An English Reader for

Academic Purposes


The English Language I
Mechanical Engineering
STROJARSTVO

2014/15


Ksenija Mance


The Faculty of Engineering in Rijeka,
Rijeka University
2014/15

1

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
Some useful phrases for your discussion 4

LECTURE 1
Core Text WHERE DOES ENGLISH COME FROM? 6

LECTURE 2
Core Text THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE VS. BRITISH 16
NOUNS AND ARTICLES
LECTURE 3
Core Text ENGINEERING ETHICS,TECHNICAL FAILURES 28

LECTURE 4
Core Texts WHAT IS ENGINEERING? 58
ABSTRACT WRITING 70
LECTURE 5
Core Text GEARS 88
Core Text PROPELLERS 100

LECTURE 6
Core Text CONTINUOUS, PERFECT AND PASSIVE ASPECTS 102

LECTURE 7
Core Text GRAMMAR REVISION 106

LECTURE 8 PRELIM EXAM 1 - GRAMMAR EXAM 118

LECTURE 9
Core Text THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS 122

LECTURE 10A
Core Text MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS 138

LECTURE 10B
Core Text BIOMECHANICS, BIOENGINEERING 174

LECTURE 11
Core Text HYDROELECTRIC, SOLAR, WIND POWER 188
GENERATION AND OTHER RENEWABLES

LECTURE 12 THERMODYNAMICS, NUCLEAR ENERGY 228
Core Text

LECTURE 13 WHAT IS A FLUID? 256
Core Text

LECTURE 14 PRELIM 2 - TERMINOLOGY EXAM 280
Core Text

LECTURE 15 Revision 282

REFERENCES 285
2

INTRODUCTION

My class you will learn to think for yourself again. You will learn to savor
words and language. No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas can
change the world.
Robin Williams as English Teacher John Keating
DEAD POETS SOCIETY, 1989


This issue/book includes a number of articles that address the teaching and learning of
technical vocabulary. Vocabulary learning goals should be integrated into speaking
activities, i.e., planned vocabulary learning should not compromise the communicative
nature of spoken activities. Therefore, each unit of these texts is an interdisciplinary
look at a topic which provides a focus for debate. My aim is to provide a good,
intellectually challenging language education. All areas including engineering,
engineering ethics, technology, language arts, social studies, mathematics, science and
business English are covered.

I suggest techniques involving all students as active participants in selecting topics and
materials.

Cooperative learning, put quite simply, is a type of instruction wherby students work
together in small groups to achieve a common goal. Cooperative learning has become
increasingly popular as a feature of Communicative language teaching (CLT) with
benefits that include increased student interest due to the quick pace of cooperative
tasks, improved critical thinking ability, and the opportunity to practice both the
productive and receptive skills in a natural context. The array of benefits extend beyond
increased language learning to include increased self-esteem and tolerance of diverse
points of view. (Johson and Johnson 1989; Kagan 1995; McCafferty, jacobs, and
iddings 2006; Slavin 1995).

Johnson and Johnson (1999) indicate five features of a successful cooperative learning
activity:

1 students learn that their success depend upon working together interdependently
2 students are individually accountable while achieving group goals
3 students support and assist one anothers success through face-to-face interactions
4 students develop social skills by cooperating and working together effectively
5 students as a group have the opportunity to reflect on the effectiveness of working
together.

When these principles are realized, cooperative learning creates a rich environment for
students to learn language and simultaneously develop their capacities for collaborative
twenty-first-century communication and problem solving.
English Teaching Forum, Volume 47, Number 4, 2009

I also suggest techniques as elicitation the process of drawing out something, of
provoking a response. Using elicitation as a questioning strategy in the language
classroom focuses discussion on the learners on their ideas, opinions, imagination,
and involment.
3


Classroom discussions that use elicitation as a technique allow students to draw on what
they know on existing schemata/scaffolding and provide for a rich sharing of ideas
within sociocultural context (Huong 2003).

Classroom discussions can so build on the experiences and language of learners by
inviting them to discuss their experiences. I would also like to use students as resources
by letting them share their knowledge and expertise with others in the class
emphasizing their experience and knowledge and taking the focus off of the text as the
source of authority. Therefore, elicitation helps learners become more self-reliant. The
student could help by sharing their ideas, interests, and aims and by being engaged
members in collaborative learning.
Through the strategies of elicitation, gapping extension or adaption, students interact
more, construct solutions together and with this e-mail book have the tools to
participate in and contribute to their education.

My students will also be systematically taught English grammar and creative writing.

My curriculum was thus developed to provide students of all the necessary support in
the form of the group work, i.e. roundtable discussion, which could give them
opportunities to speak in front of a small audience with confidence, enlarge their
vocabulary and give them chances to learn from classmates - their colleagues. Any
'general statement' whether such a statement is made on human behaviour, art, science
or history must be questioned.

Man's knowledge of his world could be built up by analytical observation and pieced
together rather like a jigsaw puzzle. Our history has taught us that objective observation
is impossible because of the various strata of human and individual consciousness.
Therefore, involving the science, technology and social studies, we not only lighten the
curriculum and ideas but also allow students to see natural ties across curriculum and
across cultures.

I would also like to stress the genius of students by having students engage in this
curriculum, dialogue with each other, sharing their attitudes and experiences with each
other. We emphasize communication, scientific outlook, and deep insight into various
phenomena by reassessing the common views and outlooks. Feature films are also
important because they capture the imagination of people and shake up new lexical
items so that they remain accessible to the student.

Therefore, various units that are presented emphasize more student-centred approach
that may fit their interests. Students shouldnt be afraid of holistic approach, an
approach from various standpoints and an approach including activities such as
listening, watching movies, reading, writing and discussing. So, they should not be
afraid of reassassing. Therefore, I offer you various texts, texts with various registers,
styles and standpoints.

In the end, you might also share with me how you go implementing your English.

I wish you all a happy, healthy and prosperous new academic year full of exciting
opportunities, high motivation, goodwill, good feelings, good intentions and good
communication
Your teacher of English
Ksenija Mance
4

SOME USEFUL PHRASES FOR YOUR DISCUSSION


Making a point/Stating an argument

Whats your opinion / point of view . ?
How do you feel about .?
What do you think of .?
In my opinion . . ..
From my point of view .
I reckon .
Personally, I think/ feel . . .
I believe (that). . .
The point is this: ...
If you ask me. I think. . .
I'd like to say this: .. .
As far as I'm concerned, ...
But speaking of it, could you tell me .
It seems to me that ..
As I see it, .
I strongly believe that .....

Clarifying

What I said/meant was: .. .
I did not say. . . . What I did say was. . .
I think you (must have) misunderstood me/what I said.
Let me repeat/rephrase what I said.
I'm not saying that. What I am saying is (that)...
Yes, but don't forget I was only referring to.. .

Disagreeing with an argument

(I'm afraid) I disagree.
On the other hand, of course, ...
That's not (entirely) true, . ..
I can't possibly agree with/accept that.
I hate to disagree with you, but. . .
Yes/All right, but don't you think.. .

Asking for an opinion

Well? What do you think?
Do/Don't you agree?
What's your view (then)?
How do you see it (then)?
Let's have your opinion.








5



Challenging an argument

That can't be (true/right). But what about. . . ?
What's your answer to that?
Do you mean to tell me that. . . ? If you don't. .,
then you should say what you mean.
Are you seriously suggesting that. .. ?

Agreeing with an argument

Quite. Exactly. That's (very) true.
So (do) I. Neither/Nor (do) I.
I entirely agree. I agree with you entirely.
You're absolutely right. That's a good point.
I couldn't agree with you more.
That's just what I think.
How interesting.

