ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION

Maternal HIV Infection and Antibody

Responses Against Vaccine-Preventable
Diseases in Uninfected Infants
Christine E. Jones, BMBS, MRCPCH
Shalena Naidoo, BSc
Corena De Beer, PhD
Monika Esser, MBChB, MMed (Paed)
Beate Kampmann, MBBS, PhD
Anneke C. Hesseling, MD, PhD
I
NFECTIOUS DISEASES ACCOUNT FOR
nearly 6 million deaths world-
wide annually in children younger
than5years.
1
Immunizationagainst
vaccine-preventable infections there-
fore remains essential to achieving Mil-
lennium Development Goal 4, which
is toreduce childhoodmortality by two-
thirds.
2
Before acquisition of immu-
nity, infants are protected by maternal
IgGtransferredacross the placenta. Ma-
ternal antibody levels, immunization,
infection, and infant gestational age can
influence the efficiency of this pro-
cess.
3-7
Although maternal antibody is
essential to protect the infant inthe first
months of life, maternal-specific anti-
body can also interfere with the in-
fants own response to vaccination.
8
The high prevalence of maternal hu-
man immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in
many parts of the resource-poor world,
coupledwithsuccessful programs to re-
duce mother-to-child transmission of
HIV, has led to increasing numbers of
HIV-exposed infants who are not HIV-
infected themselves (ie, HIV-exposed
infants).
9
These infants and children
represent a vulnerable group with in-
creased rates of lower respiratory tract
infection and meningitis and up to
Author Affiliations: Academic Department of Pedi-
atrics, Imperial College London, London, England
(Drs Jones and Kampmann); Institute of Infectious
Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa (Drs Jones and
Kampmann); Medical Research Council (UK) The Gam-
bia, Fajara, The Gambia (Dr Kampmann); Depart-
ment of Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Cape
Town, South Africa (Drs De Beer and Esser and
Ms Naidoo); National Health Laboratory Services,
Tygerberg Hospital, Cape Town, South Africa (Drs
De Beer and Esser); and Desmond Tutu TB Center,
Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Stellen-
bosch University, Cape Town, South Africa (Dr
Hesseling).
Corresponding Author: Christine E. Jones, BMBS,
MRCPCH, Academic Department of Pediatrics, Im-
perial College London, St Marys Campus, Norfolk
Place, London W2 1PG, England (christine.jones
@imperial.ac.uk).
Context Altered immune responses might contribute to the high morbidity and mor-
tality observed in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)exposed uninfected infants.
Objective To study the association of maternal HIV infection with maternal- and
infant-specific antibody levels to Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), pneumococ-
cus, Bordetella pertussis antigens, tetanus toxoid, and hepatitis B surface antigen.
Design, Setting, and Participants A community-based cohort study in Khayelit-
sha, Western Cape Province, South Africa, between March 3, 2009, and April 28, 2010,
of 109 HIV-infected and uninfected women and their infants. Serum samples from
104 women and 100 infants were collected at birth and samples from93 infants were
collected at 16 weeks.
Main Outcome Measure Level of specific antibody in mother-infant pairs at deliv-
ery and in infants at 16 weeks, determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays.
Results At birth, HIV-exposed uninfected infants (n=46) had lower levels of spe-
cific antibodies than unexposed infants (n=54) did to Hib (0.37 [interquartile range
{IQR}, 0.22-0.67] mg/L vs 1.02 [IQR, 0.34-3.79] mg/L; P.001), pertussis (16.07
[IQR, 8.87-30.43] Food and Drug Administration [FDA] U/mL vs 36.11 [IQR, 20.41-
76.28] FDAU/mL; P.001), pneumococcus (17.24 [IQR, 11.33-40.25] mg/L vs 31.97
[IQR, 18.58-61.80] mg/L; P=.02), and tetanus (0.08 [IQR, 0.03-0.39] IU/mL vs 0.24
[IQR, 0.08-0.92] IU/mL; P=.006). Compared with HIV-uninfected women (n=58),
HIV-infected women (n=46) had lower specific antibody levels to Hib (0.67 [IQR, 0.16-
1.54] mg/L vs 1.34 [IQR, 0.15-4.82] mg/L; P=.009) and pneumococcus (33.47 [IQR,
4.03-69.43] mg/L vs 50.84 [IQR, 7.40-118.00] mg/L; P=.03); however, no differ-
ences were observed for antipertussis or antitetanus antibodies. HIV-exposed unin-
fected infants (n=38) compared with HIV-unexposed infants (n=55) had robust an-
tibody responses following vaccination, with higher antibody responses to pertussis
(270.1 [IQR, 84.4-355.0] FDA U/mL vs 91.7 [IQR, 27.9-168.4] FDA U/mL; P=.006)
and pneumoccocus (47.32 [IQR, 32.56-77.80] mg/L vs 14.77 [IQR, 11.06-41.08] mg/L;
P=.001).
