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Nigel Jones
A C Test: The 0x10 Best Questions
for Would-be Embedded Programmers
An obligatory and signicant part of the recruitment process for embedded systems programmers seems to be the C Test.
Over the years, I have had to both take and prepare such tests and in doing so have realized that these tests can be very
informative for both the interviewer and interviewee. Furthermore, when given outside the pressure of an interview situation,
they can also be quite entertaining (hence this article).
From the interviewees perspective, you can learn a lot about the person that has written or administered the test. Is the test
designed to show off the writers knowledge of the minutiae of the ANSI standard rather than to test practical know-how?
Does it test ludicrous knowledge, such as the ASCII values of certain characters? Are the questions heavily slanted towards
your knowledge of system calls and memory allocation strategies, indicating that the writer may spend his time programming
computers instead of embedded systems? If any of these are true, then I know I would seriously doubt whether I want the job
in question.
From the interviewers perspective, a test can reveal several things about the candidate. Primarily, one can determine the level of
the candidates knowledge of C. However, it is also very interesting to see how the person responds to questions to which they
do not know the answers. Do they make intelligent choices, backed up with some good intuition, or do they just guess? Are
they defensive when they are stumped, or do they exhibit a real curiosity about the problem, and see it as an opportunity to
learn something? I nd this information as useful as their raw performance on the test.
With these ideas in mind, I have attempted to construct a test that is heavily slanted towards the requirements of embedded
systems. This is a lousy test to give to someone seeking a job writing compilers! The questions are almost all drawn from
situations I have encountered over the years. Some of them are very tough; however, they should all be informative.
This test may be given to a wide range of candidates. Most entry-level applicants will do poorly on this test, while seasoned
veterans should do very well. Points are not assigned to each question, as this tends to arbitrarily weight certain questions.
However, if you choose to adapt this test for your own uses, feel free to assign scores.
Preprocessor
1. Using the #dene statement, how would you declare a manifest constant that returns the number of seconds
in a year? Disregard leap years in your answer.
#defne SECONDS_PER_YEAR (60UL * 60UL * 24UL * 365UL)
Im looking for several things here:
Basic knowledge of the #dene syntax (i.e. no semi-colon at the end, the need to parenthesize etc.). (a)
A good choice of name, with capitalization and underscores. (b)
An understanding that the pre-processor will evaluate constant expressions for you. Thus, it is clearer, and penalty free to (c)
spell out how you are calculating the number of seconds in a year, rather than actually doing the calculation yourself.
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A realization that the expression will overow an integer argument on a 16 bit machinehence the need for the L, (d)
telling the compiler to treat the expression as a Long.
As a bonus, if you modied the expression with a UL (indicating unsigned long), then you are off to a great start because (e)
you are showing that you are mindful of the perils of signed and unsigned typesand remember, rst impressions count!
2. Write the standard MIN macro. That is, a macro that takes two arguments and returns the smaller of the
two arguments.
#defne MIN(A,B) ((A) <= (B) ? (A) : (B))
The purpose of this question is to test the following:
Basic knowledge of the #dene directive as used in macros. This is important, because until the inline operator becomes (a)
part of standard C, macros are the only portable way of generating inline code. Inline code is often necessary in
embedded systems in order to achieve the required performance level.
Knowledge of the ternary conditional operator. This exists in C because it allows the compiler to potentially produce (b)
more optimal code than an if-then-else sequence. Given that performance is normally an issue in embedded systems,
knowledge and use of this construct is important.
Understanding of the need to very carefully parenthesize arguments to macros. (c)
I also use this question to start a discussion on the side effects of macros, e.g. what happens when you write code such as: (d)
least = MIN(*p++, b);
3. What is the purpose of the preprocessor directive #error?
Either you know the answer to this, or you dont. If you dont, then see reference 1. This question is very useful for
differentiating between normal folks and the nerds. Its only the nerds that actually read the appendices of C textbooks that
nd out about such things. Of course, if you arent looking for a nerd, the candidate better hope she doesnt know the answer.
Infnite Loops
4. Innite loops often arise in embedded systems. How does one code an innite loop in C?
There are several solutions to this question. My preferred solution is:
while(1)
{

}
Another common construct is:
for(;;)
{

}
Personally, I dislike this construct because the syntax doesnt exactly spell out what is going on. Thus, if a candidate gives this as
a solution, Ill use it as an opportunity to explore their rationale for doing so. If their answer is basicallyI was taught to do it
this way and I have never thought about it sincethen it tells me something (bad) about them. Conversely, if they state that
its the K&R preferred method and the only way to get an innite loop passed Lint, then they score bonus points.