Interrupting an argument

Excuse me, did you say/do you mean (that). . .
Before you make your next point. ..
So what you're saying is (that)...
Qome to the point! What you really think k (that)...
Does this make sense to you?
Hoping to hear from you again before long.
I must go home immediately, give my apologies to Mister XY
Thats it. It was on the tip of my tongue.
I cant help thinking
I dont doubt that

You have Some Difficulties in Understanding
What Your British or American Friends Say

Did you understand what I said?
No, Im sorry but I didnt quite catch what you said.
I beg your pardon?
No, Im afraid I didnt understand.
No, Im sorry, but I missed what you said.
Would you say it again, please?

Summarizing a discussion

Then we agree.
(Basically), we're in agreement.
(I think) we'd better agree to differ.
Can you admit that you are wrong?




6






LECTURE 1


Section 1
An Introductory Lecture to the Course as a Whole

Section 2
Placement Tests
Listening Comprehension Test -
A talk about human brain

Section 3
Where Does English Come from?
Assignment - Additional Text




Every beginning is difficult.

Practice makes perfect.

As you sow, so you shall reap.









7





The English language has come a long way since it first
took shape in the island of Britain, sometime in the 5
th

century AD. It took another 700 years of evolution
before it sounded anything like the English we
recognise today. And when Shakespeare was writing,
in what is often thought of as the golden age of the
language, only about four million people spoke it.

Now in the early 21
st
-century, English has become the
pre-eminent global language. Nearly a quarter of the
worlds population is estimated to have some
knowledge of English and 400 million people speak it
as their mother tongue.

If beings from outer space landed on Earth tomorrow
they would most likely assume that the human
language was English.

What is the future of the language?
Will it be more important than ever or could it be
supplanted as the global lingua franca by another
language German, Spanish or Chinese perhaps or
even by the artificial language Esperanto?




Assignment 1

Watch this video!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s

BBC Documentary English Birth of a Language
English Goes Underground - History of English language 2




8

Assignment 2: Read and write notes!
Core Text
Where does English come from?

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the only
language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported by foreign
invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern Germany, along the
North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of the
same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the language of
English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still the language of England
is that there were two more foreign invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first
the Northman or Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly the second by the French-speaking Normans in A.D.
1066, was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of the next three
centuries, into a compound language which is known as Middle English. Middle English is recognizably
the ancestor of the English spoken, today (which Old English is not, and it was the common language
of the inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

As there were no more foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop
under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English merged
imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language spoken now.

Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has survived, in one
form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in modern English are Anglo-
Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed, hunger most of the propositions and
conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs. When it was mixed with Norman French there were
three main results: the grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became -and still are-
much more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so
the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason why there are
so many synonyms. In pairs of words like "wed" and "marry",

fat and

"corpulent", and "lively" and
"vivacious", the first word is derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in
primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread of
education have fixed traditional usage.

D.H. Spencer and A.S. Hornby

Assignment 3: Cover up this passage, write down what you remember
and check your composition.

....................................................................................................................................
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....................................................................................................................................
9

Assignment 4: Vocabulary practice
Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:
a) from/in the beginning
b) have as ancestors, pass by inheritance, come from earlier times
c) during
d) language, one's mother language
e) much; a great deal
f) made up of two or more combined parts
g) forerunner
h) defeat or overcome enemies (vb.)
i) conquering a country (n.)
j) enlarge
k) since then
l) impulse
m) slightly, gradually and not perceivable
n) greater or more important part
o) words that that join other words, clauses, e.g. and, but, or.

Assignment 5: Explain the aspects of the underlined verbs.

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the only
language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported by foreign
invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern Germany, along the
North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of the
same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

Assignment 6: Put the articles where necessary.

........ English is not ....... language that has always been spoken in ......... British Isles, nor indeed is it
...... only language that is spoken there today. ....... English was originally ....... foreign language,
imported by ....... foreign invaders. These invaders were ....... two Germanic tribes living in what is now
....... Northern Germany, along ....... North Sea coast. They were called ....... Angles and........ Saxons,
and they spoke different dialects of ....... same language. It is from these dialects that ....... modern
English has descended.

....... Anglo-Saxon, or ........ Old English, as ....... historians of ....... language prefer to call it, remained
....... language of ....... English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still
....... language of ....... England is that there were two more foreign invasions of ....... Island by people
speaking ....... different tongues - first ....... Northman or ....... Vikings from Denmark, and then .......
Normans from ....... Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly ....... second by ....... French-speaking Normans in
A.D. 1066, was to modify ....... Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of ....... next
three centuries, into ....... compound language which is known as ....... Middle English. Middle English
is recognizably ........ ancestor of ....... English spoken, today (which Old English is not, and it was .......
common language of ....... inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

........ language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in
....... primitive societies, but slow in ....... advanced ones, because ....... invention of ....... printing and
....... spread of ........ education have fixed ......... traditional usage.

Assignment 7 : Repeat plural of nouns.
What about the use of the article with the names of countries and languages?

10


Informative Text Additional Reading

Assignment 1.
Jot down the subtitles for the passages in question forms.

Where does English come from?

Up to now nobody has been able to count all the languages spoken in the world today. But there
must be about 3,000, two of which are far more common than any of the others: Northern Chinese,
which is spoken by almost six hundred million people, and English, which is spoken by three
hundred and sixty million people in Europe, India, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand;
1,000 among American Indians, 750 in Sub-Sahara, 150 in India, 750 just on one island: New Guinea.
Though international conferences are often conducted simultaneously in three or four languages,
more often than not scientists and politicians from Russia, Japan, Germany, India, France and some
remote African state will speak English together.

............
However, English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is
it the only language that is spoken there today. So, where have all the English words come from?
Only very few have survived from the time when Britain was inhabited by the Ancient-Britons, a
Celtic tribe. They were masters of the island from the 6th century B.C. up to 55 B.C. when the island
was invaded by the Romans, who ruled the country for several centuries. During that time Britain,
was a province of the Empire, but very few Latin words from that period have remained: castra (a
camp) appears in Lancaster, Leicester, Gloucester and Worcester; strata (a paved way) in
Stratford, etc. By the fifth century the Roman Empire was falling to pieces, and the occupying
forces had left the country.

...........

English as a separate identifiable language is over 1,200 years old. As it was originally a foreign
laguage, imported by foreign invaders, English, like German, belongs to a group of related
languages which may ultimately be said to have descended from Common Germanic (or proto-
Germanic) as a distinct branch of the Indo-European group of languages. Ethnic and linguistic
differentiation within the Germanic language community sooner or later put an end to the original
unity.

...........

So, it all began with the biggest invasion of all, the invasion of the island of Britain by three
Germanic tribes from northern Europe the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, in the year 499 A.D.
Anno Domini. Although the Island had been inhabited since pre-historic times indeed
Stonehenge was built by ancient Britons some 3,500 years ago the beginning of English dates
from this invasion, when the pagan adventurers from Denmark and the lowlands of the Continent,
what is now Northern Germany, along the North Sea coast, drove the native Celts and Romans out
of what is now England, into the mountains and protective regions of Wales, and Scotland where
the Celtic languages have survived, as in Brittany (France). The languages that these invaders spoke
were three forms of Germanic; they spoke different dialects of the same language which had many
words in common. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.


From the tribe of Angles comes the name Englalond, Land of the Angles, and the name of the
language but it was primarily the dialect of the West Saxons which became the standard speech,
and developed into Old English. The first written records in English date from 700 A.D. and about
this time Britain was invaded yet again by Scandinavian adventurers the Vikings.
11


..

Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the
language of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150.
The Germanic tribes took over very little from the Celtic or Latin apart from a few place
names. Different though it is from "Old English", modern English contains many words
from it. Indeed, most of the vital every day words are of Germanic origin:

and, bright, come, find, good, hand, in, Tuesday, through, two, under, was, we,
well, when,

all of which remind us of German words which we, too, use every day.
The reason why it is not still the language of England is that there were two more foreign
invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first the Northman or
Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France.


Toward the end of the eighth century the Danish Vikings started invading the coast of
England and settled among the natives. This was quite natural since the languages
spoken by the Danes were not unlike the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons, all
these languages being of Germanic origin. However, a very large number of new words
were added:

call, fellow, get, hit, knife, leg, skin, sky, Thursday, happy, wrong, egg, bank.

After some 200 years of fighting with the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings came to an
agreement with the Saxon King, Alfred the Great, to divide the island the Saxons in the
west the Scandinavians, who were Norse speaking, in the east. England was therefore
bi-lingual until the two groups, through intermarriage, became one people. The linguistic
blend of Saxon and Norse was also a marriage. In the verb to be, for example, the third
person singular he is is pure Saxon, but the plural, they are pure Norse. The word wife is
Saxon, but the word husband came from the Norse arm from the Saxon, but leg from
the Norse. Duru was the Saxon word for door, but vindu was the Norse word which gave
us window so from this marriage, we have one language which we call Old English. It
was a very complicated language compared to modern English: it was highly inflected
that is, had many different endings for all words as in Latin or modern German and
Russian. It also gave grammatical gender to nouns masculine, feminine and neuter
like modern German and not only did it have singular and plural, but a third form called
the dual form to indicate precisely two
no more and no less. For example, in addition to the pronouns I and we in the first
person, Old English had wit which means the two of us... both of us... you-and me but
not them.
Many words in Old English are still close enough to modern English for us to understand
them. See if you can guess what these Old English words mean:

Thencan cild wifmann muth nosu god niht

Perhaps you could hear that thencan is the verb to think, cild in modern English is child,
wifmann became woman, muth mouth, nosu nose, god niht good night.
12


But most of Old English is unintelligible today without studying it as a separate language.
Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has
survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in
modern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed,
hunger most of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs.

...........................

The next invasion of Britain and incidentally the last foreign invasion of the island in
English history was in the year 1066. This invasion was far-reaching in many ways: the
invading forces were again Scandinavians, but with a difference these Norsemen called
Normans came from the north coast of France and were French speaking. Their leader
William of Normandy, known as the Conqueror, conquered the Anglo-Saxons and had a
claim on the throne of England. As his forces were victorious, William established himself
as king and set about building London's two greatest tourist attractions: The Tower of
London and. Westminster Abbey. Norman French became the language of the court, the
aristocracy of England, and the country once again became bi-lingual. We often say
history repeats itself and this is just what happened to the language: in the course of
300 years, Old English absorbed Norman French and emerged as one language, much as
had happened with Saxon and Norse before. Linguistically, the Norman Conquest meant
the domination in England of a non-Germanic language, which over a period of almost
three and a half centuries was to play a significant (although progressively decreasing)
role as a means of communication among certain sections of the population. Unlike the
Germanic Conquest of the larger part of Britain in the fifth and following centuries and
the later Scandinavian invasions, the establishment of Norman rule in England did not
lead to large-scale immigration and mass settlements of compatriots of the conquerors.

............................

As a consequence of the Norman Conquest, political and economic power became
concentrated in the hands of a small group of great feudal landlords, which included the
king himself, the clergy and the vassals of the king (feudal aristocracy).
The Normans were descendants of the "Norsemen" who had come from Scandinavia and
settled in the north of France. They had adopted French as their language. William set up
a kingdom on the island, and for three hundred years all the kings and the nobility spoke
Norman-French. Thus two languages were spoken from 1066 till early in the fourteenth
century. The result of this invasion was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn
it, in the course of the next three centuries, gradually into a compound language which is
known as Middle English.

...........................

Middle English is recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken today (which Old
English is not), and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England from
about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

When Anglo-Saxon was mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the
grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became - and still are - much
more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin
language so the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin.

That is also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of words like:
13


wed - marry, fat corpulent, lively vivacious, child infant, freedom
liberty, love charity, a hearty welcome a cordial reception, the first word is
derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

Norman French enriched the language and gave English its unique blend of Germanic
and Latinate structures and vocabulary. This is why today we can say the world's
population or the population of the world and why only English has different
words to distinguish the names of animals from their flesh which we eat: from the cow,
we get beef; from the calf we get veal; from the sheep, mutton; from the pig, pork;
and from the deer, venison. The names of the animals are Saxon, and the words for the
meat are from French. This is not only interesting as a point of language, but as a point
of sociology, because it reflects that the animals were raised by farmers who spoke Old
English, but eaten by the aristocrats who spoke French.

...........................

Because England was bi-lingual, many phrases appeared in the language which
contained one word of Saxon origin coupled with a word of the same meaning, coming
from French such as law and order. This way everybody knew the meaning, whether
they only understood the Old English word law or they only understood the French
ordre order. Many of these set phrases dating from the Middle Ages are just as
common today in modern English. How many politicians in Britain and in the U.S.A.
call for more law and order at election time! In the U.S. Senate, as in the British
Parliament, there is a ways and means committee to find the methods of achieving a
goal. The word ways from the Saxon the word means from the French the phrase
ways and means still common after some seven or eight hundred years in the
language. This merger of Saxon and Norman French we call Middle English.
Bilingualism obviously remained a more or less widespread phenomenon in the ranks
of the lesser nobility throughout most of the thirteen century and could even be found
in the fourteenth century.
But on the whole, the importance of French in England was declining rapidly in the
course of the fourteenth century (especially the latter half) until it approached the
status of an ordinary foreign language in the early fifteenth century, which is about
three hundred and fifty years after the Battle of Hastings.

............................

The first great English poet, Geoffrey Chaucer, wrote in Middle English in the 14th
century about the same time as Dante Alighieri and Boccaccio. His best known work,
The Canterbury Tales was written in 1386 and its vocabulary reflects the blend of the
two language sources. In the following century, the printing press arrived in England
and libraries were founded at Oxford, Cambridge and in London.
The first printer, William Caxton, began to stabilize the written language and its
spelling, when he set up his printing press in the precinct of Westminster Abbey. Even
by the 15th century, Old English seemed a foreign language to him. The language was
changing even in his lifetime, which is what he wrote in 1490. As there were no more
foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop under
its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English
merged imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then
into the language spoken now.
14


............................

The English language was destined to become still richer and more hybrid.
The Renaissance in 1500 brought about the rediscovery of the classics, and English was
greatly enriched by a profusion of words directly taken from Latin and ancient Greek.
Words of Greek and Latin origin were adopted in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries,

it
has been said that the greater part of the classical dictionaries was poured into the
English language at this time and even today when a new word is needed to name a new
thing, Latin or Greek words, or syllables may be used: cinema, telephone, bicycle,
television (which is a mixture of Greek tele = from a far and Latin visus = vision), from
Latin, words like accommodate, capable, persecute, investigate and from Greek,
words like apology, climax, physical, emphasis and so on.
The flood of words from Latin and Greek did not end with the Renaissance and
whenever we have needed a new word or name, we have tended to look to the classics
to provide it from Greek: aerodrome, telegraph and telephone; from Latin: escalator,
penicillin and the prefix mini for cars and skirts, for example.

There are words of Italian origin (concerto, pavement, and potato), Dutch origin (dock,
yacht) or words taken from the Indian languages, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Russian,
Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish and various African languages.

..........................