Conclusion Among South African infants, antenatal HIV exposure was associated
with lower specific antibody responses in exposed uninfected infants compared with
unexposed infants at birth, but with robust responses following routine vaccination.
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4-fold higher mortality in the first year
of life.
10-13
Anumber of factors are likely
to contribute to this increased vulner-
ability, including socioeconomic fac-
tors, but immunological phenomena
might also be important.
To design appropriate interven-
tions for these vulnerable infants, it is
important to understand how mater-
nal HIVinfection influences infant sus-
ceptibility to common pathogens. We
therefore studied the association of ma-
ternal HIVinfectionwithmaternal- and
infant-specific antibody levels. Be-
cause absolute levels of antibody that
associate with protection against infec-
tion are poorly defined for a number of
specific antibodies, we assessed how
maternal HIV affects both the magni-
tude and putative protective levels of
these antibodies.
METHODS
Study Setting
The study was conducted between
March 3, 2009, and April 28, 2010, in
a community health center in Khay-
elitsha, Western Cape Province, South
Africa, a rapidly expanding urban in-
formal settlement. In this context, all
women are offered voluntary counsel-
ing and testing for HIVat antenatal care
registration; the participation is con-
sistently close to 100%.
14,15
In 2009, the
HIVprevalence among women attend-
ing antenatal clinics was 32%, with re-
ported vertical transmission of 3.3%.
14
During the study period, the Preven-
tion of Mother to Child Transmission
program consisted of dual therapy for
mothers and infants, starting with the
administration of zidovudine at 28 or
more weeks gestation, then zidovu-
dine for 1 month to the infant and a
single dose of nevirapine tobothmother
and infant. Mothers were eligible for
highly active antiretroviral treatment if
their CD4 count was less than200 cells/
L. Exclusive infant feeding options
were encouraged and mothers were
providedwithfree formula for 6months
if they chose exclusive formula feeding.
The study was approved by the
Universities of Cape Town and Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa, and the
National Health Service Research Eth-
ics Committee, England. Our study
was nested in a cohort study investi-
gating the influence of maternal HIV
and mycobacterial infection on infant
immune responses to BCG vaccina-
tion. The BCG vaccination (Danish
strain 1331, Statens Serum Institute,
intradermal vaccine) was delayed
until 6 weeks of age to allow for
determination of infant HIV infection
and to avoid BCG vaccination of HIV-
infected infants and vaccine adverse
events.
16-18
Infants received all other
routine vaccines according to the
South African Expanded Program on
Immunization schedule: oral polio
vacci ne (Sanof i Past eur, Lyon,
France) at birth; combination diph-
theria, tetanus toxoid, and pertussis
vaccine, and Haemophilus influenzae
type b vaccine (DTP-Hib; Sanofi Pas-
teur); hepatitis B (Heber Biotec,
Havana, Cuba); and oral polio vaccine
at 6, 10, and 14 weeks. From July
2009, pneumococcal 7-valent conju-
gate (Wyeth, Andover, Massachu-
setts) and rotavirus vaccinations
(GlaxoSmithKline, Rixensart, Bel-
gium) were administered at 6 and 14
weeks, and diphtheria, tetanus toxoid,
and acellular pertussis vaccine com-
bined with inactivated polio vaccine
and Hib (DTaP-IPV/Hib; Sanofi Pas-
teur) replaced the DTP-Hib vaccine.
Tetanus immunization is not rou-
tinely administered to pregnant
women in this setting; therefore, no
vaccines were administered to partici-
pating mothers.
Eligibility
Women were eligible if they had deliv-
ered a healthy infant at the Site B Ma-
ternal Obstetric Unit within the previ-
ous 24 hours, knew the result of the
HIV test at antenatal care registration,
and were willing and able to provide
written informed consent for them-
selves and their infant. Mothers were
excluded if they were younger than 18
years (2 women), planning to move
away during the study period (8 wom-
en), did not intend to return to the rou-
tine Site B baby clinic for ongoing care
(15 women), were unwell (2 women),
had evidence of active tuberculosis or
were ontuberculosis treatment (1wom-
an), or hada current householdor other
close tuberculosis contact (1 woman).
Infants weighing less than 2.5 kg or es-
timated at less than 36 weeks gesta-
tion (8 infants), with acute illness (1 in-
fant), or part of a twin birth (2 infants)
were excluded. Consecutive eligible
women were enrolled irrespective of
