Tip Sheet

The Asia and Pacic region is the worlds most disaster-

prone area. Between 1970 and 2010, the average number
of people in the region exposed to yearly ooding
increased from 30 million to 64 million, and the population
living in cyclone-prone areas grew from 72 million to
121 million.
1
Womenwith their extensive knowledge of communities,
social roles of managing natural environmental resources,
and caring responsibilitiesincreasingly play a critical role
in disaster risk management. Empowering women is the
key to strengthening disaster resilience of communities.
I. Key Gender Issues
Disaster impacts are not gender-neutral
The impact of disaster caused by natural hazards is not
gender-neutral. A 20-year study on gendered nature
of natural disaster shows that in societies where the
socioeconomic status of women is low, natural disasters
kill more women than menboth directly and indirectly
through related postdisaster events. The study also shows
that disasters kill women at a younger age than men, and
that the impacts of natural disasters are never merely
determined by nature on its own. The reason for the
difference in mortality lies in the fact that women in general
have lower socioeconomic status which, in turn, leads to
unequal access to opportunities and unequal exposure to
risks, making them more vulnerable to natural disasters.
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Womens increased vulnerability to disaster has many
dimensions. Womens reproductive roles can limit their
chances of survivalthose in their nal stages of pregnancy
and women with young kids are less mobile. If basic health
care infrastructure is severely damaged and access to
obstetrical care is limited, chances of miscarriage as well as
maternal and infant mortality increase.
Social norms and gendered roles may signicantly affect
women and girls ability to survive the impacts of a disaster.
Studies on the impact of the 2004 tsunami highlight that
differences in self-rescue ability are partly determined by
learned skills such as swimming and tree climbing which,
in many contexts, are primarily taught to and practiced by
men and boys. Further, dress codes can restrict womens
ability to move quickly in times of disaster or restrict them
from learning survival skills. Social norms may prevent
women from relocating without the consent of a male family
member, restricting women from getting information about
evacuation centers or how to escape during disasters.
Women also have limited access to economic resources
as well as information and technology, increasing
their vulnerability and adaptive capacity to disaster.
Traditional expectations and home-based responsibilities
limit womens mobility and opportunities for political
involvement, education, access to markets, and a myriad
of other resourcesthe lack of which reinforces the cycle
of vulnerability. Inheritance laws and traditions, marriage
arrangements, banking systems, and social patterns that
reinforce womens dependence on fathers, husbands, and
1
ADB, UNESCAP, and UNDP. 2013. Asia-Pacic Aspirations:
Perspectives for a Post-2015 Development Agenda, Asia-Pacic
Regional MDGs Report 2012/13. Bangkok.
2
E. Neumayer and T. Plmper. 2007. The Gendered Nature of
Natural Disasters: The Impact of Catastrophic Events on the
Gender Gap in Life Expectancy, 19812002. Annals of the
Association of American Geographers. 97 (3). pp. 551566.
The paper is available online at http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/3040/1/
Gendered_nature_of_natural_disasters_(LSERO).pdf
Gender-Inclusive
Disaster Risk Management
1
2
sons all contribute to their unfavorable access to resources
and their lack of power to change things.
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A key gendered impact of disaster is womens increased
postdisaster workload. Women are often in the frontline of
reestablishing households in relocated or reconstructed
sites and collecting basic household needs such as water,
food, hygiene items, and fuel. Such engagements may
cause girls to drop out of school, disrupt womens skill
building and other livelihood opportunities, and negatively
impact women and girls time poverty.
Existing gender roles can change
in disaster settings
Disasters disrupt commerce and markets and destroy
productive resources and infrastructure. In some cases,
women become breadwinners as the male members are
killed by disaster or choose to stay with the remaining
property in order to safeguard the little that remains. This
may put additional burden on women to nd new sources
of livelihood and continue the traditional role of taking care
of the family.
Gendered response can reduce long-term
social consequences
The immediate impact of disastersdisplacement;
destruction of homes, schools, and health services;
loss of nancial security and livelihood; and disruption
of existing social protection mechanismsmay further
expose women and girls to devastating, long-term effects
and consequences. These may include early and forced
marriages, trauma, increased vulnerability to gender-based
violence, exposure to sexually transmitted infections
and HIV, and unintended pregnancies. Failure to apply
gender lens in disaster risk management and response
can reinforce or perpetuate these social consequences on
women and girls.