But back to the 16
th
century now, for what could be one of the greatest influences on the
English language the birth of William Shakespeare in 1564 appropriately enough on
the 23
rd
of April, the day dedicated to St. George Patron Saint of England. Curiously
enough, Shakespeare also died on the 23
rd
of April, 52 years later. It will forever be a
mystery how this man, of modest education became the greatest poet of the English
language and the worlds most produced playwright. It has been said that in the nearly
400 years since his death there has never been a day when one or more of Shakespeares
plays has not been played somewhere in the world.
But even more important, perhaps, was his contribution to the language. However
poorly educated a native English speaker may be, he cannot help using the words and
phrases created by Shakespeare they are too much a part of English. Shakespeare
gave the language, through his inventive genius, so many words, phrases and
memorable sayings which simply didnt exist before.
Today English is the richest language in the world. There are about 800 000 words. But
don't worry: you needn't learn all of them. The average speaking vocabulary of a well-
educated person is 5 000 words. And if you are able to use 2 000 common English words,
you can always make yourself understood and you will get along wonderfully.

..............................................................................................................................

A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. It is also a very
variable social phenomenon in the sense that it varies through time. For language to
keep functioning as an efficient instrument of mutual communication among the
members of a continually changing society, it must constitute a system which is non-
static, dynamic, flexible and open in character. It originates and develops in the process
of social interaction between the members of a community. These changes are rapid in
primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the
spread of education have fixed traditional usage.
Adapted from Speak Up, 1987
15

ASSIGNMENT 2
After listening/reading comprehension exercise answer the
following questions in pairs!

1. Where is English mainly spoken?
2. What was the biggest invasion of Britain?
3. Who were the first foreign invaders?
4. In which parts of Great Britain have the Celtic languages still survived?
5. How is Anglo-Saxon language called by the historians?
6. State why this language is not still the language of England?
7. State some words of Germanic origin.
8. What happened after the conquest by the Northman or Vikings from Denmark?
9. What was the name of the language spoken by the Vikings?
10. What do you know about bilingualism in Great Britain?
11. What happened after Williams conquest?
12. Why it is said that history repeats itself?
13. Why is language important from sociological standpoint?
14. What languages is the present-day vocabulary of English composed of?
15. Give some examples of two words of different origin for the same thing and for the
same concept.
16. When were words of Greek and Latin origin adopted?
17. We are not free to say just what we like. Ordinary everyday conversation is narrowly
determined. It is a sort of roughly prescribed social ritual in which you generally say
what your friends expect you to say.
18. So, the world is indeed a stage and society is the author of the play. The grown man in
a modern society has to play many parts, and unless he knows his roles and his lines he
is no use in the play. If you do not know your part, there are no clues for the other and
no place for his lines either. The play then just falls through.
This is a sort of paraphrasing and analogy of Shakespeares lines from As You Like It, II,
7, 139;
All the worlds a stage,
And all the men and women merely players:
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts.
16




LECTURE 2


Section 1
CORE TEXTS:
American English
American English versus British English

Section 2
Articles (Grammar File I)
Plural of Nouns (Grammar File I)



England and America are two countries
separated by one language.

No news is good news.


Bad news travels fast.

Go abroad and you'll hear news from home.

My house is my castle.



17


ASSIGNMENT 1
Insert articles where necessary
Auto-corrective test page 27

Spreading of ... English throughout ... World


.. English language was carried around .. globe by . .
English merchants and .. explorers; its roots were firmly
fixed in many parts of .. new continents by .. permanent
settling there of .. whole communities of .. people from
.. British Isles who took with them their institutions, their
traditions and their way of life.
Though .. spreading of .. language through other countries
of .. vast British Empire of .. 19th century was of ..
completely different nature, linked as it was to ..
overwhelming power of .. Britain's economic, political and
military strength, its influence and utility have not been refused.
On .. contrary, language and .. concepts it conveys
form one of .. most important links in .. free association of
.. Commonwealth countries.
.. cause for .. English as .. international means of ..
communication seems, nowadays, to have been taken up by ..
England's most rebellious off-spring: .. United States. ..
US position as one of .. worlds superpowers, its wealth and
economic power, reaching world-wide through its international
companies, its advanced technology, political and military
power, have given .. English language .. good lead over
other national languages which are also competing for .. first
place as .. global tongue of communication.


18

CORE TEXT 1

THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE

America is a nation of immigrants a melting pot of English, French, German,
Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, African and many other cultures. As the country
absorbed these various peoples and turned them into Americans, most lost their
native language and customs. But no ethnic group left the American language
untouched. American English grew in vitality and variety along with the nation
itself.

The first English settlers to reach America arrived in Virginia in 1607 and in Massachusetts in
1620. They all spoke the English of the early seventeenth century the language of Shakespeare
and Milton. Most of them came originally from the south and south east of England. Although
some of them had spent some years of exile in Holland they spoke with the accents of the
southern part of their home country. To a large extent they kept that form of speech, but they
soon learned to give old words new uses. They also took words from the local Indian languages
for plants and animals that were new to them.
Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 over two thirds of the settlers in what later became
the U.S. came from England. After that date many other peoples came to make a new life for
themselves in the New World. These included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch. Italians, Slavs, and
Scandinavians. All these peoples gave new words to the language of North America. The French
gave such words as chowder and prairie. Sleigh came from the Dutch settlers. The Afro-
Americans who had been taken from Africa as slaves to work on the rice and cotton plantations
added words and structures from their own native languages. Some people today think that the
very American expression O.K. comes from a similar African expression which was brought to
America by the Afro-Americans.

Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which was to become
American English, there is one man who can be singled out as the person who did most to give
American English an identity of its own. He was Noah Webster (1758-1843) He worked as a
teacher, lawyer, journalist and essayist; he wrote on many subjects, but his two best-known works
were his Blue-Backed Speller (1783) (a book with a blue cover used to teach and improve
spelling) and his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). He is largely
responsible for the differences which exist today between British and American spelling. So, the
famous shift was when Webster?s Dictionary decided that it was going to give up any idea that
certain uses of words were better than other uses, and it was simply going to record usage. That
is, once something is de facto the case, then it becomes de jure the case.

Webster had a practical approach to language and he simplified many of the traditional English
spellings. For example, he wrote favor, humor, and labor for the English favour, humour and
labour. Since Webster's time many of his spellings have become acceptable in England, such as
author, tailor and visitor. Public, jail and cider in their original English versions were publick,
gaol and cyder. But there are other differences apart from vocabulary between American and
British English. The idioms of American slang are often very different from those we have in
Britain. For example, Cool it!, which is a way of telling someone to calm down.

Also, like the early settlers, Americans today are constantly inventing new words and usages to
meet their needs. They have given us the verb to televisefrom the noun television and combined
the words sport and broadcast to give us sportcast.
19



From American English we have all learned that we park our cars. In fact the word park was
used in a slightly different way in Shakespeare's time, but the Americans have revived it and
given it a new meaning.

In terms of pronunciation, there are three main types in America. These are New England,
General American and Southern. General American is by far the most widely used. New England
is the pronunciation which was used by John F. Kennedy. President Carter, who comes from
Georgia, speaks with a Southern accent. If you listen to a recording of these two presidents you
will be able to hear the difference quite clearly. Some American pronunciations are related to
English ones. Americans say the words dance, fast and grass like people from the North of
England with a short a.

But in spite of many small variations the three American accents do not differ greatly from one
another. One reason for this is that an important fact of American life has always been travel.
People have moved to wherever work could be found and this has tended to level out differences
in pronunciation. There are more differences in pronunciation between the various areas of
Britain than there are in the whole of North America.