their HIV status. Once sufficient num-
bers of HIV-uninfected women were
reached (approximately 50% of the
sample), HIV-infected women were
consecutively enrolled. A study nurse
obtained written informed consent in
the participants home language.
Study Measures
A venous blood sample was collected
from the mother and infant within 24
hours of delivery and transported to the
laboratory within 4 hours. All infants
had a further venous blood sample col-
lected at 16 weeks. Mothers who tested
negative for HIVduring pregnancy had
a rapid HIV test (Abbott Determine
HIV-1/2, Toyko, Japan) at enrollment
with pretest and posttest counseling to
confirm their HIV status. The HIV-
exposed infants had an HIV polymer-
ase chain reaction (Amplicor HIV-a
DNA kit, version 1.5; Roche Molecu-
lar Systems Inc, Branchburg, New Jer-
sey) performed at ages 4 and 16 weeks.
Infant vaccination status was verified
from vaccination cards (Road to
Health records). Serum was sepa-
rated and stored at 80C for analysis
by standard commercial enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assays by re-
searchers blinded to maternal HIV in-
fectionstatus andpersonal information.
Laboratory Assays
Hib capsular polysaccharide and pneu-
mococcal capsular polysaccharide spe-
ci f i c IgG were measured usi ng
VaccZyme Human Anti-Hib and Anti-
PCP Enzyme Immunoassay ki ts
(MK016 and MK012, The Binding Site
Ltd, Birmingham, England). Microwells
in the pneumococcal assay were sup-
plied precoated with pneumococcal
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
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capsular polysaccharide antigens 1-5,
6B, 7F, 8, 9N, 9V, 10A, 11A, 12F, 14,
15B, 17F, 18C, 19A, 19F, 20, 22F, 23F,
33F, and incorporated C-polysaccha-
ride antibody absorption, which con-
fers limited protection against pneu-
mococcal infection.
19
Specific IgG to
Bordetella pertussis (pertussis) and
tetanus toxoid were measured using
SERION enzyme-linked immunosor-
bent assays classic kits (ESR120G and
ESR108G Serion Immundiagnostica
GmbH, Wrzburg, Germany). Hepati-
tis B surface antigen was measured
using an AxSYM HBsAg (V2) kit (Ab-
bott, Wiesbaden, Germany) in a fully
automated system. All reagents, includ-
ing controls, were supplied with the
commercial kits and manufacturers in-
structions were followed.
Anti-Hib antibody titers of more than
1.0 mg/L were regarded as protec-
tive
20
; pertussis titers of more than 30
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
U/mL were regarded as positive (de-
fined by the manufacturer); tetanus an-
tibody levels were classified as provid-
ing sufficient protection if more than
0.1 IU/mL
21
; and more than10 mIU/mL
was regarded as seropositive and pro-
tective against hepatitis B infection. No
level of protective immunity has been
established for a collective response to
multiple pneumococcal serotypes.
Data Management
and Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were completed
using SPSS version 18 (SPSS Inc, Chi-
cago, Illinois) and GraphPad Prism
version 5.0a (GraphPad Software Inc,
La Jolla, California). Two-sided
P.05 was considered significant. All
comparisons were prespecified except
for the comparison of infants who had
not received all vaccinations, which
was post hoc.
The magnitude of specific antibody
response between groups was com-
pared using the unpaired t test when
data were normally distributed; inter-
quartile ranges (IQRs) are shown.
When the distribution was nonnor-
mal, data were log transformed; the un-
paired t test was used if resulting dis-
tributions were normal; and the Mann-
Whitney test was used for nonnormal
data. Simple correlations were as-
sessed using Pearson or Spearman cor-
relation in the case of normal or non-
normal distribution, respectively. A
multiple linear regression model was
used to assess the relationship be-
tween the magnitude of maternal and
infant Hib, pertussis, pneumococcal,
and tetanus responses at delivery in re-
lation to maternal HIV status, treating
maternal age, gravidity, and house-
hold type (informal structure or brick
house), a proxy for socioeconomic sta-
tus inthis community, as covariates. In-
fant sex and birth weight were used as
additional covariates in analyses of in-
fant responses at birth. All indepen-
dent variables were entered into the
model simultaneously (forced entry
method). Proportions were compared
using the Fisher exact test; if any cell
containeda value of zero, 1.0 was added
to all cells before testing was per-
formed. Hepatitis B specific antibody
data had a binomial distribution and
therefore only the proportion of par-