Women as agents of change for disaster risk
reduction and strengthening resilience
Engaging and empowering women are benecial means
of strengthening resilience to disaster risks. Just as gender
roles and relations shape vulnerability to disaster, conversely
they also shape peoples capacity to prepare, withstand,
and recover. Women have particular experience and skills
to contribute to disaster risk management due to their role
as primary caregivers within the family and often within
the wider community. They have strong local knowledge
of natural resources, surroundings, and valuable links with
others in the area. If womens specic perspectives are not
factored into disaster risk management and response, the
knowledge is lost.
II. Gender-Inclusive Assessments
A gender-inclusive assessment built on a thorough
gender analysis enables a more accurate understanding
of the needs, vulnerabilities, and capacities of women
and men; and facilitates the design of appropriate and
effective programs that meet the specic needs of women
Flood-displaced women in search of dry areas to reestablish households during
Typhoon Ondoy. Philippines.
Displacement, destruction of homes, and disruption of existing social protection
mechanisms may expose women and girls to long-term effects and consequences.
Pakistan.
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M. Anderson. 1994. Understanding the Disaster-Development Continuum: Gender Analysis is the Essential Tool. Gender and Development. 2/1.
Oxford: Oxfam GB and Routledge. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/4030182?uid=17647&uid=3738824&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=3&uid=
17632&uid=67&uid=62&sid=21103273915167
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Case Study: Pakistan FloodGender-Inclusive Needs Assessment
The Asian Development Bank and the World Bank led a gender-inclusive damage and needs assessment following
the massive ooding across Pakistan in 2010. The needs assessment examined the devastation and identied
major needs for recovery and rehabilitation. The assessment was based on data collected from separate focus
group discussions with displaced women and men living in relief camps, along with interviews with key observers
such as teachers, humanitarian workers, village leaders, and representatives from nongovernment organizations.
The postdisaster needs conrmed that preexisting gender inequalities in Pakistan had exacerbated after the oods
and that the trend was expected to continue. In particular, the assessment identied that (i) many women and girls
felt a loss of honor and dignity due to lack of privacy in the camps; (ii) several suffered from severe malnutrition and
poor hygiene conditions; (iii) women had limited access to incomes, assets, or livelihoods; and (iv) they faced an
increased vulnerability to violence against women and girls.
a
On the basis of the ndings of the needs assessment, the following gender issues emerged for postood
reconstruction: (a) womens inclusion in the reconstruction process, (b) professional jobs for women, (c) gender-
sensitive facilities such as vocational schools for women and health clinics, and (d) land acquisition by women.
a
ADB. 2011. A Story Within a Story: ADB Helps Women during Pakistans Post-Flood Reconstruction. Manila.
Focus group discussions with women living in relief camps. Pakistan.
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and men and recognizes existing capacities. Gender-
inclusive vulnerability assessment, as well as postdisaster
assessment, facilitates gender-equitable disaster risk
management and response practices. In its absence,
traditional approaches are likely to be adopted and
inequalities are reinforced.
Features of a gender-inclusive assessment
Gender-differentiated target groups: It is crucial that
vulnerabilities, needs, and capacities are assessed
differently for women and men. Avoid the use of
generic terms such as people and population and
replace them with women and men. Specic issues
to assess include division of labor and workload
among men and women, sources of income, access
to and control over physical resources (land, cash, and
loans), access to other resources (education, mobile
phones, radio, and awareness-raising activities),
mobility, coping strategies and skills (swimming and
negotiation skills), and constraints and limitations due
to social and cultural practices.
Sex-disaggregated data: Ensure that all assessment
tools include sex-disaggregated data. Equally
important is to disaggregate heads of household
information by sex to ensure that households headed
by women have equitable access as beneciaries to
disaster preparedness and response programs. Such
measures are particularly crucial in societies where
ownership of land and property is primarily vested
in men.
Data collectors: Ensure recruitment of a balanced
number of women and men as data collectors and that
diversity within the target population is reected in staff
composition. Select data collectors with local language
skills to enable a more comfortable environment for
women and men to share information.
Methodology: Incorporate culturally appropriate
and participatory data collection methodology as this
has a major impact on the quality of response. Try to
(i) interview women separately from men, (ii) have
women data collectors interview women participants,
(iii) gather the opinions of recognized womens
representatives as well as women in grassroots
organizations and nongovernment organizations
whose views may not be the same as those of
the predominantly male local leaders, and
(iv) as much as possible, provide a condential setting
for information gathering.
