthamos knows telepathically of Baruch's death.
Baruch's fraternal relationship to the terrible Regent Metatron
(once Enoch) was broken for reasons not explicitly stated (AS: 63).
Pullman draws upon the apocryphal tradition, which 'suggests that
Enoch the Patriarch was taken into heaven and transformed into the
angel Metatron' (Cooper, 2000: 355); Metatron has become the 'Regent',
who acts for the now enfeebled 'Authority'. He first appears in Spyglass
when he makes a vicious attack on Will (AS: 28 ff.). Balthamos' final
act - holding the stunned Father Gomez's head under water until he is
dead - is both a grotesque inversion of a baptismal rite and a kind of
heroic memorial to the memory of Baruch (AS: 469).
The Amber Spyglass introduces another angel of great importance,
Xaphania. She is initially referred to only as 'One of those who came
later . . . Wiser than he' (the Authority); she was banished for
perceiving that the emperor had no clothes. The rebel angels have
served her from the time of the first War in Heaven (AS: 32).
Pullman's portrait of Xaphania may owe something to the gnostic belief
in the 'divine Mother', or 'Wisdom' (Greek 'Sophia'), in turn a
translation of the Hebrew hokhmah (Pagels, 1981: 64). 'Sophia' is
identical to the Latin 'Sapientia', derived from the verb sapere ('to
taste'), a significant etymology, for it suggests 'wisdom' means knowing
how to savour life, how to respond to it with a sensuous appreciation
and gusto - a view of life in harmony with the values that emerge from
His Dark Materials in its entirety. Xaphania is unclothed, signifying
PHILIP PULLMAN 149
perhaps her total naturalness and lack of pretence; her countenance is
ageless, 'austere and compassionate', and she knows 'hearts' intuitively,
as Will and Lyra sense (AS: 490). She shares her ancient and arcane
knowledge about Dust with Lyra and Will: Dust can be created by the
'thinking and feeling and reflecting' of conscious beings, by their
'gaining wisdom and passing it on', a lesson in what psychologist Eric
Erickson calls 'generativity', a gift to coming generations. With Will
and Lyra, she is sorrowful over the necessity of closing the windows
between worlds (all but one, to be kept open so the 'ghosts' may
emerge from the World of the Dead) (AS: 492).
Xaphania expresses an important theme when she distinguishes
between true 'imagination' - it is not pretending, as Lyra first thinks -
but rather 'a form of seeing' (AS: 523). One might compare the
Romantic idea of the imagination as, in the words of Percy Bysshe
Shelley, 'the great instrument of moral good', which possesses the
power to create what the Romantic poets called 'a heterocosm - a
world other than this one - which, once alive imaginally, can inspire
action' (Watkins, 1987: 72, 74-5). Pullman's characterization of
Xaphania may take some inspiration from the gnostic idea of the deity
as a 'dyad whose nature includes both masculine and feminine
elements'. It thus can serve as a corrective to what Elaine Pagels, in her
historical study of metaphors for the divine, calls the virtual
disappearance of the feminine from the orthodox Christian tradition
(Pagels, 1981: 68).
The shaman, and the place of Lyra and Will in 'witch lore*
Will's long-lost father, Stanislaus Grumman/John Parry, becomes a
shaman through the process of trepanning (making small holes in the
skull), an initiation rite practised by the Tartars (SK: 214). His
shamanic powers have enabled him to travel to many worlds, to gain
knowledge of the subtle knife and its powers, and to practise herbal
healing (particularly by means of bloodmoss, which heals Will's knife
wound). Trepanning induces mystic consciousness, opening the mind
to messages from beyond; it seems to be an ancient technology for
communicating with 'Dust', a theory supported by a concentration of
Dust (or shadow particles) on the trepanned skulls in the Royal
Geological Museum (SK: 77).
Whereas Will's father achieved shaman-status by means of a
deliberate act, Lyra and Will unwittingly earn their 'witch-power' by
passing through a desolate region of the north, where no daemons can
enter - the very point on the shores of the world of the dead, where
they were obliged to leave their daemons before entering the
netherworld. Henceforth, they are like the witches, whose daemons
can remain part of'one whole being; but now they can roam free' (AS:
472-3).
The act of leaving Pan is Lyra's prophesied 'betrayal,' yet despite the
great suffering they both had to endure, this is paradoxically also the
means whereby she and Will were initiated into their 'witch-power',
which they must keep secret from other mortals (AS: 516).
Gallivespians, mule/a, harpies and ghosts
The Amber Spyglass introduces the Gallivespians - Lord Roke, Lady
Salmakia, and Chevalier Tialys - with their lodestone resonators,
devices enabling them to communicate through a remarkable
technology that seems related to physicist Rupert Sheldrake's theory
of 'morphic resonance'. Sheldrake builds upon a Vibrational' theory of
nature wherein forms and behaviours are transmitted across both space
and time by means of repetition, thus forming 'habits': the more similar
the forms, the greater the degree of resonance (Sheldrake, 1989: 371).
'Quantum entanglement' - so-called in the novel - reflects Pullman's
penchant for science as well as his fascination with sound (witness his
analogies between his work and 'a piece of music' with contrasting
'loud' and 'quiet' passages ('Darkness Visible,' Pt. 1). Gallivespians are
no more than a hand-span in height (about the size of Jonathan Swift's
Lilliputians, their possible literary ancestors), and are 'short-lived,' with
a nine- to ten-year lifespan. They never age, but instead die in the 'full
strength and vigor of their prime' (AS: 75). Their small size makes
them ideal spies; their short lifespans make them inherently tragic
figures. Allies of Lord Asriel and his rebel angels, they help Will and
Lyra liberate the ghosts of the World of the Dead as well. Their
Dragonfly steeds are ironically thought to be daemons by the ghost-
children of the netherworld who long to connect again with their own
daemons (AS: 296); they also bring out Lyra's dawning maternal
instincts. The noble Madame Oxenteil rescues Lyra and Will from
Metatron's forces and restores them to their daemons (AS: 411 ff.).
The charming mulefa are introduced in The Amber Spyglass, when
Mary Malone enters their world in flight from the Spectres. The
mulef a's evolutionary path has diverged from that of humans in Mary's
world: they are strongly communal beings who live in synergy with the
seed pod trees. They look back on an idyllic, a Golden Age (AS: 132;
compare the world of Cittdgazze) but their natural world is now in
decline. Mary becomes a kind of cultural anthropologist in her efforts
to help solve the mystery of why their trees, so essential to their
pastoral life, are dying. Their lives are based on sound ecological
PHILIP PULLMAN 151
values, which recognize their interdependency with nature. Mary
comes to understand them intuitively and love them for their wisdom,
eventually seeing how they connect with the question that has
preoccupied her for several years - the nature and significance of Dust
(sraf in their language, meaning 'us'). Their creation story, which
includes a 'snake' (make-like) (AS: 223-4), suggests how their
evolution of consciousness parallels that of humans in Mary's world,
though with a stronger sense of community (AS: 223 ff.). Pullman has
said they 'stand for a state of happy fulfillment in the physical processes
of life - they manage their world completely - because they have what
we call consciousness' ('Darkness Visible', Pt. 2). Their respect for the
integrity of their environment, their gentleness for all sentient beings
underscores Pullman's strong ecological theme. Mary's experiences in
the mulef a world help to characterize her as a physicist of the Fritjof
Capra variety - a scientist-mystic. Appropriately, the mulef a are given
the honour of planting and maintaining the grove around the 'holy'
place where the ghosts emerge from the world of the dead (AS: 502), a
joyful assignment befitting their natures.