During the twentieth century the differences between American and British English seem to have
been getting smaller. The reasons for this include the interchange of books and newspapers and
the large numbers of American soldiers who came to Britain in the two World Wars, importing
many American expressions. But more important today are the films, television and radio
programmes which can bring the latest American slang to Britain instantly.

There are words from many different languages in English: from Latin, French and Danish as a
result of invasions throughout history, from colonized countries like India, but also from America
and many other countries.
No other language has been so quick or willing to let itself be influenced by other languages. If
the English stumble on to a new food or thing or concept, then the word for it is quickly and
wholly taken over.

From the Italians, we have piano, opera, soprano, umbrella, influenza, fresco etc.
Two Italian navigators have a special place of honor in the American language. The name of
Christopher Columbus lives on in the District of Columbia, Columbus Day and many other
towns and cities named Columbus. Amerigo Vespucci' the first navigator to recognize America as
a new continent, gave us our name from his first name. Later Italian immigrants brought us the
names of familiar foods like pizza, spaghetti, and tutti-frutti ice cream.

From Spain we have cigar, cigarette, cork, cargo and embargo.
Spanish has contributed more words to American English than any other language. The Spaniards
had an early start at it, since they were the first Europeans to explore much of the American
continent. They gave the names to many of the natural phenomena they saw such as alligators,
buffalo, and the mesa (a high, wide tableland).

In the Southwest, which borders on Mexico, Spanish words are used for food. Later immigrants
to the U.S. from Puerto Rico and Cuba also brought more Spanish words into the language.

From Portugal, we have our marmalade, verandah etc.
From Mexico come cocoa, chocolateand tomato.
The words hammock, hurricaneand maize came to England from the Caribbean.
20

Pyjamas, shampoo, bungalow and punch all came from India.
The words caravan and bazaar came from Persia.
Bamboo and gong are Malaysian words.
Australia provided boomerang, kangaroo and cockatoo.
From the Dutch we have yacht, deck, skipper, and cruise, smuggleand sketch.

In the seventeenth century, New York City was known as New Amsterdam. The early Dutch
settlers on the East coast introduced into the language such words as boss, hunky (which has
become hunky-dory =fine, satisfactory), and Santa Claus from Sant Klaas , or Saint Nicholas.
Because American colonists appreciated Dutch baking, the language picked up words like cookie,
from the Dutchword for little cake and waffle, a crisp pancake baked in a waffle iron.

And we shouldn't forget that large numbers of Germans emigrated to the States during the
nineteenth century, bringing with them the food and customs of their homeland. Frankfurters and
hamburgers are two of the most popular American foods today. We also love to eat pretzels,
pumpernickel, sauerkraut and other treats purchased at a delicatessen.
frankfurter a small sausage also known as a wiener or hot dog
hamburger a ground beef sandwich, from Hamburg.
Also, from the German language come Rucksack, Wanderlust, Weltanschauung,
Kindergarten and Schadenfreude.
There are still countless words alive from the old language of the British Isles, Celtic: ass, cairn,
clan, plaid, flannel, druid, bard, galore and, of course, whisky.
The English language has never stood still. It is still changing: it is shaped by those who speak it
all the time.

The Jewish immigrants loaned us schnozzle, bagel and nosh. The Scandinavians brought a
smorgasbord of foods and customs with them. Some of the words which survived the suppression
of the native African languages are gumbo and voodoo.

pretzel a brittle, salted cracker in form of a loose knot
pumpernickel rye bread
sauerkraut sour cabbage
delicatessen a store that sells food delicacies
schnozzle a large nose
bagel a hard, chewy bread
nosh a snack between meals
smorgasbord a buffet offering a wide variety of foods
gumbo a thick soup
voodoo magic or sorcery
District of Columbia the area of land on which the nation's capital, Washington, is situated.
tutti-frutti all fruits

French explorers left an early mark on the American language as well. In Canada and the
northern part of the U.S., French trappers and fur traders known as voyageurs, or French-
Canadian boatsmen and fur traders who explored much of the American continent for the first
time carried their language with their canoes from river to lake and across portages, i.e. land
between lakes over which boats have to be carried. These same adventurers gave the vast
grassland in the continental interior its name the prairie. Way down in New Orleans, the
French established their customs and language, e.g. Mardi Gras, Fat Tuesday, or Shrove Tuesday
before Lent has become a time when the city erupts into a festival of merrymaking and parades.
In the French Quarter of the city, residents-and tourists dine on excellent French cuisine.

Some passages are adapted from the text written by HUGH CORRIGAN in BBC English
21


Today, American English has a lot of influence on the development of the English language.
Are the American and English varieties of English very different? Are they becoming more
widely separated? The two languages have drifted apart in 200 years, and it is fairly obvious
that they will continue to drift apart. However, many linguist disagree with this statement.
Global communication is increasing, they say, and so the different varieties of English will
converge, rather than drift apart. Time will tell. What do you think?

Languages are changing all the time, of course, and the English language is no exception. Some
people welcome change as healthy; other people regard it as inevitable, but do not welcome it;
still other people welcome certain changes but not all; and still other people regard all change as
bad. Those of the last type would like to see the language as invariant. But language is not
like that luckily .
Constantly, in language, we are provided with a range of constructions and a range of words
which will enable us to be friendly at one moment, to be dignified, to be haughty, to be hurtful
even. A single form of language is not really able to do all those things. This is what human
language is about this adaptability.

Answer the following questions!

Should we try to stop languages changing?
Could we do it, even if we wanted to?
How do you decide what is correct and what is incorrect in a language?
Who can or should decide this?
Do you find it easy to understand different varieties of English British and
American, for example?

..............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.........................................

....................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

22

CORE TEXT 2

BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH

Listening to spoken English, can you tell American from British English?
Do you prefer the sound of British to American English? If so, why? And why not?
Jot down American equivalents for the British words in the text!
So which is correct - "theater", or "theatre", "center" or "centre", "labor" or "labour" color/colour,
fiber/fibre, neighbor/neighbour, sulfur/sulphur, favorite/favourite?

But this variety is not only confusing for the reader. For a copy editor, the differences between the two
versions of English can be a nightmare. Most people know that the Americans say "sidewalk" for the
British "pavement", or "subway" for "underground"; for example, in the past we've had "bond" (BE bail),
"dumpster" (BE rubbish container, skip) or "realtor" (BE estate agent), all words which are not used in
Britain. Besides, the word enjoin in British English means give an order for, urge, command, and in
American English to prohibit, especially by legal injunction, forbid; when the British say to table (a
motion) they mean to submit for discussion or consideration, whereas the Americans mean to
postpone indefinitely the discussion or consideration of (a legislative bill, motion, etc).

It can work the other way too - when listening to two English girls discussing a new rucksack one had
bought, an American bystander said: "Pardon me (American for excuse me), what's a rucksack?" She
only knew "backpack".

Often when a letter is doubled in British English, it appears singly in American English, for example:
traveling/travelling, instalment/installment. But just when you think you've understood the trick, they
then double a letter where the British only have one, as in enroll/ enrol. A word like program/me
presents the problem that even the British use the shortened version in the world of computers.

You'll read words like "percent", "defense", "check", "movie" in an article on New York, but "per cent",
"defence" "cheque" and "film" in one from London.

The United States and Britain are two countries divided by a common language. An American colleague
recalls a Canadian friend of his mother who tried to buy diapers in a store during a visit to the United
States. She asked the clerk for "nappies". The clerk gave her napkins. The woman said, no, she wanted
"nappies". The clerk kept handing her napkins. They did eventually straighten it out. Lucky for the
woman's baby.