Training: Provide training to all data collectors on
gender-sensitive data collection methodology
including skills to observe perceived vulnerabilities
and constraints.
Additional preparation: In the context of
displacement resulting from disaster, gender-based
violenceincluding sexual violenceis a serious
problem, and needs assessment activities can further
traumatize a survivor. Ensure that data collectors have
information on local rst aid psychosocial service
providers and medical facilities for referral of trauma or
violence survivors.
III. Gender Design Elements in
Strengthening Disaster Resilience
Women are essential players for effective risk assessment,
early warning, and strengthening of disaster resilience.
Below are some examples of possible gender-inclusive
actions to strengthen disaster resilience at the national and
community levels.
Strengthening disaster resilience
at the national level
Support gender mainstreaming in national policies,
relevant laws, plans, and budgets related to disaster
risk management.
Facilitate establishment of disaster risk management
committees, with representation from national ministry
and/or line agencies responsible for women and social
welfare and womens organizations, along with mechanisms
in place to review decisions from gender lens.
Facilitate access to loans to households headed by
women or women from low-income households to
strengthen homes or livelihoods against natural hazards.
Ensure that eligibility for training programs and
microcredit is not dependent on landowning status
or gender.
4
Facilitate national capacity for sex-disaggregated data
collection through information management systems
and capacity building of disaster management ofcers
and focal points.
4
ADB. 2013. Investing in Resilience: Ensuring a Disaster-Resistant Future. Manila.
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Women can serve as agents of change for disaster risk reduction and strengthened resilience. Philippines.
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Strengthening gender-inclusive disaster
resilience at the community level
Incorporate targeted disaster risk management
activities into community-based programs (e.g.,
conditional cash transfer programs in the Philippines
include family and community disaster preparedness
as part of family development sessions).
Develop community education and awareness-raising
initiatives on disaster risk and measures to strengthen
resilience through radio spots, text messaging
campaigns, and street theater, particularly targeting
women and girls in rural communities.
Use informal games, competitions, publications, and
preparedness drills to engage girls in schools on
disaster preparedness strategies.
Conduct separate community mapping with women
and girls to identify vulnerabilities as well as existing
resources (e.g., community assets that can be used
as evacuation camps) and services (e.g., local medical
service providers). Regularly update these community
mapping exercises as vulnerabilities and capacities
change over time.
Identify critical facilities such as evacuation sites;
emergency housing facilities; and water, sanitation, and
health facilities that are accessible to both women and
men. Establish a community information board to display
such information in local languages and with illustrations.
Ensure that local government disaster risk management
plans include gender-inclusive elements such as
gender-inclusive risk assessment and vulnerability
and/or capacity analysis and targets for womens
involvement in developing risk and hazard maps,
community-based risk management procedures and
activities for preparedness and response, development
of action plans for postdisaster recovery, and early
monitoring and/or warning activities.
Support community mechanisms to enable inclusion
of 40% women participation in local disaster risk
management committees.
Train women to conduct vulnerability and risk
assessment; safe building techniques; and routine
maintenance of homes, factories, schools, and
community assets for disaster resilience features.
Support skill building on coping strategies that
would facilitate women and girls in disaster settings
(e.g., swimming lessons in ood-prone areas and
preparation of go-bags in earthquake-prone areas).
Establish gender-sensitive early warning system using
communication channels that are easily understood,
6
used, and accessible to both men and women.
Support communities to hold regular preparedness
drills involving both women and men.
Ensure that women and girls have relevant identity cards
and bank accounts to access disaster response support.
Support womens organizations to organize micro-
insurance policies to allow community women to
protect their tools and sources of livelihood.
Capacity building and project management
Institutional support to develop capacity on disaster
risk management and response are crucial in delivering
effective disaster response support. Such capacity building
needs to be targeted at government as well as community-
based organizations.
Include 40% women in community and local
government capacity-building activities on disaster
risk management, response, and recoveryincluding
protection of assets.
Partner with local womens groups to integrate disaster
risk management elements into local credit, livelihood,
and self-help groups capacity development curricula.
Engage women as staff, consultants, and facilitators.
Provide gender sensitization and disaster risk
management awareness training for executing and
implementing agencies and municipal and elected ofcials.
Expose project directors and staff to good practices in
gender mainstreaming in strengthening disaster resilience
and disaster response, covering both operational work
and human resource development policies.