Harpies have a long literary tradition, going back to classical
mythology; they also occur in Dante's I nf erno (XIII, 101), where they
feed on the living sprouts that grow from the torn souls of suicides. In
Pullman's underworld, they are at first hostile to Lyra and Will but are
gradually won over by Lyra's 'silver' tongue. 'No-Name' (the chief
harpy) embodies the universal desire for stories, has no time for fanciful
tall tales and the echoes from her scream - "'Liar.' Liar! Liar.'"' give
the impression she is screaming Lyra's name, 'so that Lyra and tiar were
one and the same thing' (AS: 293). Through the harpies Lyra comes to
comprehend the vast difference between spinning idle tales and
speaking stories of heartfelt passion and truth. Whereas the latter are
life-changing and life-giving, the former are worthless. When No-
Name saves Lyra from the abyss, Lyra christens her 'Gracious Wings' in
gratitude (AS: 386). These events are vital to the storytelling theme of
Spyglass. In Pullman's words,
Lyra's fantasy doesn't satisfy the harpies. They're only satisfied
when she tells them the truth. And I mean that . . . Books which
satisfy us and feed us and nourish us have to have this substratum
of genuine truth in them. And I don't see much of that in most
fantasy. ('Darkness Visible', Pt. 1)
The proud harpies also hunger for meaningful work, and through the
negotiations of the gallant Chevalier Tialys and Madame Salmakia,
they are given the 'honorable place' of serving as guides through the
land of the dead, delivering the ghosts to the new opening into the
world - in exchange for true stories (AS: 318).
Roger plays the central role among the ghosts of the world of
the dead, and his haunting voice, first heard in Lyra's dreams, is the
impetus for her underworld j ourney. Pullman artfully captures
the pathos of the ghostly state, contrasting the live Lyra, Will and the
Gallivespians with the bodiless shades of those who long for a return to
a palpable world of sensuous experiences. The ghosts drive home one
of the central themes of the trilogy: the great blessing humans enjoy
(and so largely take for granted), in contrast to the ethereal angels.
LYRA: The first believable little girl since Alice'
The opening sentence of the Northern Lights engages the reader's
interest by the striking conjunction of Lyra and her daemon. Curiosity
is aroused: what is a daemon, and what sort of world have we entered?
At first glance, the eleven-year'old protagonist is a trespasser, yet a
sympathetic one, as she endeavours - like a young Nancy Drew - to
outwit the stuffy Jordan College officials and their servile, petty
servants. Her name suggests her nature, being a near-homonym of
'liar', though it has more direct associations of a celestial sort, 'Lyra'
being the name of a constellation containing a star of the first
magnitude (Vega). Lyra also suggests 'lyre,' an ancient musical
instrument of Greece, used as an accompaniment to the recitation of
heroic poetry. Her shapeshifting daemon, Pantalaimon, further
characterizes her as a mercurial pre-adolescent; she cherishes him,
and in retrospect he seems to compensate somewhat for the absence of
family in Lyra's life.
By giving Lyra a temporary orphan status (she has falsely been told
her parents had died in an airship accident (NL: 121)), Pullman draws
upon an honoured tradition in children's literature and folklore.
Orphans are appealing as lead characters partly because they express a
paradox: 'They are a manifestation of loneliness, but they also
represent the possibility for humans to reinvent themselves' (Kimball,
1999: 558). Certain folkloric motifs persist in children's stories
featuring orphan protagonists - such as a birth under unusual
circumstances; a prophecy of an unusual destiny; an assigned task or
quest; a 'helper' - sometimes in the form of an 'animal guide';
punishment of the villainous characters who mistreat the orphan; and
(usually) a happy resolution including a 'reward' that may take the
form of marriage, wealth, and position. Lyra's story at the outset
incorporates several of these motifs, most obviously her oracular
'destiny' and the 'animal guide' or companion in the form of her
PHILIP PULLMAN 153
daemon. The shrouded circumstances surrounding her birth are
unveiled later by John Faa, King of the 'Gyptians' (121-4), one of her
several surrogate father-figures, along with the armoured bear lofur
Raknison and the aeronaut Lee Scoresby.
Despite her privileged social status (clear from her relationship to
Lord Asriel), the predominant image is one of a brilliant, spirited, but
emotionally deprived girl on the verge of adolescence, who is seeking
her identity and purpose. Thus she is open to the romance of
adventure in the mysterious North (offered, or so she initially believes,
by the glamorous Mrs Coulter) and to the 'mission' of delivering the
alethiometer to the romantically daring Lord Asriel, as well as her epic
quest into the world of the dead to speak with Roger. Loyalty is one of
her primary virtues - to Roger, to Will, and to Pantalaimon - and the
pain she experiences when she separates from 'Pan' is one of the most
vividly realized emotions in the trilogy. Having been nursed by a
'gyptian' woman and neglected by her biological mother, the lonely
Lyra experiences a revelatory moment in the underworld when the
soothing voice and maternal qualities of the Lady Salmakia cause her
to 'wish in her heart to have a child of her own, to lull and soothe and
sing to, one day, in a voice like that' (AS: 277-8) - one of many signals
of her emotional growth.
Lyra as chosen 'Eve' and Pullman's variations on the heroic quest
pattern in fantasy
Heroic quests featuring male protagonists traditionally adhere to a
pattern, containing some or all of the following features: a humble birth;
orphan status; being the subject of a mysterious prophecy; exception-
ality - a special gift; being apprenticed to a teacher or mentor with
magical powers (who may bestow upon the neophyte a new name);
being endowed with a weapon of supernatural prowess; committing an
act of disobedience or hubris which brings on a disaster, tor which the
hero must seek cure or remedy; suffering a dramatic temptation, which
he may either resist or succumb to (like Odysseus to Circe's charms),
but which he ultimately overcomes; waging a battle with a dragon, or
some similar supernatural opponent (for example, Beowulf); winning a
victory over the evil adversary; and finally returning to his community,
with a boon (as Joseph Campbell termed it) or gift, ultimately restoring
the society to wholeness. On all these points except the humble birth
and the hubris, Lyra comes close to qualifying (stretching 'teacher' a bit
to include lorek), with two important differences: she must succumb to
the temptation in order to fulfil her destiny, and she has a partner in her
heroic exploits, Will Parry.