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A third solution is to use a goto:
Loop:

goto Loop;
Candidates that propose this are either assembly language programmers (which is probably good), or else they are closet
BASIC/FORTRAN programmers looking to get into a new eld.
Data declarations
5. Using the variable a, write down denitions for the following:
An integer (a)
A pointer to an integer (b)
A pointer to a pointer to an integer (c)
An array of ten integers (d)
An array of ten pointers to integers (e)
A pointer to an array of ten integers (f )
A pointer to a function that takes an integer as an argument and returns an integer (g)
An array of ten pointers to functions that take an integer argument and return an integer. (h)
The answers are:
int a; // An integer (a)
int *a; // A pointer to an integer (b)
int **a; // A pointer to a pointer to an integer (c)
int a[10]; // An array of 10 integers (d)
int *a[10]; // An array of 10 pointers to integers (e)
int (*a)[10]; // A pointer to an array of 10 integers (f )
int (*a)(int); // A pointer to a function a that takes an integer argument and returns an integer (g)
int (*a[10])(int); // An array of 10 pointers to functions that take an integer argument and return an integer (h)
People often claim that a couple of these are the sorts of thing that one looks up in textbooksand I agree. While writing
this article, I consulted textbooks to ensure the syntax was correct. However, I expect to be asked this question (or something
close to it) when in an interview situation. Consequently, I make sure I know the answersat least for the few hours of the
interview. Candidates that dont know the answers (or at least most of them) are simply unprepared for the interview. If they
cant be prepared for the interview, what will they be prepared for?
Static
6. What are the uses of the keyword static?
This simple question is rarely answered completely. Static has three distinct uses in C:
A variable declared static within the body of a function maintains its value between function invocations. (a)
A variable declared static within a module, (b)
1
(but outside the body of a function) is accessible by all functions within that
module. It is not accessible by functions within any other module. That is, it is a localized global.
Functions declared static within a module may only be called by other functions within that module. That is, the scope (c)
of the function is localized to the module within which it is declared.
1 Translation unit for the pedagogues out there.
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Most candidates get the rst part correct. A reasonable number get the second part correct, while a pitiful number understand
answer (c). This is a serious weakness in a candidate, since they obviously do not understand the importance and benets of
localizing the scope of both data and code.
Const
7. What does the keyword const mean?
As soon as the interviewee says const means constant, I know Im dealing with an amateur. Dan Saks has exhaustively covered
const in the last year, such that every reader of ESP should be extremely familiar with what const can and cannot do for you. If
you havent been reading that column, sufce it to say that const means read-only. Although this answer doesnt really do the
subject justice, Id accept it as a correct answer. (If you want the detailed answer, then read Saks columnscarefully!).
If the candidate gets the answer correct, then Ill ask him these supplemental questions:
What do the following incomplete
2
declarations mean?
const int a;
int const a;
const int *a;
int * const a;
int const * a const;
The rst two mean the same thing, namely a is a const (read-only) integer. The third means a is a pointer to a const integer
(i.e., the integer isnt modiable, but the pointer is). The fourth declares a to be a const pointer to an integer (i.e., the integer
pointed to by a is modiable, but the pointer is not). The nal declaration declares a to be a const pointer to a const integer
(i.e., neither the integer pointed to by a, nor the pointer itself may be modied).
If the candidate correctly answers these questions, Ill be impressed.
Incidentally, one might wonder why I put so much emphasis on const, since it is very easy to write a correctly functioning
program without ever using it. There are several reasons:
The use of 1. const conveys some very useful information to someone reading your code. In effect, declaring a parameter
const tells the user about its intended usage. If you spend a lot of time cleaning up the mess left by other people, then
youll quickly learn to appreciate this extra piece of information. (Of course, programmers that use const, rarely leave a
mess for others to clean up)
const 2. has the potential for generating tighter code by giving the optimizer some additional information.
Code that uses 3. const liberally is inherently protected by the compiler against inadvertent coding constructs that result
in parameters being changed that should not be. In short, they tend to have fewer bugs.
Volatile
8. What does the keyword volatile mean? Give three different examples of its use.
A volatile variable is one that can change unexpectedly. Consequently, the compiler can make no assumptions about the
value of the variable. In particular, the optimizer must be careful to reload the variable every time it is used instead of holding a
copy in a register. Examples of volatile variables are:
Hardware registers in peripherals (e.g., status registers) (a)
Non-stack variables referenced within an interrupt service routine. (b)
2 Ive had complaints that these code fragments are incorrect syntax. This is correct. However, writing down syntactically correct code pretty much
gives the game away.