ticipants with seroprotective levels of
hepatitis Bspecific antibody results
were analyzed. Placental transfer was
defined as the ratio of infant-to-
mother specific IgG concentration at
birth.
22
Missing data were excluded
from analysis. We did not adjust for
multiple comparisons.
Sample size was determined for the
cohort study; this substudy was pow-
ered to investigate differences be-
tween antibody responses in HIV-
exposed and HIV-unexposed infants of
at least 30%, with the prespecified hy-
pothesis that the magnitude of re-
sponses would be lower in HIV-
exposed infants.
RESULTS
Participant Characteristics
Of 120 eligible mother-infant pairs, 11
mothers declined to participate; there-
fore, 109 maternal-infant pairs were
enrolled (91% participation rate). Of
these pairs, 47 mothers (43%) were
infected with HIV and 62 (57%) were
uninfected. All women testing nega-
tive for HIV at their antenatal care reg-
istration had a further repeat negative
HIV test at delivery. Samples were col-
lected from 105 mothers (96% of the
maternal sample; 47 were infected and
58 were uninfected with HIV) at deliv-
ery, and from 101 infants (93% of the
infant sample; 47 were exposed and
54 were unexposed to HIV) at birth.
Sample volumes were insufficient for 4
women and 8 infants. One infant (1%)
was determined to be infected with
HIV at 4 weeks and was referred for
rapid initiation of antiretroviral treat-
ment (mother-infant pair subse-
quently was excluded from analysis).
Follow-up samples were available for
94 infants (87%; 38 were exposed and
55 were unexposed to HIV) at a mean
postnatal age of 16.4 weeks (SD, 1.7).
One l ate f ol l ow-up sampl e was
excluded from the analysis (collected
at 28 weeks after birth). The final
analysis was based on samples from
104 women and 100 infants collected
at birth and samples from 93 infants
collected at 16 weeks.
Characteristics of the study cohort
are shown in TABLE 1. All HIV-
infected women chose exclusive for-
mula replacement feeding. The mean
(SD) CD4 count among the HIV-
infected women was 474 (252) cells/L
and the median (IQR) viral load was
800 (357-6000) copies/mL. Seven
women had CD4 counts of less than
200 cells/L; 3 of these were taking
highly active antiretroviral treatment at
enrollment and 4 were referred to com-
mence highly active antiretroviral treat-
ment following delivery.
Infant-Specific Antibody
Responses at Birth
At birth, HIV-exposed uninfected
infants had significantly lower specific
antibody levels compared with unex-
posed infants to Hib (0.37 [IQR, 0.22-
0.67] mg/L vs 1.02 [IQR, 0.34-3.79]
mg/L; P.001), pertussis (16.07
[IQR, 8.87-30.43] FDA U/mL vs 36.11
[IQR, 20. 41-76. 28] FDA U/ mL;
P.001), pneumococcus (17.24 [IQR,
11.33-40.25] mg/L vs 31.97 [IQR,
18.58-61.80] mg/L; P=.02), and teta-
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
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nus (0.08 [IQR, 0.03-0.39] IU/mL vs
0.24 [IQR, 0.08-0.92] IU/mL; P=.006)
(FIGURE 1).
These lower levels observed in HIV-
exposed infants at birth corresponded
with a lower proportion of HIV-
exposed infants with levels consid-
ered to be protective against Hib (17%
vs 52%; P.001), pertussis (24% vs
57%; P=.001), tetanus (43% vs 74%;
P=.002), and hepatitis B (21%vs 54%;
P=.01).
In a multiple linear regression model
for factors associated with magnitude
of specific antibody response at birth,
HIVexposure remainedassociatedwith
reduced Hib titers (unstandardized re-
gression coefficient [b]=0.49; SE, 0.12;
P.001), pertussis (b=0.38; SE, 0.08;
P.001), pneumococcus (b=0.24; SE,
0.10; P=.01), and tetanus (b=0.52; SE,
0.16; P=.002) levels (eTable 1, avail-
able at http://www.jama.com). There
was no association with maternal age,
gravidity, housing structure, infant sex
or birth weight for Hib, pneumococ-
cus, and tetanus levels, but increased
maternal age was associatedwithhigher
pertussis-specific antibody titers
(b=0.02; SE, 0.01; P=.03) (eTable 1).
Maternal-Specific Antibody
Responses
To investigate the mechanisms associ-
ated with infant response, we mea-
sured specific maternal antibody levels
in parallel. HIV-infected women had
lower specific antibody levels than
uninfected women to Hib (0.67 [IQR,
0.16-1.54] mg/L vs 1.34 [IQR, 0.15-
4.82] mg/L; P=.009) and pneumococ-
cus (33.47 [IQR, 4.03-69.43] mg/L vs
50.84 [IQR, 7.40-118.00] mg/L;
P=.03). No differences were observed
for pertussis (22.07 [IQR, 12.48-
29.67] FDA U/mL vs 23.64 [IQR,
12.87-54.68] FDA U/mL; P=.26) or
tetanus (0.09 [IQR, 0.03-0.33] IU/mL
vs 0.15 [IQR, 0.06-0.67] IU/mL;
P=.12) between HIV-infected and