In a sort of androgynous blend of the male and female patterns,
Lyra's quest shares most features of the traditionally male pattern, but
draws also upon critic Bruce Lincoln's three-stage female pattern of
initiation: enclosure, metamorphoses, and emergence (quoted in
Attebery, 1992: 91). Secreted in the wardrobe of the Retiring Room,
she is literally enclosed in the opening scene, but as a ward of Jordan
College, Lyra has a fair amount of superficial freedom to roam about
and explore. She is 'enclosed' in a deeper sense by the strictures on
female roles in her world (contrast Mrs Coulter and a female scholar of
Will's world, Dr Mary Malone, in their range of options). Prepubes-
cent, she enjoys the latitude allotted to the tomboy at this age. The
Amber Spyglass carries her to the threshold of womanhood, in her
realization of her life purpose and her deepening feelings for Will.
The explicit prophecy of her special destiny adds tension to the
narrative: the Master of Jordan College speaks of the important part
she will play (though he seems oblivious of the details), known
presumably from the alethiometer (NL: 30 ff.). Dr Lanselius, counsel to
the witches, tells of their centuries-old knowledge of a prophecy about
' "this child of . . . rare destiny . . . Without this child, we shall all die"'
(NL: 176).
Pullman uses the technique of gradual revelation to build suspense.
Serafina Pekkala embroiders on the details of the 'curious prophecy':
'She is destined to bring about the end of destiny. But she must
do so without knowing what she is doing ... If she's told what she
must do, it will all fail; death will sweep through all the worlds; it
will be the triumph of despair, forever. The universes will all
become nothing more than interlocking machines, blind and
empty of thought, feeling, life.' (NL: 310)
Her metamorphosis begins when lorek names her 'Lyra Silvertongue,'
though others contribute to her 'apprenticeship' as well - Fader
Coram, for example, and Ma Costa, who declares (meaning it as a
compliment) that she has 'witch oil in her soul' (NL: 112). The witches
know, of course, that Lyra is an avatar of the mythical Eve (SK: 314)
and that this knowledge must be kept from Mrs Coulter. The
alethiometer is Lyra's metaphorical sword, arming her with magical
power. Complications arise in The Subtle Knif e when the alethiometer
commands her to give priority to helping with Will's quest for his
father. Pullman is depicting what Riane Eisler might call a 'partnership'
quest, the male and female sharing equally and (in some details at
least) assuming non-traditional gender roles (for example, Will cooks,
Lyra operates the 'technological' tool, the alethiometer). Both seek to
PHILIP PULLMAN 155
free themselves from the perverted cultures of their respective worlds.
A mythic archetype is preserved in Mrs Coulter, who though she is
Lyra's biological mother, plays the fearsome stepmother role. She is
better understood as a kind of fairy-tale figure than as a realistic
mother; her near-total perversity makes her a tantalizing but flat
character, until she switches loyalties in The Amber Spyglass and
sacrifices herself to preserve Lyra's life.
Pullman presents in Lyra a highly individualized variation on the
female hero: charmingly mercurial, at one moment a 'coarse and
greedy little savage' (NL: 36), at another an inventor of tall tales (her
defensive mechanism to deal with her insecurities after she discovers
Asriel is not her uncle but her father (NL: 130)). At yet another time
she is as sensitive as a Romantic poet to the splendours of nature, as
when the sight of' a majestic line of great hills in the distance' gives her
'the same deep thrill she'd felt all her life on hearing the word North'
(NL: 133).
The Amber Spyglass furthers Lyra's character development, as she
and Will learn of the sorrows of mortality, the wonder of first love, and
ultimately, of the heart-rending sacrifice they must make for their
daemons' survival. Lyra's heroic 'tasks' are many: the harrowing
descent into the underworld, during which she must 'betray' Pan;
acknowledging her omnipresent Death, about which she learns from
'Peter' - the man waiting in limbo with other ghosts to enter the
underworld, who says to her, in words that might have come straight
out of Everyman itself, that
'We had 'em [our deaths] all the time, and we never knew. See,
everyone has a death. It goes everywhere with 'em, all their life
long, right close by ... The moment you're born, your death
comes into the world with you, and it's your death that takes you
out'. (AS: 260)
Or in the words of The Book of Common Prater: 'In the midst of life we
are in death'. Lyra must confront the personification of her own Death,
overcoming her instinct to recoil; eventually she heeds the wisdom of
the old grandmother's death, who tells them all not to hide, but ' "Say
welcome, make friends, be kind, invite your deaths to come close to
you, and see what you can get them to agree to"' (AS: 264). Without
her Death at her side, in fact, she cannot enter the underworld, nor
can Will. In addition, she must grow, with 'No-Name's help, into a
teller-of-truth; she must recognize her own feelings for Will, including
her emerging identity as a young woman transformed by love; finally
she must commit herself to an 'ultimate concern' ('building the
Republic of Heaven where you are').
Lyra's growth towards adulthood and wisdom is evident in her
home-coming scene, when she is amazed to find the Master's
manservant, Cousins, warm and affectionate (she, not he, has
changed), and second, when the Master sees through her loss of
'unconscious grace' to 'the beautiful adult she would be, so soon' (AS:
512, 514).
Will and his father's 'mantle': 'don't argue with your
own nature'
Will has certain traditional characteristics of the hero of fantasy: his
lineage is remarkable, in that his explorer father has disappeared in
mysterious circumstances and become a shaman in another world;
lacking a visible daemon, he has a surrogate animal guide, the cat that
leads him through the 'window' into the world of Cittagazze and helps
in the 'theft' of the alethiometer from Sir Charles; he acquires a knife
with magical powers, through his and Lyra's daring; he is recognized as
the mythical 'Bearer,' his destined role; his mother foretells his heroic
path, referring to taking up his father's mantle (SK: 10). His differences
from the pattern are nonetheless significant: he is not hubristic: in fact,
he resists heroism and must be convinced of his 'warrior' nature by
Stanislaus Grumman (John Parry, 'Jopari'), who asks him the crucial
question, has he fought to obtain the knife.
7
When Will answers in the
affirmative, the older man adds: ' "Then you're a warrior. That's what
you are. Argue with anything else, but don't argue with your own
nat ure"' (SK: 320). In his heart Will longs for home; still a boy inside,
he would like to be comforted, kept safe, praised by his mother, though
in fact their roles have been reversed, and he feels responsible for her
safety (SK: 307).
Will grows greatly in The Amber Spyglass, taking command of his
own quest to save Lyra, then joining with Lyra in the underworld
journey to seek the ghost of his father. The subsequent key scenes
pivotal to Will's coming of age are first, when he plays the role of
peacemaker, confronting lorek and out-manoeuvring him in a David-
and-Goliath fashion (AS: 106 ff. ); second, when in his farewell to his
father's ghost, he affirms his freedom of choice:
'You said I was a warrior. You told me that was my nature, and I
shouldn't argue with it. Father, you were wrong. I fought because
I had to. I can't choose nature, but I can choose what I do. And I
will choose, because now I'm free.' (AS: 418)
Significantly, John Parry validates his son's self-affirmation. A third key
PHILIP PULLMAN 157
experience comes when Will can see his daemon, the cat-formed
Kirjava, signifying that he can see his own soul, and it is beautiful (AS:
482). Finally, he arrives at the truth about the subtle knife, its perilous
own 'intentions' (as lorek had warned), and the necessity of first
closing all the windows to stop Dust leaking out of the worlds, and
then, of breaking the knife altogether, which he can do only by
thinking of something it could not cut - his love for Lyra (AS: 510).