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Variables shared by multiple tasks in a multi-threaded application. (c)
If a candidate does not know the answer to this question, they arent hired. I consider this the most fundamental question
that distinguishes between a C programmer and an embedded systems programmer. Embedded folks deal with hardware,
interrupts, RTOSes, and the like. All of these require volatile variables. Failure to understand the concept of volatile will
lead to disaster.
On the (dubious) assumption that the interviewee gets this question correct, I like to probe a little deeper, to see if they really
understand the full signicance of volatile. In particular, Ill ask them the following:
Can a parameter be both const and volatile? Explain your answer. (a)
Can a pointer be volatile? Explain your answer. (b)
What is wrong with the following function? (c)
int square(volatile int *ptr)
{
return *ptr * *ptr;
}
The answers are as follows:
Yes. An example is a read only status register. It is volatile because it can change unexpectedly. It is const because the (a)
program should not attempt to modify it.
Yes. Although this is not very common. An example is when an interrupt service routine modies a pointer to a buffer. (b)
This one is wicked. The intent of the code is to return the square of the value pointed to by *ptr. However, since *ptr (c)
points to a volatile parameter, the compiler will generate code that looks something like this:
int square(volatile int *ptr)
{
int a,b;
a = *ptr;
b = *ptr;
return a * b;
}
Since it is possible for the value of *ptr to change unexpectedly, it is possible for a and b to be different. Consequently, this
code could return a number that is not a square! The correct way to code this is:
long square(volatile int *ptr)
{
int a;
a = *ptr;
return a * a;
}
Bit Manipulation
9. Embedded systems always require the user to manipulate bits in registers or variables. Given an integer
variable a, write two code fragments. The rst should set bit 3 of a. The second should clear bit 3 of a. In
both cases, the remaining bits should be unmodied.
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These are the three basic responses to this question:
No idea. The interviewee cannot have done any embedded systems work. (a)
Use bit elds. Bit elds are right up there with trigraphs as the most brain-dead portion of C. Bit elds are inherently (b)
non-portable across compilers, and as such guarantee that your code is not reusable. I recently had the misfortune to
look at a driver written by Inneon for one of their more complex communications chip. It used bit elds, and was
completely useless because my compiler implemented the bit elds the other way around. The moralnever let a non-
embedded person anywhere near a real piece of hardware!
3
Use #denes and bit masks. This is a highly portable method, and is the one that should be used. My optimal solution to (c)
this problem would be:
#defne BIT3 (0x1 << 3)
static int a;
void set_bit3(void) {
a |= BIT3;
}
void clear_bit3(void) {
a &= ~BIT3;
}
Some people prefer to dene a mask, together with manifest constants for the set & clear values. This is also acceptable. The
important elements that Im looking for are the use of manifest constants, together with the |= and &= ~ constructs.
Accessing fxed memory locations
10. Embedded systems are often characterized by requiring the programmer to access a specic memory location.
On a certain project it is required to set an integer variable at the absolute address 0x67a9 to the value
0xaa55. The compiler is a pure ANSI compiler. Write code to accomplish this task.
This problem tests whether you know that it is legal to typecast an integer to a pointer in order to access an absolute location.
The exact syntax varies depending upon ones style. However, I would typically be looking for something like this:
int *ptr;
ptr = (int *)0x67a9;
*ptr = 0xaa55;
A more obfuscated approach is:
*(int * const)(0x67a9) = 0xaa55;
Even if your taste runs more to the second solution, I suggest the rst solution when you are in an interview situation.
Interrupts
11. Interrupts are an important part of embedded systems. Consequently, many compiler vendors offer an
extension to standard C to support interrupts. Typically, this new key word is __interrupt. The following
code uses __interrupt to dene an interrupt service routine. Comment on the code.
__interrupt double compute_area(double radius) {
{
double area = PI * radius * radius;
printf(\nArea = %f, area);

3 Ive recently softened my stance on bit elds. At least one compiler vendor (IAR) now offers a compiler switch for specifying the bit eld ordering.
Furthermore the compiler generates optimal code with bit eld dened registers and as such I now do use bit elds in IAR applications.
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return area;
}
This function has so much wrong with it, its almost tough to know where to start.
Interrupt service routines cannot return a value. If you dont understand this, then you arent hired. (a)
ISRs cannot be passed parameters. See item (a) for your employment prospects if you missed this. (b)
On many processors / compilers, oating point operations are not necessarily re-entrant. In some cases one needs to (c)
stack additional registers, in other cases, one simply cannot do oating point in an ISR. Furthermore, given that a
general rule of thumb is that ISRs should be short and sweet, one wonders about the wisdom of doing oating point
math here.