Establish sex-disaggregated monitoring, reporting,
and evaluation systems.
IV. Gender Design Elements in
Disaster Recovery Assistance
In a postdisaster context, the sense of urgency that
often pervades recovery efforts can lead to shortcuts in
consultative processes. While the Asian Development
Bank does not get directly involved in disaster relief efforts,
it is important for teams to consider the gender dimensions
of the early relief stage as they tie into the longer-term
recovery phase. Recognizing that women and men have
different needs for disaster recovery and ensuring that
gender concerns are addressed in response programming
can serve as an opportunity to create more equal gender
relationships in affected postdisaster communities.
Case Study: PakistanEmpowering Women through Postdisaster
Housing Reconstruction
Following the 2005 Pakistan earthquake, the Asian Development Banks Earthquake-Displaced People Livelihood
Restoration Program helped rebuild permanent seismic-compliant homes for 2.7 million people, of which 55,000
belonged to households headed by women. More than 20,000 women were trained in building houses to withstand
future earthquakes. While most families did not build the houses themselves, the training helped them ensure that
their new homes met the recommended standards.
a
Local customs denied women the right to own or inherit property, limiting womens access to emergency supplies,
reconstruction initiatives, and other services due to lack of identity papers, land title documents, and banking
experience. The program initiated mobile registration services as well as legal aid centers in the most remote areas.
As a result, women, particularly households headed by women, gained land titles that were traditionally held almost
exclusively by men.
a
ADB. 2012. GAD Case Study: Women Step Up After Earthquake (Pakistan). http://www.adb.org/themes/gender/case-studies/women-step
-after-earthquake
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5
Purdah is the practice that includes the seclusion of women from men or strangers by means of concealing clothing (including the veil) and by the
use of high-walled enclosures, screens, and curtains within homes. (Source: Encyclopedia Britannica)
information and referral services in a condential
setting.
Consult with women and girls in disaster-affected
communities to identify the spatial design and location
of such spaces. Where purdah
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is observed, ensure
that the space is only accessible to women and girls.
Train disaster-affected women to be coordinators
of womens spaces and to link the spaces with activities
identied by community women for their empowerment.
Ensure that women participate directly in decision
making on local security arrangements.
Construct pavements and install streetlamps to allow
women and girls to move around and travel safely in
the relocation or reconstructed sites.
Provide capacity-building support to womens
groups for participation in community facility
management committees.
A. Community Infrastructure Reconstruction
Best practice planning for restoration and reconstruction
of lifeline community infrastructures takes into account
the specic needs of both women and men. Restoring
infrastructure supports womens economic empowerment
through increased access to income generation activities,
strengthened mobility, and access to a variety of services.
Establish womens communal spaces in safe and
accessible locations. These spaces can be a venue
for women to breast-feed in private, participate in
condential psychosocial counseling sessions, link
with disaster response service providers, and engage
in livelihood skills-building sessions.
Womens communal spaces can also be used
by gender-based violence survivors to access
Women and men participate in capacity-building sessions on disaster risk management. Philippines.
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B. Water Supply and Sanitation
Similar to normal situations, in postdisaster settings
women continue to be the primary collectors, transporters,
users, and managers of water and promoters of sanitation
activities. Gender-inclusive design and location of water
and sanitation facilities can reduce women and girls
time poverty, enable them to spend more time on income
generation or education, and prevent risks from potential
abuse and gender-based violence.
Water Supply
Design water infrastructure in consultation with women
regarding their preference for technology (e.g., taps,
pumps, or wells).
Consult women and men separately to identify most
appropriate timings for water distribution. Where water
facilities are time restricted, efforts should be made
to keep these to daylight hours, unless women
request otherwise.
Ensure that the maximum distance from any
household to the nearest water point is 500 meters,
and the queuing time at the water source is no more
than 30 minutes.
6
Consult with women to identify any
safety concerns with regards to the location of the
water point.
Ensure equal training opportunities for males and
females (50% for each) in system operation and
maintenance.
Sanitation
Sexual harassment often increases in the connes
of rehabilitation sites. Sanitation facilities are one of
the most vulnerable areas for women and girls. The
location of sanitation facilities should ensure that
risks to women using them are not increased. Consult
women and men separately to identify design and
location of these facilities.
Ensure that the communal latrines and bathing
facilities are separate and segregated (with visible
signage), located in safe areas, culturally appropriate,
provide privacy, have adequate lighting, and designed
with appropriate locks on the inside.