Sometimes we run into trouble when we write our stories. We avoid the word "mad" because it means
"crazy" to a Briton but means "angry" to Americans. When writing about parliaments and their doings
Americans stay away from the verb "table", which means "introduce legislation or submit for discussion
or consideration" to the British colleagues but means "postpone action of a legislative bill" to the
Americans. Similarly, to enjoin in British English means to order someone or impose with authority,
enforce, by legal injunction, whereas in American English it means to prohibit, especially by legal
injunction.

Actually, it's a complete myth that American English is much richer and more varied than British
English. The British absorb all the Americanisms, and then add a medley of regional and slang variations
of their own.

"American English" (AE) and "British English" (BE) means that when I mention a truck, elevator,
streetcar, and apartment for my American clients, I must render that is a lorry, lift, tram and flat for my
British customers. Also to contact in B.E. is to get into touch with somwbody.

Similarly, an American "undershirt" is a British "vest", an American "buddy" is a British "mate". Then
there is the problem of spelling, with Britain's "labour" becoming America's "labor", as just one example.
We have to worry about group nouns, which in AE generally take a singular verb but in BE a plural verb.
Thus, in AE "the government has" but in BE, "the government have", although a change may be
forthcoming -I heard a BBC "news reader" (in AE, "news announcer") use the singular the other night.


23

2.1 Write American counterparts for the following grammatical structures,
words, and spelling:

British English American English

I've lost my umbrella. Have you seen it?
I've just had lunch.
She has already left.
She hasn't finished her work yet.
Have you ever ridden a donkey?
I have never seen it before.
British speakers have a bath, a shower, a holiday, a break American speakers
Which film shall we watch?
We needn't hurry.
She demanded that I should apologise.
They insisted that it should be well organised.
My friend was injured and taken to hospital.
I went to prison to visit him.
She often goes to church.
Dinamo/ the team /like government/ police/ family are doing well.
At the weekend/at weekends
At the front/at the back
Do you live in this street?
Do you get on well with your new colleague?
My bedroom looks great now that it has been done up.
It has got better, it was burnt, spelt etc.
Please write to me soon.
Please, fill in this form.
She turned (a)round.
Apologise, organise, specialise
travelling, cancelling
theater, centre, labour
colour, fibre, neighbourgh
sulphur, favourite
pavement, underground
Excuse me, what's a backpack?
installment
enroll
to program a computer
per cent, defence, cheque and film
mad
to table
mate
news reader

N. B.
kukuruzni kruh i palenta in B.E. mean maize-meal bread and maize-meal porridge and in A.E. cornpone and mush or
cornmeal mush.
In American English we say: It is a very good motion (= proposal to be discussed and voted on at a meeting), why do
you want to table it (put it ad acta) ? However, in British English it means introduce legislation.
24


2.2 Jot down British equivalents for the following American words:


PLACES

apartment
baby carriage
doctor's/dentist's office
drugstore
elevator
hall, hallway
hardware store
intersection
mailbox
the movies
one-room apartment, studio
orchestra (seat) (in a theater)
overpass
parkway
pedestrian crossing
sidewalk
store
streetcar
subway
toilet (bathroom)
traffic circle
yard


USEFUL OBJECTS

absorbent cotton
ballpoint
eraser
faucet
flashlight
garbage can, trash can
loose leaf notebook, binder
package
rubber band
shopping bag
slingshot
spool of thread
stove
thread
thumbtack
water heater
wrench






FOOD

can (of solid food)
candy
cookie
crackers
dessert
French fries
fruit and vegetable store
jello (gelatin dessert)
ground beef
molasses syrup
potato chips
powdered/confectioner's sugar
rare (meat)
string beans

PERSONAL ITEMS

bangs (of hair)
cuffs
diaper
nail polish
pants
pantyhose
raincoat
ready to wear
run (in a stocking)
suspenders
turtleneck (sweater)
vest
undershirt
zipper
sneakers -
athletic shoes-

PEOPLE

attorney, lawyer
faculty (of university)
graduate student
guy
janitor
patrolman (police)
cop, policeman
salesperson





25

25
ASSIGNMENT 2.3:Fill in the correct British equivalent from the list below
for each italicized American word. The following description is written in
American English.

articulated lorries, bonnet, diversion, petrol, lorry, dual carriage-way, garage,
motorway, overtaking, windscreen, roundabout, traffic light, wing mirror

We took the freeway .. out of New York but soon got onto a
smaller divided highway in New Jersey. The traffic was heavy and cars
and trailer trucks .. kept passing ...........
us. Soon, ahead of us, we saw a detour sign just before a
traffic circl . It was confusing, so we pulled off the road into a gas station
.. . We asked for some gas and directions. The attendant
washed our windshield opened the hood to check the
oil, and gave us directions. He pointed to a stop light . .... . where a
truck was turning left. He said that was the correct route. After carefully
watching the rear view mirror . we pulled back on the road.

WORD LIST
Freeway highway with several lanes
articulated lorries zglobom vezani kamion
trailer truck transport vehicle hauled by a truck
bonnet poklopac auto-motora, hauba
(dual) carriage way BE cesta, trak na kolniku; divided highway
diversion skretanje
traffic diversions when traffic is directed by different routes because of road repairs
motorway autostrada; road built especially for fast traffic, with dual
carriageways and going over or under other roads
roundabout zaobilaznica; traffic circle
detour a way used when the main road is blocked, diversion
traffic light prometno svjetlo, semafor; stop light


ASSIGNMENT 2.4: CAR PARTS.
Connect the British word to its American equivalent.
BE AE
1. bonnet a. trunk
2. windscreen b. tire
3. tyre c. gear shift
4. boot d. gas tank
5. wing e. license plate
6. accelerator pedal f. hood
7. indicator light g. side-view mirror
8. indicator switch h. windshield
9. gear lever i. taillight or rear light
10. wing mirror j. fender
11. registration number k. muffler
12. number plate l. gas pedal
13. petrol tank m. left/right-turn light
14. rear light n. turn signal
15. silencer o. license number

Answers: freeway motorway; divided highway dual carriageway; trailer trucks articulated lorries; passing overtaking;
detour diversion; traffic circle roundabout; gas station garage; gas petrol; windshield windscreen; hood bonnet; stop
light traffic light; truck lorry; rear view mirror wing mirror.
26

26
ASSIGNMENT 3

How was English imported from
Britain into Australia?

Why did the British become interested in Australia?
What port did Sidney develop from?
Who were the first settlers?
What did the Government take care of?

A stream of adventures and rebels from other parts
of the world poured into the newly-discovered continent.
Scots, Irish, English and others driven from the land by
the industrial revolution, which created an army of the
poor, left Europe for Australia with its seemingly*
endless, empty expanses*.
The loss of their American colonies made British
take a more serious interest in Australia, but at first,
because of its great distance, it did not seem a very
attractive economic proposition*. This distance was an
advantage, though, for other purposes.
In may 1787, a fleet of eleven vessels under the
command of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail from England
with 1 500 people on board, more than half of them
felons. After an arduous voyage lasting eight months, the
ships put in at Botany bay, where the passangers
disembarked. A few days later they were transported to
port Jackson, which was to grow into the largest
Australian city, SIDNEY. Captain Arthur Phillip was
named first governor of New South Wales, a new British
colony. The British government could now breathe a sigh
of relief, for it had found a solution for the overcrowding
in prisnons by transporting convicts to Australia. It seems,
though, that care was always taken to include a certain
proportion of honest folk, ordinary immigrants, in the
convoys.