In a similar vein to point (c), printf() often has problems with reentrancy and performance. If you missed points (c) & (d)
(d) then I wouldnt be too hard on you. Needless to say, if you got these two points, then your employment prospects are
looking better and better.
Code Examples
12. What does the following code output and why?
void foo(void)
{
unsigned int a = 6;
int b = -20;
(a+b > 6) ? puts(> 6) : puts(<= 6);
}
This question tests whether you understand the integer promotion rules in C an area that I nd is very poorly understood
by many developers. Anyway, the answer is that this outputs > 6. The reason for this is that expressions involving signed
and unsigned types have all operands promoted to unsigned types. Thus -20 becomes a very large positive integer and the
expression evaluates to greater than 6. This is a very important point in embedded systems where unsigned data types should
be used frequently (see reference 2). If you get this one wrong, then you are perilously close to not being hired.
13. Comment on the following code fragment?
unsigned int zero = 0;
unsigned int compzero = 0xFFFF; /*1s complement of zero */
On machines where an int is not 16 bits, this will be incorrect. It should be coded:
unsigned int compzero = ~0;
This question really gets to whether the candidate understands the importance of word length on a computer. In my
experience, good embedded programmers are critically aware of the underlying hardware and its limitations, whereas computer
programmers tend to dismiss the hardware as a necessary annoyance.
By this stage, candidates are either completely demoralizedor they are on a roll and having a good time. If it is obvious that
the candidate isnt very good, then the test is terminated at this point. However, if the candidate is doing well, then I throw in
these supplemental questions. These questions are hard, and I expect that only the very best candidates will do well on them.
In posing these questions, Im looking more at the way the candidate tackles the problems, rather than the answers. Anyway,
have fun
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Dynamic memory allocation.
14. Although not as common as in non-embedded computers, embedded systems still do dynamically allocate
memory from the heap. What are the problems with dynamic memory allocation in embedded systems?
Here, I expect the user to mention memory fragmentation, problems with garbage collection, variable execution time, etc. This
topic has been covered extensively in ESP, mainly by Plauger. His explanations are far more insightful than anything I could
offer here, so go and read those back issues! Having lulled the candidate into a sense of false security, I then offer up this tidbit:
What does the following code fragment output and why?
char *ptr;
if ((ptr = (char *)malloc(0)) == NULL) {
puts(Got a null pointer);
}
else {
puts(Got a valid pointer);
}
This is a fun question. I stumbled across this only recently, when a colleague of mine inadvertently passed a value of 0 to
malloc, and got back a valid pointer! After doing some digging, I discovered that the result of malloc(0) is implementation
dened, so that the correct answer is it depends. I use this to start a discussion on what the interviewee thinks is the correct
thing for malloc to do. Getting the right answer here is nowhere near as important as the way you approach the problem and
the rationale for your decision.
Typedef
15. Typedef is frequently used in C to declare synonyms for pre-existing data types. It is also possible to use the
preprocessor to do something similar. For instance, consider the following code fragment:
#defne dPS struct s *
typedef struct s * tPS;
The intent in both cases is to dene dPS and tPS to be pointers to structure s. Which method (if any) is preferred and why?
This is a very subtle question, and anyone that gets it right (for the right reason) is to be congratulated or condemned (get a
life springs to mind). The answer is the typedef is preferred. Consider the declarations:
dPS p1,p2;
tPS p3,p4;
The rst expands to
struct s * p1, p2;
which denes p1 to be a pointer to the structure and p2 to be an actual structure, which is probably not what you wanted. The
second example correctly denes p3 & p4 to be pointers.
Obfuscated syntax
16. C allows some appalling constructs. Is this construct legal, and if so what does this code do?
int a = 5, b = 7, c;
c = a+++b;
This question is intended to be a lighthearted end to the quiz, as, believe it or not, this is perfectly legal syntax. The question
is how does the compiler treat it? Those poor compiler writers actually debated this issue, and came up with the maximum
munch rule, which stipulates that the compiler should bite off as big a (legal) chunk as it can. Hence, this code is treated as:
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c = a++ + b;
Thus, after this code is executed, a = 6, b = 7 & c = 12;
If you knew the answer, or guessed correctlythen well done. If you didnt know the answer then I would not consider this to
be a problem. I nd the biggest benet of this question is that it is very good for stimulating questions on coding styles, the
value of code reviews and the benets of using lint.
Well folks, there you have it. That was my version of the C test. I hope you had as much fun doing it as I had writing it. If you
think the test is a good test, then by all means use it in your recruitment. Who knows, I may get lucky in a year or two and end
up being on the receiving end of my own work.
References:
In Praise of the #error directive. ESP September 1999. 1.
Efcient C Code for Eight-Bit MCUs. ESP November 1988. 2.