Discuss menstruation needs with women and girls
while designing sanitation facilities. This may entail
ensuring privacy, adequate water, or provision for
sanitary cloth disposal.
Ensure equal training opportunities to women and men
(50% for each) on public and personal hygiene awareness.
In postdisaster settings, women continue to be the primary collectors, transporters,
and users of water. Pakistan.
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C. Housing Reconstruction
One of the long-term impacts of natural hazards is the
destruction of housing and community structures.
Gender-inclusive housing reconstruction programs
provide a unique opportunity to ensure gender equity
through joint housing titles as well as equal participation
of women and men in the design and implementation of
community spaces.
Prioritize vulnerable women, particularly households
headed by women, below-poverty and unemployed
women, and socially marginalized women, in the
6
In accordance with Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response, The Sphere Project.
9
allocation of temporary shelters as well as
reconstructed houses.
Involve women in the design of houses and other
community spaces. Ensure that temporary shelters
and reconstructed houses are culturally appropriate
in design and constructed to accommodate
womens needs for privacy, safe water supply,
and sanitation facilities.
Keep housing design simple to avoid extra work
for women.
Ensure equal participation of women and men in
reconstruction jobs.
Provide tools and child care and breast-feeding
centers to facilitate womens participation in jobs.
Ensure joint titling (husband and wife) of all
new housing.
Engage womens nongovernment organizations
and community-based organizations for information
dissemination.
D. Livelihood Restoration Programs
Livelihood restoration programs are at the heart of all
disaster recovery initiatives. Timely and gender-inclusive
livelihood restoration programs can provide essential
cash ow for the local economy to restart and contribute
to developing a more equal community where vulnerable
populations, such as households headed by women, have
access to livelihood support activities.
Ensure cash-for-work and food-for-work programs are
targeted equally to women and men and include types
of work that allow women to fully participate. Careful
monitoring is needed to ensure that such programs
do not add to womens already expanded workloads
without developing their skills or capacities.
Ensure social support services (access to child care,
safe transport, and psychosocial counseling) to create
Womens engagement in housing reconstruction led to modications to accommodate need for privacy, sanitation, and space. Aceh.
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Case Study: Empowering Women through Land and Housing Titles
in Tsunami-Affected Aceh
While supporting reconstruction of tsunami-damaged houses, the Asian Development Banks Earthquake and
Tsunami Emergency Support Project facilitated womens involvement in housing reconstruction and access to joint
land titles and house ownership certicates. Married beneciaries were provided joint (male and female names)
land titles and house ownership certicates, while households headed by women were given individual titles and
certicates. Becoming land and property owners meant women could now use these assets as collateral to access
loans for self-sustaining livelihood enterprises.
a
A sex-disaggregated housing database further ensured protection
from procedural irregularities.
b
In addition, womens involvement was explicitly solicited in the reconstruction of houses. The project conducted
consultations with community women, womens organizations, and local nongovernment organizations in the
design of the reconstructed houses. As a result, modications were made to the spatial design of houses and
surrounding areas to accommodate womens need for privacy, appropriate kitchen and cooking space, and water
supply and sanitation concerns. Community structures, such as street labeling, house numbering, neighborhood
greening (one tree per house), septic tank maintenance, and playgrounds and/or playing areas for children, were
also incorporated in the design.
a
ADB. 2010. Rebuilding Lives and Homes in Aceh and Nias, Indonesia. Manila.
b
R. Kausar. ADB Leads in Land Tenure and Tsunami and Earthquake Victims in Aceh and Nias. Unpublished.
a supportive and enabling environment for women to
participate in livelihood activities including cash-for-
work and food-for-work.
Adopt a policy for equal participation of women and men
in vocational skills, leadership training, income generation,
and micronance programs. Consider on-the-job training
for women and girls to develop their technical skills.
Where possible, include a business start-up kit and
linkage to markets after skills training targeting
women entrepreneurs.
Set specic gender targets for livelihood support services.
Ensure households headed by women are included in
the list of beneciaries.
Ensure that vocational training programs provide
equal opportunitiesincluding nontraditional options
for womenand do not perpetuate gender-based
labor discrimination.
Encourage the formation of womens livelihood groups,
cooperatives, and credit groups to build social capital
and facilitate formation of a social safety net.