uninfected women. In a multiple
regression model for factors associated
with level of maternal-specific anti-
body response, maternal HIV infection
remained associated with low Hib and
pneumococcal antibody levels; how-
ever, there was no significant associa-
tion with maternal age, gravidity, or
housing structure for any of the spe-
cific antibody responses (eTable 1).
HIV-infected women were less likely
to have anti-Hib antibodies levels con-
sidered to be protective (35% vs 59%;
P=.02). The proportion of women with
protective antibody levels against per-
tussis (24% vs 38%; P=.14), tetanus
(47% vs 64%; P=.11), or hepatitis B
(26% vs 33%; P=.52) was similar in
HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected
women. The overall proportion of all
women with protective antibody lev-
els was low for pertussis (32%), teta-
nus (41%), and hepatitis B (30%).
In HIV-infected women, CD4 count
was positively correlated with the level
of antibody to pertussis (r =0.31;
P = .04), pneumococcus (r = 0.33;
P=.03), and tetanus (r=0.37; P=.01),
but not with Hib (r =0.07; P=.63)
(eTable 2). There was no correlationbe-
tween maternal HIVviral load and any
specific antibody level (eTable 2).
In HIV-infected women and their in-
fants, the correlation between mater-
nal- and infant-specific antibody re-
sponses were statistically significant for
Hib (r = 0.91; P .001), pertussis
(r =0.78; P.001), pneumococcus
(r = 0. 86; P . 001), and tetanus
(r =0.95; P.001). In HIV-negative
women, the correlation between ma-
ternal and infant responses were also
statistically significant for Hib (r=0.95;
P.001), pertussis (r=0.89; P.001),
pneumococcus (r=0.80; P.001), and
tetanus (r=0.93; P.001).
Association of Maternal HIV
With Placental Transfer
of Specific Antibody
The proportionof maternal-specific an-
tibody transferred across the placenta
to infants was significantly reduced
among HIV-infected women and their
infants. Using infant:maternal anti-
Table 1. Characteristics of HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Women and Their Uninfected Infants
Characteristics
No. (%) of Participants
P Value
HIV-Infected Women and Exposed Infants
(n = 46 at Birth)
HIV-Uninfected Women and Unexposed Infants
(n = 54 at Birth)
Maternal age, median (IQR), y 27.0 (24.0-31.3) 24.0 (20.0-27.5) .002
a
Maternal primigravidity 10 (21) 28 (45) .01
b
Female infant sex 25 (57) 33 (57) .68
b
Infant delivered by normal vaginal delivery 46 (100) 54 (100) .99
Birth weight, mean (SD), kg 3.16 (0.35) 3.23 (0.44) .38
c
Weight at 16 wks, mean (SD), kg
d
6.81 (0.93) 6.60 (0.93) .29
c
Exclusive breast feeding at birth
e
0 54 (100) .001
Exclusive breast feeding at 16 wks
e
0 23 (42) .001
Household lives in informal structure
f
36 (78) 34 (54) .02
b
Abbreviations: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IQR, interquartile range.
a
Mann-Whitney U test.
b
Fisher exact test.
c
t Test.
d
Weight at 16 weeks available for all infants followed up to 16 weeks (38 HIV-exposed infants and 55 HIV-unexposed infants).
e
No breast feeding was reported at any study visit for HIV-exposed infants.
f
An informal structure is a shack constructed of materials such as wood and corrugated iron.
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
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body ratios as a proxy for placental
transfer, HIV-infected women had sig-
nificant reductions in placental trans-
fer of 23% for Hib, 40% for pertussis,
and 27% for tetanus-specific antibod-
ies compared with HIV-uninfected
women, with a trend toward a reduc-
tion in placental transfer of pneumo-
coccal specific antibodies (TABLE 2).
Among HIV-infected women, there was
no association between maternal CD4
count or viral load and placental trans-
fer (eTable 2).
Specific Vaccine-Induced Antibody
Responses in Infants at 16 Weeks
In stratified analysis for infants who
had received 1, 2, or 3 doses of DTP-
Hi b vacci ne (n = 6, 22, and 65,
respectively), there was no difference
in antibody levels between infants
who had received 1 or 2 doses (eTable
3); these groups were therefore com-
bined for further analysis. Similarly,
data were combinedfor infants whohad
received 1 or 2 doses of pneumococ-
cal capsular polysaccharide (n=15 and
34, respectively). There was no statis-
tical difference in the proportion of
HIV-exposed and HIV-unexposed in-
fants who received fewer than 3 doses
of DTP-Hib vaccine (25% vs 16%;
P=.31) or fewer than 2 doses of pneu-
mococcal capsular polysaccharide (20%
vs 49%; P=.06) before the 16-week
sampling.
Despite initially lower titers at
bi rt h, HI V- exposed uni nf ect ed