His realization of Mary's friendship as they re-enter their own world
marks his coming-of-age.
Lyra's and Will's partnership quest
Pullman's innovations on the traditional heroic roles centre on the
sharing of quests between Will and Lyra. Just as she subordinates her
own quest for Dust to his quest for his father, Will comes to see their
paths as inevitably intertwined: each needs the other not only on the
level of physical survival, but for wholeness of soul. This is poignantly
foreshadowed when Pantalaimon instinctively comforts Will, going
against the prohibition of daemon-touching (SK: 182 ff.). Will takes
the lead in a number of episodes, such as the rescue of Lyra, and even
more dramatically when he uses the knife to prevent the bomb from
killing her (by resonating with a hair from her head). These feats are
matched by Lyra's own acts of astounding courage, notably finding the
self-control to part from Pan for the sake of Roger; reaching out
compassionately to the ghosts and committing to the quest to free
them; finding a way to connect with the No-Name and transforming
their relationship; finally, insisting she and Will must make the painful
choice of cultivating their respective gardens in their own worlds,
though never forgetting their soul-connection. The 'pure constella-
tions', looking down on the Botanic Gardens in their respective worlds,
will connect them always, however far apart.
Pullman's worldview: anti-theological and manichean?
Alan Jacobs (The Devil's Party') notes that like other great creators of
secondary worlds, Pullman offers 'not j ust a story but a world . . . not
j ust a moral, but a worldview.' Secondary worlds help to satisfy the
hunger of today's readers for a metaphysics, a cosmology, a mythic
pattern to structure human experience, so lacking in many lives. After
some opening compliments, Jacobs critiques the trilogy from the
standpoint of its 'distinct anti-theology'. Unlike Milton, he says, who
was 'of the Devil's party without knowing it', Pullman is acutely
conscious of which side he is on.
Although Jacobs praises Pullman's stellar gifts as a storyteller, he
cites a lengthy string of transgressions - such as polemic interruptions
of the 'momentum' of the narrative; the fact that 'the daemons in
Lyra's world always comfort, never burden'; his so-called 'reductive and
contemptuous ideology'; and his neglect - in Jacobs' eyes - of 'the
tangled consequences of even the most principled revolutions'.
One charge is that Pullman cheats the reader by passing over the
'key theological moment' towards which the narrative has been driving
- Authority's 'end', in a few lines, neglecting to explore the dramatic
possibilities of the moment, and thus 'diminishing' his story through his
attempt to 'diminish God'. This judgement ignores the fact that the
'Authority' has been carefully characterized as a self-appointed and
false sovereign, already much diminished. Xaphania clearly sees this,
and it is remarkable that Jacobs mentions her only in passing, for she is
a pivotal figure in the novel and represents the contemporary need to
balance 'masculine' and 'feminine' archetypes (compare Le Guin's
Tehanu in this respect). As for Jacobs' mention of two supposed
'absurdities', first the enticement of Metatron, the Almighty's Regent,
by the seductive 'babe', Mrs Coulter; and second, Asriel's 'Intention
Machine', as 'a hovercraft straight out of Star Wars', one might retort
that absurd things do happen to supposedly impregnable heads of state,
and that today's film-loving readers will probably relish the allusion to
Star Wars.
In calling Pullman's theology 'reductive and contemptuous', Jacobs
gives little heed to the tradition of exaggeration in satire. Pullman's
satire targets the 'Church' of Lyra's world, a gross caricature of
institutionalized religion, totally at odds with any values the historical
Jesus would recognize. Since this is a dead institution in an alternative
world, exaggeration is an effective narrative strategy, in the tradition of
Jonathan Swift. As for Pullman's depiction of Christianity in 'our' world,
when Mary asserts t hat ' "The Christian religion is a very powerful and
convincing mistake, that's all"' (AS: 441), a prudent reader must
remember who she is: a former nun who has become an atheist.
Pullman has responded plainly to questions about his portrayal of
organized religion, admitting he knew it would be troublesome to some:
'I knew there'd be a certain amount of critical reaction to my
criticism of the churches. But it seems to me, if you look at
human history, and if you look at the present day, too, in many
parts of the world, that organized religion - especially those
religions that have a monotheistic god - have been responsible
historically for enormous amounts of persecution, of suffering and
cruelty.'
PHILIP PULLMAN 159
Because young people's fiction especially fails to acknowledge this,
Pullman 'wanted to give a sort of historical answer to the, so to speak,
propaganda on behalf of religion that you get in, for example, C. S.
Lewis' (quoted in Odean, 2000).
Jacobs correctly observes that few people, especially young readers,
have the contextual knowledge necessary to critique the novel's
perspective from the standpoint of Christian doctrine and the Bible.
Sarah Johnson expresses a similar view in her review of The Amber
Spyglass, stating her contention that young readers will take Pullman's
'Church' for 'the real thing', and many will be so drawn in by the power
of the narrative that they will never again be able 'to explore faith
without a Pullmanesque bias'. This, she affirms, 'is a greater sadness
than this most imaginative of men can imagine'. These remarks cannot
be blithely dismissed, yet pleas for a totally balanced and objective
perspective make practically impossible demands on a writer who is
working in the tradition of dissent.
Others may argue that young readers will simply devour the story
and leave the theological and historical world-view to adults. It is also
j ust possible that more discerning teen readers can be provoked to
explore these historical and theological questions further. A critically
annotated edition of His Dark Materials, for these readers, would be
highly desirable, for this could enable them to put this remarkable work
in its proper context, as Wagner (2000) says, 'with and against Paradise
Lost, with and against Blake's depiction of old Nobodaddy.' They could
then discover 'the dissenting tradition from which these books spring.
This is remarkable writing: courageous and dangerous, as the best art
should be. Pullman envisions a world without God, but not one
without hope.'
Pullman's own words about his beliefs are enlightening: he affirms
his love of 'the language and the atmosphere of the Bible and the
prayer book. I don't say I agree with it ... I no longer believe in the
God I used to believe in when I was a boy' (Odean, 2000).
Nevertheless, his imagination is steeped in Biblical lore (from his
childhood with his Church of England clergyman grandfather), an
influence he will never escape (and never desires to escape!). 'So
although I call myself an atheist, I'm certainly a Christian atheist and
even more particularly, a Church of England - what would you say,
Episcopalian? - atheist. And very specifically, a 1662 Book of Common
Prayer atheist.'
As for the World of the Dead, where all 'ghosts' are condemned to
what Jacobs terms 'a horrifically vacuous underworld (very like the one
visited in Homer's Odyssey)', readers will most likely put this in
perspective according to their personal beliefs about immortality.
Within the novel, Lyra and Will seek to save these souls - whose
agony is powerfully described - by leading them through a new
'window' to the living world, where they will (gladly) disintegrate into
atoms (AS: 364). Pullman portrays his characters' obliteration as a kind
of joyous merging with the Cosmos, and Jacobs justly points out that
some readers may find this a poor sort of 'salvation'. (Abramson has
called this the 'fertilizer' theory of immortality: the individual
disintegrates, but his or her 'atoms' go on forever, in the death-rebirth
cycle of nature.)