*seemingly apparently
*expanse wide and open area
*proposition matter to be dealt with
*felon person guilty of felony, major serious crime, e.g.
murder, armed robbery, arson
27

27

AUTO CORRECTION



The Spreading of English throughout the World

The English language was carried around the globe
by English merchants and explorers; its roots were firmly fixed in many parts of
the new continents by the permanent settling there of whole communities of
people from the British Isles who took with them their institutions, their
traditions and their way of life.

Though the spreading of the language through other countries of the vast
British Empire of the 19th century was of a completely different nature, linked
as it was to the overwhelming power of Britain's economic, political and military
strength, its influence and utility have not been refused. On the contrary, the
language and the concepts it conveys form one of the most important links in the
free association of the Commonwealth countries.

The cause for English as an international means of communication
seems, nowadays, to have been taken up by England's most rebellious off-spring:
the United States. The US position as one of the worlds superpowers, its wealth
and economic power, reaching world-wide through its international companies,
its advanced technology, political and military power, have given the English
language a good lead over other national languages which are also competing for
first place as a global tongue of communication.





FORUM QUESTIONS

Which variety of English should a foreign student choose
to learn, British English or American English?
The separate and divergent growth of the American and British
peoples have brought about differences mainly
of a lexical character but which have also affected the
grammatical structure, pronunciation and accents.
28

28



LECTURE 3

Section 1
OATH OF THE ENGINEER

Section 2
ENGINEERING ETHICS AND
TECHNICAL FAILURES

ALGORITHM FOR EFFICIENT READING

1st reading vertical for global information.
2
nd
reading pay attention to transparent words and make
predictions about the topic.
3
rd
reading analytic and linear for detailed information




The dress is not the man.

Honesty is the best policy.

Ignorance of the law is no excuse for
breaking it.

Empty sacks will never stand upright.




29

29
CORE TEXT 1

OATH/FAITH OF THE ENGINEER

I am an Engineer. In my profession I take deep pride, but without vainglory; to it I
owe solemn obligations that I am eager to fulfil.

As an Engineer, I will participate in none but honest enterprise. To him that has
engaged my services, as employer or client; I will give the utmost of performance and
fidelity.

When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for the
public good. From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the service
of humanity: and I accept the challenge that this implies.

Jealous of the high repute of my calling, I will strive to protect the interests and the
good name of any engineer that I know to be deserving; but I will not shrink, should
duty dictate, from disclosing the truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act,
has shown himself unworthy of the profession.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius
of my professional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind
Nature's vast resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and
turned to practical account the principles of science and the revelations
of technology. Except for this heritage of accumulated experience, my efforts would
be feeble. I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge, and.
especially, to the instruction of younger members of my profession in all its arts and
traditions.

To my fellows I pledge, in the same full measure I ask of them, integrity
and fair dealing, tolerance and respect, and devotion to the standards and
the dignity of our profession; with the consciousness, always, that our special
expertness carries with it the obligation to serve humanity with complete sincerity.


Note: The "Faith of the Engineer" was presented to the Eleventh Annual Meeting of Engineers Council for
Professional Development by the Committee on Principles of Engineering Ethics and received unanimous
approval.
N.B. Hippocratic Oath is the oath generally taken by students receiving a medical degree: it is attributed to
Hippocrates and sets forth an ethical code for the medical profession.

DICTATION


Engineers should now strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development and be
morally obliged to provide and maintain healthy environment for future generations. Also,
adverse consequences of technology can nowadays be regarded as ethically unacceptable
because technology is nothing more than an area of interaction between ourselves as individuals
and our environment. Thus, engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect society
in the future.

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Assignment 1.1
Translate and discuss this oath.
Study this WORDLIST

canon general standard or principle by which something
judged; the canons of conduct (norma, mjerila)
ethics science of morals
uphold, upheld, upheld support or approve
impartial fair in giving judgments not favoring one more
than another (nepristran)
strive, strove, striven struggle
vainglory extreme vanity or pride in oneself; excessive
elation or pride over ones own achievements and
abilities; boastful vanity, empty pomp or show;
(pobjedonosnost, tatina, hvalisavost)
jealous of taking watchful care; solicitous or vigilant in
maintaining or guarding something;
vigilant keenly watchful to detect danger, awake and alert
solicitous careful
forebear ancestor, forefather (predak)
revelation revealing, making known of something secret or
hidden
feeble weak, without energy
disseminate distribute or spread widely ideas, doctrines
pledge promise
solemn (uzvien, svean)
obligation moral responsibility
enterprise a business firm
spring, sprang, sprung to make known or cause to appear suddenly,
unexpectedly
shrink, shrank, shrunk to draw back, withdraw, to move back and away
commitment a pledge or promise to do something


Assignment 1.2 Justify the use of the PASSIVE in the following
paragraph
and turn the sentences into the ACTIVE:
Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of my
professional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind Nature's vast
resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practical
account the principles of science and the revelations of technology.
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Assignment 1.3
ENGINEERING ETHICS
1. INTRODUCTION

The Oath of the Engineer, was presented to the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Engineers'
Council for Professional Development by the Committee on Principles of Engineering Ethics
and received unanimous approval. The American Engineers' Council for Professional
Development or simply, the Engineers' Council for Professional Development, ECPD was
established in June 1932. Conversely, a formalized engineering oath of ethics does not exist in
Croatia. Besides, there are no professional oaths in Croatia except for the Hippocratic Oath,
also called the Genevas Oath, established in 1948.

2. ETHICS OF THE ENGINEERS OATH

Ethics, in accordance with Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary, is that branch of
philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the rightness and
wrongness of certain actions and to the integrity and falsity of the motives and intentions of
such actions.
Engineering ethics is a type of professional ethics and, as such, must be distinguished from
personal ethics and ethical obligations, which one may have as a holder of other social roles.
Engineering ethics is concerned with the question of what the standards in engineering ethics
should be and how to apply these standards to particular situations. [1]
The Oath begins with the following sentence:

I AM AN ENGI NEER.
In Croatian, engineer is both a job and a title whereas engineering, a very old activity and
trade, is a relatively young profession or academic discipline in Croatia.

I n my profession I take deep pride, but without vainglory; to it I owe solemn obligations that I
am eager to fulfill.




The engineering profession is a prestigious vocation and calling, which is of paramount
importance for our society. However, engineers should neither show excessive elation and
pride over their own achievements in their profession, nor keep monopoly of the profession as
a status symbol. The moral responsibility and obligations toward society as a whole come
first. Most codes emphasize professional prestige rather than moral responsibility, obligation,
environmental stability and sustainability promotion. The termsustainable development,
first popularized by the World Commission on Environment and Development, sponsored by
the United Nations, is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.[5]

As an Engineer, I will participate in none but honest enterprise.




Honesty is an essential component of trust in stating claims or assessments based on
attainable data. Some codes of ethics imply that, without trust, an organization cannot
function effectively. Both professional responsibility and autonomy of engineers versus
managers are to be addressed by the code of an oath.
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To him that has engaged my services, as employer or client, I will give the utmost of
performance and fidelity.

.
.

Many engineers face, however, the dilemma of loyalty to their company and employer versus
their responsibility to society as a whole.

When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for the public good.

...


The welfare of the public i.e. the public good (ope dobro) should be held paramount by the
engineers. What is implied by the public good? The semantic meaning of the public good
implies an ethical notion of the good and welfare in political decision-making and this
meaning should not be confused with the economic concept of public goods (javna dobra)
although these two concepts are very similar. The public good encompasses public health and
welfare programs, education, research and development, national and domestic security,
roads, and a clean environment.
One example of an irrational approach to the public good and irrational development of public
goods (pay attention to various meanings of these two phrases) is the Three Gorges Dam in
China, which spans the Yangtze River. With the reservoir over 600 km long, it is known as the
largest hydroelectric river dam and the largest hydro-electric power station in the world.
Although there are economic benefits of flood control and hydroelectric power, a lot of ethical
issues have been raised, because the impact of the dam on the environment is irreversible; the
region's wildlife, water quality, local residents valuable archeological and cultural sites, as well
as ecological damage like landslides, soil erosion, water pollution, conflicts caused by land and
water shortage have all been affected.