infants mounted robust responses fol-
lowing vaccination. In the group that
received all 3 scheduled doses of
DTP-Hi b vacci ne, HIV-exposed
infants had significantly higher
responses to pertussis (270.1 [IQR,
84.4-355.0] FDA U/mL vs 91.7 [IQR,
27.9-168.4] FDA U/mL; P=.006) than
unexposed infants did (FIGURE 2),
but had similar responses to Hib and
tetanus. HIV-exposed infants also
had higher levels of pneumococcal-
s pe c i f i c a nt i body t ha n HI V-
unexposed infants did (47.32 [IQR,
32.56-77.80] mg/L vs 14.77 [IQR,
11.06-41.08] mg/L; P=.001). Among
infants who had received only 1 or 2
doses of DTP-Hib vaccine, responses
were higher in the HIV-exposed
infants than unexposed infants to
Hib (6.46 [IQR, 1.74-9.29] mg/L vs
Figure 1. Specific Antibody Titers in Uninfected HIV-Exposed and HIV-Unexposed Infants at
Birth
100
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I
U
/
m
L
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n=46)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=53)
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n =46)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n =54)
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n=46)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=48)
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n =46)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=54)
HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus; FDA, Food and Drug Administration. Specific antibodies to Hae-
mophilus influenzae type b (Hib), Bordetella pertussis antigens, pneumococcus, and tetanus toxoid from serum
samples collected within 24 hours of birth were nonpreferentially analyzed on available sample volume by com-
mercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Horizontal lines indicate median response. The Mann-
Whitney U test was used to compare antibody levels at birth between HIV-exposed and HIV-unexposed infants.
Table 2. Influence of Maternal HIV Infection on Placental Antibody Transfer
Specific Antibody
Placental Transfer, Median (IQR)
a
Reduction, %
b
P Value
c
HIV-Infected MotherExposed
Uninfected Infant Pairs
HIV-Uninfected MotherUnexposed
Infant Pairs
Haemophilus influenzae type b 0.57 (0.45-0.79) 0.74 (0.61-1.00) 23 .002
Bordetella pertussis 0.91 (0.61-1.20) 1.51 (1.15-2.06) 40 .001
Pneumococcus 0.62 (0.41-0.77) 0.73 (0.53-0.94) 15 .05
Tetanus toxoid 0.95 (0.60-1.12) 1.30 (1.03-1.86) 27 .001
Abbreviations: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IQR, interquartile range.
a
Placental transfer of antibody from mother to infant is expressed as a ratio of infant/maternal specific IgG concentration at birth.
b
Percentage reduction in placental transfer between HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women; calculated as the ratio of the placental transfer from HIV-infected women:placental
transfer from HIV-uninfected women, subtracted from 100.
c
Mann-Whitney U test.
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
580 JAMA, February 9, 2011Vol 305, No. 6 (Reprinted) 2011 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
Downloaded From: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/ by Sudarman ARS on 10/18/2014
0.54 [IQR, 0.24-4.10] mg/L; P=.02),
pertussis (81.16 [IQR, 38.64-195.40]
FDA U/mL vs 11.60 [IQR, 5.30-
39.42] FDA U/mL; P.001), and
tetanus (1. 86 [IQR, 0. 51-2. 21]
IU/mL vs 0.50 [IQR, 0.10-0.93]
IU/mL; P=.01) (Figure 2).
The fold increase in antibody level
before and after vaccination was sig-
nificantly higher in the HIV-exposed
infants than in the HIV-unexposed
infants for Hib (21.15-fold increase
[IQR, 6.84-118.40] vs 2.97-fold
increase [IQR, 0.71-16.69]; P=.007),
pertussis (9.51-fold increase [IQR,
2.80-24.25] vs 2.16-fold increase
[IQR, 0.41-6.84]; P=.002), and pneu-
mococcus (2.06-fold increase [IQR,
0.96-5.70] vs 0.31-fold increase [IQR,
0.26-1.04]; P.001). There was no
difference in the fold-increase at pre-
vaccination and postvaccination
between the 2 groups for tetanus-
specific responses (14-fold increase
[I QR, 3. 26- 116. 20] vs 12- f ol d
increase [IQR, 2.8136.35]; P=.54).
FIGURE 3 shows prevaccination and
postvaccination antibody levels for in-
dividual infants. Infants with the low-
est levels of anti-Hib, pertussis, pneu-
mococcal , and t et anus-speci f i c
antibodies showed the greatest vac-
cine responses at 16 weeks. HIV expo-
sure was associated with a greater mag-
nitude of change between birth and 16
weeks.
Figure 2. Specific Antibody Titers in Uninfected HIV-Exposed and HIV-Unexposed Infants at 16 Weeks
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n=21)
Anti-Hib lgG
A
n
t
i
-
H
i
b