Where Jacobs' reading of the narrative definitely misses the point is
when he calls Lyra's 'lies' a reflection of 'dishonesty' on the author's
part, for this overlooks the significance of the harsh lesson Lyra learns
when 'No-Name' the Harpy punishes her for telling lies (AS: 292-3).
No-Name explains that true 'news of the world' is nourishing, and all
the Harpies hunger for it, and henceforth Lyra must tell the truth, for
true stories are liberating. Stories of true life experiences in fact become
the basis for the bargain Chevalier Tialys makes with the Harpies: true
stories from each 'ghost' in exchange for guidance out of the
netherworld into the sunlit world above (AS: 316-18).
The complexity and subtlety of His Dark Materials are disregarded in
Jacobs' harsh approach, and nowhere is this more evident than when
he interprets events near the end of the story as suggesting that 'the
positive energy in the world, the Dust, is produced by specifically erotic
love'. First, the narrative leaves what takes place between Lyra and
Will indefinite (Jacobs may be imagining too much); it is clear that
bodily love indeed attracts Dust, but the positive energy in the world is
also increased through consciousness and awareness (AS: 491).
Xaphania, the angel of wisdom, makes this point, and the implication
is that love takes its power from participating in this 'consciousness-
generating' process.
In trying to demolish Pullman's concept of the Republic of Heaven
on historical-political grounds, particularly through discrediting the
rhetoric of Lord Asriel and his ally, the good King Ogunwe, Jacobs
writes as if the trilogy were a political-theological manifesto, not a
story. He moreover treats the Republic of Heaven as though it were a
political entity, rather than what it clearly is - a state of mind, an
orientation to life. It hardly seems true that Pullman neglects
consequences, as though the (presumed) toppling of Lord Asriel's
Adamant Tower (of Babble) and his ignominious fall into the abyss
were not punishment enough for his inflated ego and wrong-headed
neglect of limits (such as the need for daemons to sustain themselves
PHILIP PULLMAN 161
by dwelling in their own worlds, a suggestion that 'all politics is local',
perhaps?). Moreover, the almost mythic Asriel has less in common
with the historical 'Liberators' with whom Jacobs identifies him
(Robespierre, Stalin) than with Prometheus.
It is helpful to juxtapose Pullman's own remarks on the nature of
The Republic of Heaven and the related theme of 'celebrating the
senses and . . . the human body in the here and now - building . . . The
"Republic of Heaven" where we are'. He points out how religions
traditionally have attempted to control human behaviour by
'apportioning . . . punishment and reward in an afterlife', leading some
people to neglect to live in the here and now, which is 'the only world
we can be certain of. His concern is with celebrating life in the
moment, leaving the political theory to those who 'murder to dissect'.
As John Parry says in his farewell to Will: 'For us there is no elsewhere'
(AS: 363). Pullman defines 'Republic' as a state of consciousness, not a
polis: This is all there is; and it is extremely beautiful and full of the
most exquisite delight. That's what I mean about the republic of
heaven. It's already around us. I just wanted to make that a bit more
explicit, to give it a name' (quoted in Wagner, 2000).
The shrivelling conclusion to Jacobs' article rejects what he terms
'the Manicheanism of Pullman's moral vision: closed versus open
minds, tyrants versus liberators, the vicious Church versus its righteous
opponents'. To accuse Pullman of Manicheanism (a dualistic religious
system blending elements of Gnostic Christianity, Buddhism, and
Zoroastrianism) seems ludicrous: its belief in Matter as 'evil' and 'dark'
(in contrast to Spirit, seen as 'good' and 'light') could scarcely be more
at odds with Pullman's celebration of body-soul-ghost - the tripartite
human nature he depicts so vividly. Pullman has said in an interview
with Ilene Cooper that his 'myth' owes something to Gnosticism,
through Harold Bloom's Book of] and Omens of the Millennium as well
as Gnostic writings, but his world-view differs in
one essential characteristic. The Gnostic worldview is Platonic in
that it rejects the physical created universe and expresses a
longing for an unknowable God who is far off. My myth is almost
the reverse. It takes this physical universe as our true home. We
must welcome and love and live our lives in this world to the full.
(Cooper, 2000: 355)
To charge Pullman with 'crudity', with encouraging simplistic, 'binary'
thinking in young adults, as Jacobs does, is to miss his qualities of mind
and art altogether. Far from being falsely accused for telling adolescents
'that good folks are distinguished from evil ones on the single criterion
of religious belief (Jacobs, 2000), Pullman should be thanked for
increasing the degree of 'consciousness' on our planet, leading us to
examine our beliefs and lives, and to practise vigilance in the perilous
process of testing our 'stories' against the realities of our experiences.
Though His Dark Materials shows the demise of an antiquated
'Authority,' it is by no means nihilistic in its world'view. Implicitly it
affirms certain humanistic values or 'principles', such as the few that
follow, together with their 'pragmatopian' implications (pragmatopia =
Gr. for 'a realizable future' (Eisler, 1987: 198, 239, n. 65)): (1) the
principle that soul-survival is world-specific: daemons need to live in
the world into which they have been born. The implication: live and
love and work in the present place and moment; (2) the principle of
heartfelt devotion to expanding human consciousness, resisting the
forces that lessen mindfulness. The implication: practice your own
'ecology of mind,' in Gregory Bateson's wonderful phrase; (3) the
principle of balance, both in the macrocosm (the total environment)
and in the microcosm - between individuals, especially male and
female. The implication: move from the exploiter model to the 'co-
creator' model; (4) the principle of 'generativity'. The implication: the
wiser or more knowledgeable person passes on the gift of wisdom or
knowledge to another (for example, Dame Hannah mentoring Lyra, or
Mary Malone befriending Will); (5) the principle of conservation of
mental and emotional energy. The implication: rather than expending
your consciousness on exploring illimitable windows to different
worlds, develop the wisdom to know when to close them and
experience the world around you, so your stock of true stories may
increase; (6) the principle of truth in storytelling. The implication: like
Lyra, learn to shape your own experiences into meaningful and
emotive narratives, and tell your 'truth' to others - or as has been said,
'Don't die with your music in you'.
Pullman's contributions to the fantasies of alternative
worlds
Nick Gevers calls Northern Lights 'an immediate, certain classic, head
and shoulders above virtually any competitor': what features give His
Dark Materials its outstanding quality.7 I think that it is a seamless
blending of the following:
1. A distinguished style and sensuous use of language, capable of
conveying a sense of the sublime, as at the climax of Northern
Lights, when Lord Asriel harnesses the energy of Roger's separated
daemon:
PHILIP PULLMAN 163
At the moment he [Roger] fell still, the vault of heaven,
star-studded, profound, was pierced as if by a spear.
A jet of light, a jet of pure energy released like an arrow
from a great bow, shot upward from the spot where Lord
Asriel had joined the wire to Roger's daemon. The sheets of
light and color that were the Aurora tore apart; a great
rending, grinding, crunching sound reached from one end of
the universe to the other; there was dry land in the sky -
sunlight. (NL: 393)
Additionally, an abundant intertextuality, enabling a reader to
make 'hypertextual' jumps to a metaverse of other narratives.