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E. Rural Roads Reconstruction
Reconstruction of rural roads can facilitate womens
economic recovery and empowerment through access to
road construction jobs as well as potential markets.
Set targets for employment of disaster-affected women
on the basis of their current level of participation in
road construction in the area, plus an increase in
participation levels to provide a measure of afrmative
action. Where employment is part of cash and/or food
for work, ensure that households headed by women
can access the opportunities.
Ensure commitment to equal wages and working
conditions from community and private sector
managers, and adequate facilities for healthy and safe
work (e.g., separate toilets).
Provide women with basic construction and
maintenance skills training, and teach them how to
organize themselves as a working group.
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ADB. 2013. Investing in Resilience: Ensuring a Disaster-Resistant Future. Manila.
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Case Study: Gender-Inclusive Assistance in Tsunami-Affected
Sri Lanka
In tsunami-affected areas in Sri Lanka, many women had to assume the role of household heads along with their
traditional domestic and care roles and responsibilities. The Asian Development Banks Tsunami-Affected Areas
Rebuilding Project incorporated gender-inclusive design features to ensure these women actively participated
in the project and had access to livelihood options such as employment in small-scale community infrastructure
reconstruction, provision of skills training, and support for establishing livelihood ventures. Following project
implementation, women earned relatively higher incomes as a result of skills training, livelihood programs, loans
provided through womens organizations, and establishment of market centers for products. The project also assisted
women with replacement of essential documents, such as national identity cards, birth certicates, and land titles,
lost in the tsunami.
Response to tsunami-affected areas included livelihood options for women to support their economic rehabilitation. Sri Lanka.
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Facilitate womens access to road construction
employment opportunities through the provision of
basic working tools, protective clothing, and child care
and breast-feeding centers.
F. Health Service
Gender-inclusive health services provide life-saving
medical and reproductive health services while facilitating
access to nutrition awareness and gender-based violence
response services.
Provide reproductive health services, psychosocial
counseling, clinical management for rape survivors,
and referrals through health centers and subhealth
centers.
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Ensure health facilities are designed to accommodate
womens need for privacy and have policies and
provisions in place to implement condentiality and
security of all client information. Where necessary,
equip health facilities with emergency transport.
Develop gender-sensitive health behavior, change,
and communication materials.
In societies where purdah is practiced, ensure
that female doctors and health staff attend to
women clients.
Engage schools, community-based organizations,
and local community groups to create awareness
about nutrition, hygiene, and health, particularly
targeting adolescent girls and women.
G. Education
Gender-sensitive educational facilities contribute
immensely to disaster recovery, particularly through
provision of a safe space for girls and boys and promotion
of well-being and normalcy. Education facilities also
provide opportunities to support awareness and
preparedness for future disasters through inclusion of
survival skills for disaster risk management.
Provide gender-specic extracurricular activities and
psychosocial counseling that promote resilience and
healing for girls. Include sessions on preparing for
natural hazards (information on contents of go-bags,
evacuation sites, and swimming classes).
Establish condential complaint reporting mechanism
on sexual harassment. Ensure adequate awareness
about such a mechanism and adequate follow-up with
clear procedures.
For those who have missed time at school due
to displacement as a result of a disaster, provide
bridging course to facilitate reentry to formal
education system.
Construct separate toilets for girls. Ensure that the
toilets have adequate lighting, locks from inside, and
include facilities for disposal of sanitary cloths.
Use creative strategies to proactively recruit and retain
female teachers. Ensure that female teachers have
opportunities to reach high-prole positions and not
just entry-level ones.
Train both male and female teachers on gender-
sensitive teaching strategies.
Design gender-sensitive curricula addressing the
specic needs, perspectives, and experiences of
girls and boys, including reproductive health and
HIV/AIDS content.
Include scholarship programs to cover costs for
tuition, textbooks, uniforms, and boarding facilities for
girls. Where scholarships are not possible, integrate
policies that reduce costs of schoolingespecially for
girls familiesthrough inclusion of feeding programs,
books distribution, and take-home rations.
Consider implementing nonformal education
program (literacy, numeracy) for those who may
be illiterate or may not have had the opportunity
to complete their schooling.
Asian Development Bank Publication Stock No. TIM136177 February 2014 Printed on recycled paper
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Reproductive health services include family planning, antenatal care, postnatal care, obstetric and neonatal complication support, and prevention
and treatment of reproductive tract infection and sexually transmitted infections, among others.