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

m
g
/
L
3 Vaccine Doses 1 or 2 Vaccine Doses
1000
100
10
1
Antipertussis lgG
A
n
t
i
p
e
r
t
u
s
s
i
s

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

F
D
A

U
/
m
L
3 Vaccine Doses 1 or 2 Vaccine Doses
1000
100
10
1
Antipneumococcal lgG
A
n
t
i
p
n
e
u
m
o
c
o
c
c
a
l

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

m
g
/
L
1 or 2 Vaccine Doses
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
Antitetanus lgG
A
n
t
i
t
e
t
a
n
u
s

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

I
U
/
m
L
3 Vaccine Doses 1 or 2 Vaccine Doses
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=37)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n =10)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n =17)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n =23)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=39)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n=9)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=17)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n = 9)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n =39)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n=23)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n=17)
Uninfected
HIV-Exposed
Infants
(n =27)
HIV-Unexposed
Infants
(n = 19)
HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus; FDA, Food and Drug Administration. Specific antibodies to Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), Bordetella pertussis
antigens, pneumococcus, and tetanus toxoid from serum samples collected at 16 weeks were analyzed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Three vaccine doses
indicate when the vaccine schedule was complete with vaccines administered at 6, 10, and 14 weeks; and 1 or 2 vaccine doses indicate when the schedule was in-
complete (except pneumococcal vaccination, for which only 2 doses were scheduled before 16 weeks). Samples were collected from 93 infants at 16 weeks (38 HIV-
exposed infants and 55 HIV-unexposed infants) and antibody levels were nonpreferentially completed on available sample volume. The number of samples analyzed
for each exposure group in each vaccine dose group is indicated. Horizontal lines indicate median response. For anti-Hib IgG, P=.70 for uninfected HIV-exposed
infants vs HIV-unexposed infants at 3 vaccine doses; P=.02 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-unexposed infants at 1 or 2 vaccine doses; P=.21 for unin-
fected HIV-exposed infants at 3 vaccine doses vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses; and P=.001 for HIV-unexposed infants at 3 vaccine doses vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses. For anti-
pertussis IgG, P=.006 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-unexposed infants at 3 vaccine doses; P.001 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-
unexposed infants at 1 or 2 vaccine doses; P=.09 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants at 3 vaccine doses vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses; and P.001 for HIV-unexposed
infants at 3 vaccine doses vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses. For antipneumococcal IgG, P=.001 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-unexposed infants. For antitetanus
IgG, P=.71 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-unexposed infants at 3 vaccine doses; P=.01 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants vs HIV-unexposed infants at
1 or 2 vaccine doses; P=.43 for uninfected HIV-exposed infants at 3 vaccine doses vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses; and P.001 for HIV-unexposed infants at 3 vaccine doses
vs 1 or 2 vaccine doses.
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
2011 American Medical Association. All rights reserved. (Reprinted) JAMA, February 9, 2011Vol 305, No. 6 581
Downloaded From: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/ by Sudarman ARS on 10/18/2014
COMMENT
Toour knowledge, we present the most
comprehensive study to date evaluat-
ing the association of maternal HIV
infection and maternal-specific anti-
body levels and infant antibody re-
sponses to routine World Health
Organization Expanded Program on
Immunization vaccines. We demon-
strate that HIV-exposed uninfected
infants have lower specific antibody
levels at birth than their nonHIV-
exposedpeers. Similarly, a smaller pro-
portion of these infants have levels
deemed to be protective. We showthat
this is due to a combination of factors:
lower antibody titers to Hib and pneu-
mococcus in HIV-infected pregnant
women and reduced transplacental
transfer of Hib, pertussis, pneumococ-
cal, and tetanus-specific antibodies.
Our data alsohighlight lowlevels of spe-
cificantibodyinHIV-uninfectedwomen
with the consequence that half of their
infants may not be sufficiently pro-
tected against Hib and pertussis early
in life.
Our findings are consistent with 2
studies in HIV-infected women from
Kenya, indicating that maternal HIVis
associated with lower tetanus and mea-
slesspecific antibody incordbloodand
also with reduced placental antibody
transfer.
4,23
Maternal tetanus-specific an-
tibody levels are lower among HIV-
infected women in some studies; in-
consistencies observed may be due to
differences in vaccination practice dur-
ing pregnancy.
4,7
Although it is known that measles,
Hib, and pneumococcal vaccine re-
sponses are reduced in children in-
fected with HIV, there is a paucity of
studies investigating the influence
of infant HIV exposure (in the ab-
sence of infection) on responses to vac-
cines.
24-28
We observedanincreasedvac-
cine response in HIV-exposed infants
to pertussis and pneumococcus com-
pared with HIV-unexposed infants fol-
lowing completion of the immuniza-
tion schedule. This can be explained by
the lower maternally derived antibody
levels at birth. Conversely, higher
levels of maternal antibody among
HIV-unexposed infants at birth corre-
sponded with lower responses postvac-
cination. Other studies have also re-
ported that maternal antibodies can
inhibit infant response to measles, teta-
nus, whole cell pertussis, and Hib vac-
cines; this effect varies considerably be-
tween different vaccines and studies.
8,29
The mechanisms through which ma-
ternal antibodies inhibit infant re-
sponses to vaccination are not fully
understood. However, a plausible ex-
planation is that maternal antibodies
mask or hide vaccine antigenic epi-
topes, preventing recognitionand bind-
ing by infant B cells; a key determi-
nant of infant responses appears to be
the maternal antibody-to-vaccine an-
tigen ratio.
30
HIV-exposed infants who had
missed doses of vaccine before sam-
pling at 16 weeks had higher antibody
responses than HIV-unexposed infants
to Hib and tetanus, as well as pertussis
and pneumococcus. An explanation
for this observation is that higher
maternal antibodies observed among
HIV-unexposed infants may influence
the response to the first dose of vac-
cine but not to subsequent doses. A
study in Finland
31
reported a similar
effect; infants with high levels of
maternally derived antibody had lower
anti-Hib antibody after the first dose of
Hib vaccination, but not after the sec-
ond dose.
A limitation of our study is enroll-
ment at a single center with a modest
number of mother-infant pairs. Sam-
pling was however consecutive andrep-
resentative of women and infants ac-
cessing care in this community setting.
We did not have data on maternal vac-
cination history, due to limitations in
recall and documentation. Vaccina-
tion records in this setting are typi-
Figure 3. Change in Specific Antibody Titers Between Birth and 16 Weeks in Uninfected
HIV-Exposed and HIV-Unexposed Infants
100
10
1
0.1
Paired Infant Samples
(n =60)
Hib
A
n
t
i
-
H
i
b

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

m
g
/
L
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
Paired Infant Samples
(n =64)
Tetanus
A
n
t
i
t
e
t
a
n
u
s

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

I
U
/
m
L
1000
100
10
1
Paired Infant Samples
(n =64)
Pertussis
A
n
t
i
p
e
r
t
u
s
s
i
s

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

F
D
A

U
/
m
L
1000
100
10
1
Paired Infant Samples
(n =35)
Pneumococcal capsular protein
A
n
t
i
p
n
e
u
m
o
c
o
c
c
a
l