2. I ntellectual daring and inventiveness. Pullman is like a Lord Asriel
among writers, boldly taking on the 'authorities' of conventional
children's literature, tackling the most challenging and unconven-
tional themes.
3. A metaphysical imagination, endowing the superficially common
objects of the world with a high charge of mystery and emotional
energy - as for example a seemingly 'ordinary looking dagger' (SK:
180), though on closer inspection 'swirling with colors' and
sporting delicate angel-formed designs. This ability to render the
supposedly commonplace rich and strange and cognitively vibrant
puts him in the company of the metaphysical poets (compare John
Donne's use of the compass in 'A Valediction: Forbidding
Mourning').
4. Breath-taking action scenes interlaced with the philosophical, as for
example the episode of the Silver Guillotine, where the white-hot
suspense over Lyra's fate is balanced against the moral and political
implications of what the Guillotine represents: the attempt to
render humans less than human - soulless - in order to have power
over them.
5. Presenting a dialogue between highly speculative scientif ic and spiritual
ideas, of ten omitted f rom literature f or children or adults in the
contemporary world. For instance, concepts from physics, such as
'shadow particles' and alternative worlds, are sometimes fused,
sometimes in dialogue with concepts from religious thought, such
as 'original sin' and angels. It seems that 'the very setting of His
Dark Materials is a metaphor for the free will the rebels seek: all
options realized, in parallel, rather than the stable monolithic
reality Authority desires' (Gevers). On the other hand, there is
evidence in favour of 'balance' (compare Le Guin's concept of
Balance in Earthsea), for as Gevers continues, Pullman's interest is
primarily in the down-to-earth Lyra and Will, not in their
ambitious parents; and 'the Spectre-afflicted world seems very
much like an Eden destroyed by the alchemic meddling that
created the subtle knife. Perhaps there are proper limits to
knowledge and aspiration; perhaps Authority has a place'.
6. Achieving an intergenerational appeal through a technique of double-
coding - writing to appeal on several levels, as for instance the plot-
driven level of mystery and romance, alongside the other level of
'metaphysics and philosophy' (Parsons and Nicholson, 1999: 121).
'Double coding' also describes the way Pullman conveys adult
sexuality in a manner that makes it unmistakable to adult readers
but (probably) invisible to the pre-pubescent child, as when Ruta
Skadi tells how she made her way, invisible, into Asriel's 'inmost
chamber' as he was preparing to sleep, and how all the witches
knew what followed, but neither Will nor Lyra dreamed of it (SK:
271). Pullman has remarked that he doesn't want his books to be
pigeonholed by age, but to have the 'largest audience possible . . .
I'd like to think that I'm telling the sort of story that holdeth
children from play and old men from the chimney corner, in the
old phrase of Sir Philip Sidney' (Quoted in The Man Behind the
Magic').
7. Portraying young protagonists endowed with the psychic energy
suf f icient to sustain them through the f ears and sorrows of lif e. At
least three basic fears are portrayed in the trilogy: the fear of soul
loss; the fear of abandonment, and the fear of the loss of one's
'world'. It may be argued that the second of these fears is a stock-
in-trade in children's literature, and many stories are designed to
assuage it, bringing the protagonist 'home' after the 'wild things'
adventure (Sendak, 1963). The other two fears are however not
common fare for children, and it is part of Pullman's achievement
to deal with them, in a multilayered story whose child protagonists,
despite their gifts, are believable characters with foibles enough
that readers can identify with their anxieties and participate in
their triumphs.
8. Depiction of alternative modes of consciousness, language-, rather tlian
drug-induced, f ashioned f rom mind-stretching metaphors: a linguisti-
cally-altered consciousness. Many in today's world are seeking new
modes of consciousness or expanded awareness, not necessarily for
'escape', but as a means of psychological survival in a world devoid
of certainties. The open, receptive mode of consciousness
('negative capability') Lyra needs to use the alethiometer has its
perils (who knows what dreams may come?), but it may also hold
PHILIP PULLMAN 165
the best hope for learning to live in a world of extremes, where the
feelings of isolation and depersonalization exist in tension with the
'collective' consciousness made possible (and hardly avoidable) by
'connections' to strangers in cyberspace. It may suggest a mental
and emotional capability to hold the individual, private realm in
balance with the 'pooled' imagination.
9. Modelling of a 'partnership' quest, giving balanced roles to Lyra and
Will. In an era of increasingly fluid gender roles, Pullman shows
masculine and feminine qualities in a balanced yin-yang relation-
ship, neatly expressed through the cooperative use of tools - the
subtle knife and the alethiometer. The story moves away from the
lethal 'blade' (which ends up demolished), and Lyra's alethi-
ometer-reading 'competence' is lost (to be relearned). That leaves
the amber spyglass, Mary's 'tool', suggesting perhaps that her
scientific quest may yield a sustainable vision on which to build the
world's future.
10. Celebrating, through story, the role of stories in 'redeeming or re'
enchanting the imagination of human beings in a world where many
have lost the traditional comf orts of religion and the saf e haven of a
loving f amily. Through his young co-protagonists, Pullman shows
how human beings can, with courage and loving cooperation,
survive the nightmares of history. Along the way, they develop
their resilience and talents for improvisation, to become at last
enlightened and whole individuals, able to move with compassion
and joy through the sorrows of their complex worlds. Their
'negative capability' guides them through this 'vale of soul-making'
(to borrow from Keats) and they emerge in a golden halo of Dust,
conscious of the possibility of a heaven such as even atheists can
believe in. We need heaven, Pullman affirms, though there may be
no supreme being, for we need
Joy . . . Delight . . . A belief that our lives mean something
and have significance in the context of the universe and
that they are connected to the universe and connected to
each other ... All of this is part of what used to be called
heaven. [Thus the necessity] . . . to create a republic of
heaven because that's the only way we can live at all.
(Cooper, 2000: 355)
11. Giving the world an unf orgettable love story, stretching from the
infinite spaces of the macrocosm to the individual microcosms of
two forever-bonded hearts. For countless readers, two stars of
equal magnitude have an enduring place in the constellation Lyra.
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Philip Pullman
Philip (Nicholas) Pullman was born in Norwich, Norfolk, England, 19
October 1946, the son of Alfred Outram Pullman and Audrey
(Merrifield) Pullman. He was brought up in Rhodesia, Australia,
London and Wales. His father was an airman. Philip was educated at
Oxford University; he married Judith Speller (a hypnotherapist), 15
August 1970, and they have two children, James and Thomas. Before
becoming a full-time writer, he worked for the Oxfordshire Education
Authority, Oxford, England, as a teacher, 1972-88; he continued to do
part-time lecturing at Westminster College, Oxford, 1988-96 and is
active as a public speaker and lecturer. He describes himself as 'left' in
his politics. His avocational interests include music and drawing. He is
the author of many highly acclaimed books for young readers, from
contemporary fiction to Victorian thrillers, in addition to plays and
picture books for readers of all ages.
PHILIP PULLMAN 169
Books
Ancient Civilizations, Exeter, England: Wheaton, 1978.
Galatea. New York: Dutton, 1979.
Count Karlstein, or the Ride of the Demon Huntsman, London: Chatto
and Windus, 1982; New York: Knopf, 1998.
The Ruby in the Smoke, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; New
York: Knopf, 1987.
How to Be Cool, London: Heinemann, 1987.
The Shadow in the North, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987; New
York: Knopf, 1988.
Spring-Heeled jack: A Story of Bravery and Evil, London: Transworld
Publishers, 1989; New York: Knopf, 1991.
The Broken Bridge, London: Macmillan, 1990; New York: Knopf, 1992.
The Tiger in the Well, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992; New York:
Knopf, 1990.
The White Mercedes, London: Macmillan, 1992; New York: Knopf,
1993.
The Ti?i Princess, London: Penguin, 1994; New York: Knopf, 1994.
The Firework Maker's Daughter, London: Doubleday, 1995; New York:
Arthur A. Levine, 1999.
Clockwork: Or All Wound Up, London: Doubleday, 1996; New York:
Arthur A. Levine, 1998.
Detective Stories (compiler), London and New York: Kingfisher, 1998.
Plays
'The Three Musketeers' (adaptation of the novel by Alexandre
Dumas), produced at Polka Children's Theatre, Wimbledon, 1985.
'Frankenstein' (adaptation of the novel by Mary Shelley), produced at
Polka Children's Theatre, Wimbledon, 1987, Oxford University
Press, 1990.
'Sherlock Holmes and the Adventure of the Sumatran Devil,'
produced at Polka Children's Theatre, Wimbledon, England,
1984, published as Sherlock Holmes and the Adventure of the
Limehouse Horror, Nelson, 1993.
Index
Abbott, E.A.
Flatland: a Romance of Many
Dimensions 17
Abramson, J. 42, 160
Aesahaettr 144
Alcott, Louisa May
Flower Fables 18
Alexander, Lloyd
Chronicles of Prydain 20
A.L.O.E. see Tucker, Charlotte Maria
Angels 146-9
Armitt, Lucie 1
armoured bears 144-6
Attebery, Brian 10
Fantasy Tradition in America 43-5, 54,
75, 154
Strategies of Fantasy 43
'Authority' 137-8, 158, 162
Bailey, E.C. 51, 54
Barbour, Douglas 46, 48, 54
'Barnard-Stokes business and Church'
129
Barnett, William 88
Barrie, J.M.
Peter and Wendy 28
'Peter Pan1 28-9
Barrow, C. and Barrow, D. 46-7, 50, 53,
56
Bateson, Gregory 162
Baum, L. Frank
The Wizard of O? 26-7
Bennett, Arnold 30
Beowulf 22
Bethune, B. 139
Bettelheim, Bruno
The Uses of Enchantment 6
Blake, William 159
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell 125
Bostian, Frieda 128
Breebart, L. 89
Bunyan, John
The Pilgrim's Progress 16
Butler, A.M. 92
Terry Pratchett: Guilty of Literature 88,
90
Cameron, Eleanor 49
Carpenter, Humphrey 24-5
Carroll, Lewis
A/ice's Adventures in Wonderland 24-6
The Nursery Alice 25
Through the Looking Glass 25-6, 108
'chain of gifts' 46, 53, 57, 61
cliff-ghasts 143-4
Clute, John 66
Cob 61-3
Cogell, Elizabeth 51
communities of men and communities of
women 58
Cooper, Ilene 124, 126, 137, 148, 161,
165
INDEX 171
Cooper, Susan 11-12,
Silver on the Tree 19-20
Cranch, Christopher P.
The Last of the Hugger-muggers, a Giant
Story 18
creation theology 136-7
Crow, J. N. 63
Cummins, Elizabeth 46, 59, 63-4
daemons 127, 138-41
Dante 151
death 42, 54-6 (thanatos), 155
(personified)
Defoe, Daniel
Robinson Crusoe 16
Dickens, Charles
'Frauds on the Fairies' 16
Dirda, M. 65-6, 68
Disc-world Momhty 88
dragons 52, 69-70, 71
Dry Lands 63
'Dust' 130, 133, 135-6, 149, 151, 160
ecology in The Amber Spyglass 151
in Earthsca 75-6
Eisler, Riane 154, 162
Erlich, R.D. 63
Esmonds, M. 42, 64
Everyman 126, 155
fantasy
adult's and children's, differences in
5_6, 36,90-1,94-6, 115-20
definitions and classes of 9-14
displaced hy novel 16
extensions in cyberspace, 89-90
formulas 2-3
gender in 3, 33
history of 14-22
18th-19th centuries 16-18
20th century 18-22
magic in 11
and oral tradition 15-16
postmodern and metanctive 21-2
pros and cons 1-9, 16-18
regressive 99
and science fiction 14, 17
and truth 151
fantasy 'worlds'
geography of 11, 12-13
Farrow, G.E.
'Wallypug of Why' 24-5
fears in His Dark Materials 164
Fisher, Margery 29, 74
Forster, E.M. 22
'the for t unat e fall' 1 34, 1 36
Fox, G. 74, 126
Fox, Matthew 136
Original Blessing 137
Gallivespians 150
Garner, Alan
The Owl Service 20
Gebser, J. 56
George, Stefan 129
Gevers, N. 123, 162, 163-4
ghosts 152
'golden age of children's literature' 17-18
Golding, William
The Lord of the Flies 1 3 3
Goldthwaite, John 27, 35
Grahame, Kenneth
Wind in the Willows 29-31
Green, P. 30-1
harpies 151-2, 160
'Harrowing of Hell' 126
Hatfield, L. 66
Hawley, J.C. 23
Heaney, Seamus 22
Herbert, A.P. 7
heroic quest
male and female contrasted 43
'partnership' in 165
Pullman's variations on 15 3-6
Hoban, Russell
The Mouse ant! His Child 22
Holbrook, David 34-5
Hollindale, Peter 27
Houston, Jean 123
Hughes, Thomas
Tom Brown's Schooldays 92 3
Hunt , Peter 127, 147
The Idea of the North' 128-9
Inglis, Fred 74-5
Jacobs, A. 157-62
Jago, Wendy 74
Jenkins, S. 58
Johnson, S. 159
Jones, Diana Wynne 2
Jung, C.G. 54, 65
Kimball, M.A. 152
Kingsley, Charles
The Water Babies 23-4
Kleist, Heinrich von
On the Marionette Theatre 123-5
Kroeber, A.L 51
Kroeber, T. 5 1
Kuznet s, L. 21, 58, 99
172 INDEX
labyrinth 56
Landshcrg, M. 58-9, 60
Langton, Jane I 27
Le Gui n, Ursul a K. 3, 6-8, 10, 13, 20, 36,
42-85, 98, 131-2, 140, 163
biographical sketch 83
critical overview 83-5
works by:
Callings 71
The Child and the Shadow' 48, 51
Earthsca
contrasts to 'real' world 73
genesis of 44
geography of 45-6
language in 74-5
peoples and cul t ures of 45
reader responses to 74
settings 45-6
teaching about 74
Eartlisea Revisioned 68, 70, 76
The Farthest Shore 59-64, 132
The Left Hand of Darkness 84
Rocannim's World 83-4
The Space Crone' 67
Tehanu 65-72, 117, 158
Tlie Tombs of Atuan 54-9, 1 3 i
A Wizard of Earthsea 47-54
Lewis, C.S. 4, 22, 125
Narni a books 34-5
' l i mi nal i t y' 71-2, 77
Lincoln, Bruce 43, 154
Emerging jrom the Chrysalis 4 3
Lindow, S. 71
Lindsay, Norman
The Magic Pudding 18
Littlerield, H. 67, 70
Lurie, Alison 107
Lynn, Ruth N. 11, 14
Lyra 152-6
Mabinogi, The 20
MacDonald, George 12
McKi nl ey, Robin 66
Mackey, Margaret 147
Malone, Mary, as 'Serpent' 135
mani cheani sni 157, 161
Manl ove, CM. 5, 8-11, 14, 91-2
Mar k, Jan
Enough is Too Much Already 1 10
Mayne, W.