l
g
G

T
i
t
e
r
,

m
g
/
L
HIV exposed
HIV unexposed
HIV indicates human immunodeficiency virus; FDA, Food and Drug Administration. Each infant is represented by
a vertical bar that starts at the specific antibody level at birth and ends in the specific antibody level at 16 weeks; the
length of the bar reflects the magnitude of the vaccine response. The infants are ordered by specific antibody level
at birth with specific antibodies to Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), pertussis, pneumococcal capsular protein,
andtetanus. Results areshownfor infants whoreceived3doses of combinationdiphtheria, tetanus toxoid, andper-
tussisvaccineandHib(DTP-Hib) or 2dosesof pneumococcal conjugatevaccinefor whompairedsampleswereavailable.
MATERNAL HIV INFECTION AND ANTIBODY RESPONSES IN UNINFECTED INFANTS
582 JAMA, February 9, 2011Vol 305, No. 6 (Reprinted) 2011 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
Downloaded From: http://jama.jamanetwork.com/ by Sudarman ARS on 10/18/2014
cally available for young children only.
Women in our study groups had sta-
tistically different but clinically com-
parable ages; therefore, similar mater-
nal vaccination history between groups
could be inferred based on the date of
the introduction of the universal Ex-
panded Program on Immunization
schedule in South Africa (1973).
Althoughantibody levels canbe used
to indicate potential susceptibility to in-
fection, some uncertainty remains re-
garding the functional relevance of a
single so-called protective level. In ad-
dition, protective levels for collective
response to multiple pneumococcal se-
rotypes are unclear and there is a pau-
city of evidence for defining protec-
tive levels for other antibodies such as
pertussis.
32
Functional assays may give
a better assessment of the ability of the
immune system to effectively clear a
pathogen. Further work to address this
aspect is ongoing.
We were unable to correlate anti-
body levels with long-termvaccine re-
sponses or clinical outcomes in the
women or infants. However, our data
contribute to a potential explanationfor
the higher morbidity and mortality ob-
served among African HIV-exposed in-
fants. For example, the lower ob-
served pneumococcal-specific antibody
among HIV-exposed infants before vac-
cination might be associated with in-
creased severity of pneumonia ob-
served in this group of infants.
12
Our
data highlight the need for larger pro-
spective studies to determine whether
the lower antibody levels in HIV-
exposed infants at birth translate into
increased morbidity from vaccine-
preventable infections.
Our study results also support the
evaluation of novel maternal and neo-
natal immunization strategies to aug-
ment specific antibody responses and
potentially prevent infections in in-
fants in early life, particularly in HIV-
exposed infants. In view of similar de-
ficiencies also observed in the non
HIV-exposed group, benefits may exist
for these infants too.
The implementation of vaccination
programs in pregnancy, although re-
sulting in decreased infant and mater-
nal morbidity, is challenging because
immunization in pregnancy may im-
pair infant responses to vaccination as
a result of increased maternal anti-
body.
21,33,34
Evaluation of pneumococ-
cal or pertussis vaccination strategies
during pregnancy, or before preg-
nancy, in settings with high preva-
lence of HIVhowever may benefit both
mother andchild.
35-39
Analternative and
feasible strategy is neonatal vaccina-
tion. For example, neonatal pertussis
vaccination is safe and results in early
antibody responses; however, re-
sponses to Hib and hepatitis B vac-
cines may be affected.
40
The timing of
neonatal vaccinations therefore needs
to be carefully considered.
41
We rec-
ommend evaluation of both maternal
and neonatal vaccination strategies, as
each has merits and challenges.
In conclusion, our study describes
specific antibody responses in mother-
infant pairs with and without mater-
nal HIV infection before and after in-
fant vacci nati on and el uci dates
mechanisms for reduced responses in
HIV-exposed uninfected infants early
in life. Asignificant percentage of non
HIV-infected women also showed in-
sufficient protection. Larger prospec-
tive studies are needed to ascertain the
relationshipbetweenthese observedim-
mune responses andclinical endpoints.
Targeted vaccination strategies may be
required in HIV-infected women and
their infants.
Author Contributions: Dr Jones had full access to all
of the data in the study and takes responsibility for
the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data
analysis. Drs Kampmann and Hesseling contributed
equally to this article.
Study concept and design: Jones, Esser, Kampmann,
Hesseling.
Acquisition of data: Jones, Naidoo, De Beer, Hesseling.
Analysis and interpretation of data: Jones, Kampmann,
Hesseling.
Drafting of the manuscript: Jones, Kampmann,
Hesseling.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important in-
tellectual content: Jones, Naidoo, De Beer, Esser,
Kampmann, Hesseling.
Statistical analysis: Jones, Hesseling.
Obtained funding: Jones, Kampmann, Hesseling.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Jones,
Naidoo, De Beer, Kampmann, Hesseling.
Study supervision: Esser, Kampmann, Hesseling.
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: All authors have com-
pleted and submitted the ICMJE Formfor Disclosure of
Potential Conflicts of Interest and none were reported.
Funding/Support: This work was supported by the Eu-
ropean Society for Pediatric Infectious Diseases (Dr
Jones), the Thrasher Research Foundation (Dr Jones),
the Wellcome Trust (Dr Kampmann), National Insti-
tute for Health Research, England (Dr Kampmann),
and Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation (Dr
Hesseling).
Role of the Sponsors: The funding agencies had no
role in the design or conduct of the study, in the col-
lection, management, analysis, or interpretation of the
data, or in the preparation, review, or approval of the
manuscript.
Online-Only Material: eTables 1, 2, and 3 are avail-
able at http://www.jama.com.
Additional Contributions: We thank the study nurses,
Barbara Magwegwe, RN, and Nonkonzo Dziba, RN,
and study counselor, Eunice Mhlamba (Desmond Tutu
TB Center, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South
Africa), who ably assisted with the acquisition of data,
and David Schriger, MD, MPH (Los Angeles Emer-
gency Medicine Center, University of California, Los
Angeles), for graphical assistance. Mss Magwegwe,
Dziba, and Mhlamba are salaried employees who
received no special financial compensation for their
contributions. Dr Schriger received no financial com-
pensation for his contribution.
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