A Came of Dark 107
Meek, Margaret 30
Mi l es, Margaret 74
Mi l ne, A.A.
I he House ill Pooh Corner 5 1 2
Wi/ inif the Pooh 31-2
Mi l t on, John
Paradise Lost 123, 134, 159
Molson, F.J. 36
Morris, William
The Wood Beyond the World 4
Mul efa 150-1
'negative capability' 164, 165, passim
Nesbit, Edith
f ive Children and I t 17-18
Neumann, Erich 58
Nicholson, C. 124, 141, 164
Nicolls, P. 60, 63
Nodelman, Perry 19, 26-7, 63, 66-7
Norton, Mary
The Borrowers 20-1
Odean, K. 159
Ogion 48-9
Ohmnnn, Richard 75
original sin 1 30
Pagels, E. 148-9
Parsons, W. 124, 141, 164
Patterson, Richard 69
Paul, Lissa 68
Paulding, James K.
A Christinas Gif t From Fairyland 18
Peake, Mervyn
Titus Groan trilogy 21
Pfeiffer, John R. 75
phantasmical creatures
proliferation of 138
'phase space' 147
physics, quant um 129
Potter, Beatrix
Ginger and Pickles 27-8
The Tale of Peter Rabbit 28
Pratchett, Terry 5, 36, 86-121
'children's' books 94-114
treatment of females 98
works by:
The Bromeliad 94
Carjw Jugulum 119
The CarJ> et People 89-90, 91, 94-7,
97-9
The Colour oj Magic 91-2
Diggers 94, 105
Discworld Companion 1 16-17
Discu'orld novels
cri t i cal reception of 87-8
point of view 114-16
satirical elements 92-3
web sites for 88
Equal Riles 1 1 7
Guards! Guards! 118
INDEX 173
Hog/ather 115
Johnny and the Bomb 90, 94, 105,
l t l -14
Johnny and the Dead 94, 104-5, 109-
11
'Let There Be Dragons' 119-20
The Light Fantastic 117-18
Men at Arms 89
Mort 118-19
Only You Can Save Mankind 94,
105-9, 119
Pyramids 92-3
Sorcery 117
Truckers 94, 98-103, 104
Wings 94
Prince Arren 60-1, 62, 64
Propp, V. 2
Pullman, Philip 13, 36-7, 98, 122-69
biographical sketch 168
Carnegie Medal speech 122
criticism of views 157-62
Patrick Hardy lecture 1 38
on 'phase space' 147
on religion 158, 159
as storyteller 126
on tradition of re he 1 angels 124
on 'theory of grace' 125
works by:
The Amber Spyglass 122-3, 126-8,
132-3, 137, 139-40, 141, 145-6,
147, 148-9, 150-1, 153, 154,
155-8, 159, 160
His Dark Materials
alternative worlds in 129-33
'big' questions in 122-3
human nature in 133-5, 136
intertextuality 123-6
The Liber Angelorum 142, 146-7
Northern Lights 123, 128-31, 140,
142, 143, 144, 152-3, 154, 155,
162-3
The Subtle Knife 127, 139, 141-2,
143-4, 145, 146, 148, 149, 154,
156-7, 163
alternative worlds in 131-2
Reid, S.E. 59
religion in The Amber Spyglass 158-62
'Republic of Heaven' 132, 160-1
rites of passage
Ged and Tenar contrasted 44, 54-5
Arha's 55-6
Rowling, J.K.
Ham Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
^ 35
Harry Potter and the Goblet oj Fire 35
Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
"35
Harry Potter and the Prisoner of
A^ kaban 35
Scholes, Robert 46-7
'secondary worlds' 13-14
Selinger, B. 49, 52
Sendak, Maurice 164
Senick, G. 139
Senior, W.A. 46, 53, 55, 70
sexuality
in His Dark Material's 160, 164
in Tehanu 68
in The Tombs of At uan 58-9
shadow
as metaphor 46-7, 48
Ged's double 54
Sheldrake, Rupert 150
Shepard, E.H. 30
Sherman, Cordelia 58
Shippey, T. 21, 22, 51, 66
Slusser, George 46, 55
Spectres 141-2
Spencer, Kathleen 71
Stevenson, R.L. 12
Treasure Island 5
Stone of Shelieth 63
storytelling
as a way out of netherworld 160
Pullman's view of 164
theme of The Amber Spyglass 151
Sullivan III, C.W. 4, 10, 15, 20
Swift, Jonathan 87, 144, 150, 158
Gulliver's Travels 16, 18, 21, 86, 99
Swinfen, Ann 1 , 1 1
Sword of Serriadh 60-1
Tallis, Raymond 1, 9, 22, 37
Taoism 48, 54, 85
Tames, Richard 65
Tavormina, M.T. 50
Tax, Meredith 69
Tehanu 65-72
child abuse in 76
Therru 70-2, 76
Thompson, Stith 15
Thwaite, Ann 31
Tolkien, J.R.R. 4, 13-14, 28, 42, 76
The Hobbit, or There and Back Again
19, 32-3
Lord of the Rings 8, 34
Middle Earth 33
Tree and Leaf 14
Toulson, Shirley 59, 60
Tozer, Katherine
174 INDEX
Mum/ie Marches On 19
toys, animated 99
Travcrs, P.L.
Mary Poppins 19
Trimmer, Sarah
Fabulous Histories 16-17
Trousers of Time' 111
Tucker, Charlotte Maria
Rambles of a Rat 17
Turner. P. 86
Turner, Victor Witter 71
Twain, Mark 10
Wagner, E. 159
Walsh, Ji l l Paton 8
Watkins, M. 149
Wells, H.G.
The Time Machine 17
Wei ton, Ann 66
White, Donna 76
White, T.H.
The Once and Future King 21
Will 156-7
witches 142-3
Witcover, Paul 129
Wolfe, G.F. 7
Xaphania 148-9, 158, 160

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