We wonder if our environment can be sacrificed in exchange for temporary economic
prosperity. Anyway, should this oath of the engineer be modified to include a reference to the
environment?
As an example, we can mention the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) Code, which
states that engineers should be committed to improving the environment to enhance the
quality of life and that engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the
public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the
performance of their professional duties. The IEEE code of Ethics, (The IEEE Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.) the world's leading professional association for the
advancement of technology, states that the members of the IEEE commit themselves to the
highest ethical and professional conduct and agree to accept responsibility in making decisions
consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that
might endanger the public or the environment; it was approved by the IEEE Board of Directors
in 2006.
So, the word environment is explicitly mentioned. The oath of the engineer has a short
linguistic form and, therefore, requires effective semantic and clear communication that
should not result in lack of communication or under-estimation of the canons of ethics. When
a new technology is introduced, its potential unintended consequences are unknown until
decades later.
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That is why we have to improve the understanding of new technology, technical competence,
and its appropriate application.
When implementing new technologies, engineers must consider physical and environmental
safety. In this context, we have to keep in mind that Man and the environment significantly
influence one another. Everything is closely intertwined and the earths interconnected
ecosystems are under extreme pressure. That is why the responsibility of the engineering
profession is to sustain the balance in nature. Life and the environment evolve together as a
single system so that not only does the species that leaves the most progeny tend to inherit
the environment but also the environment that favors the most progeny is itself sustained.
[7] James Lovelock formulated the Gaia Hypothesis, which provides an interesting idea of the
interaction of physical, chemical, geological and biological processes on Earth.

From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the service of humanity: and I
accept the challenge that this implies.




The challenge mentioned in the faith or faith is nothing more than a compromise between
less health, safety and welfare and more health, safety and welfare for the money spent.
But how to make a compromise between progress and ecology, between reliability and
ecology, between technically practical, viable, safe and economic requirements, between
moral responsibility to people and the whole environment and obligations to future
generations.
However, we have challenged nature so far. Therefore, we could now supplement this code
with the word Nature and say that we shall use our knowledge in the service of humanity and
Nature:
Since there is a universal conception of nature, and since the universe is presumed to have a
nature, [8] the word nature conveys a lot of meanings which are related just as Nature in its
totality conveys relatedness. This is the most comprehensive word which can be applicable
always and everywhere.

J ealous of the high repute of my calling, I will strive to protect the interests and the good
name of any engineer that I know to be deserving; but I will not shrink, should duty dictate,
from disclosing the truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act, has shown himself
unworthy of the profession.

..



Ethical standards are embodied in the oath of the engineer and it is implied that if ones
manager, employer or superior do not act to undo, curb or mitigate dangers of serious
personal or social damage, it is necessary to offer honest criticism or even blow the whistle,
so as to reduce the risk, to acknowledge and correct errors, violations or negative
consequences as much as possible. The ethical inner judgment should be the final decisive
guide in deciding whether or not to blow a whistle. Being a matter of integrity and honesty,
ethical principals should always take greater priority.

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Engineering professionals must minimize malfunctions, any serious harm to others, any
environmental impact and if necessary, advice should be sought from other engineering
professions. To avoid causing harm to society, engineering professionals have enormous
responsibility to define appropriate and inappropriate use of engineering resources, systems
and technology.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of my
professional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind Nature's vast
resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practical
account the principles of science and the revelations of technology.
Except for this heritage of accumulated experience, my efforts would be feeble.






Does human progress represent conflicts of values? Technology was seen by our ancestors as
a force for controlling a hostile nature and not as a threat or harm that could be inflicted upon
nature. The oath focuses on our professional forefathers i.e. on the past. However, engineers
have obligations to future generations who could be harmed by irresponsible engineering
activities. It may take decades and generations for products and facilities to have adverse
effects; e.g. according to United Nations Environment Programme, (Ozone Secretariat) air
pollution and global warming are instances where the damage done today is so irreparable
that even if we begin to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and ozone layer depletion
now, the effects will be felt over the next 300 years. Definitely, human-induced climate
change has ethical dimensions.

I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge, and especially, to the
instruction of younger members of my profession in all its arts and traditions.



Engineering professionals have a responsibility to share technical knowledge and professional
development, not only with younger members, colleagues and co-workers but also with the
public.
To my fellows I pledge, in the same full measure I ask of them, integrity and fair dealing,
tolerance and respect, and devotion to the standards and the dignity of our profession; with
the consciousness, always, that our special expertness carries with it the obligation to serve
humanity with complete sincerity.



.


Professional competence, personal accountability for professional work, confidentiality of
information, honesty, integrity and fair dealing and the contributions of others must be
honored, properly credited and obligated not only by the oath of the engineer but also by
contract or by law. Bribery must be rejected and malicious action such as injuring others
avoided. All persons will be treated equally without regard to age, gender, race, religion,

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disability, or national origin. Immoral and unethical rules and laws must be challenged by all
engineers.

In conclusion we can say that the existing oaths wording is inadequate in addressing many
engineers as guardians of the environment for future generations. The political expression
public good and the expression humanity neither place the ecological consciousness of the
engineers in the first place nor address the problem of maintaining environmental quality
properly.
Consequently, professional normative standards are not abstract moral philosophies. An oath
of the type that is discussed in this article, determines the ethical foundation of a profession,
in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are uttered. In this case, one can
see that it gives engineers an ethical grounding which they can rely upon, or refer to, in terms
of ethical decision making whilst carrying out their professional career.
Taken from Engineering Review
Some additional information can be found on:
http://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.html
http://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.html


1.4 Discuss the following questions:

1. What is the Faith of the Engineer? What does this oath determine?

2. The principle line of argument we offer is that the oath's wording does not pay
enough attention to the environment. Where are these gray areas of this oath?

3. Should the oath treat the ethical duty that engineers have towards the environment?

4. Is the code deficient in terms of the attention it pays to the environment?
How could you substantiate your argument?

5. Can the wording public good be misinterpeted?

6. Consider the complexity of the tripartite relation between society, the
environment and the engineer, which can provide fuel for further discussion.

7. Do engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect society in the future?

Consider the following arguments below and discuss!

When we take into consideration that engineers are often unable to predict with certainty
as to how their projects will affect the environment in the long term, one becomes aware of
how balancing the needs between society and the environment is an extremly tricky one.
We are therefore compelled into thinking more about how engineers have to find the
difficult balance between attending to the needs of present society and the needs of society
in the future. This raises a number of moral/ethical questions about whose interests
engineers should primarily serve (present society or future generation).
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1. Is the wording of this oath a thought-provoking because of our wider concern about
the place of ethics in the engineering profession?

2. What would you say about the actual practice of taking an oath?

3. Does an oath of the type presented in this article determine the ethical foundation
of a profession, in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are
uttered?

4. Does it give an ethical grounding which engineers can rely upon, or refer to, in
terms of ethical decission making whilst carrying out their profession?
It also highlights to those taking the oath that they have an ethical responsibility in
their professional career.

5. Would you feel more like engineers or would you feel the same if you were required
to take the oath? Compare it with other professions (such as medicine).

6. How far are competing institutions and countries really committed to the ideals of
ethical recruitment? In the increasing competition, the pressure is on almost every
one and in almost every field to sell (knowledge, products etc.). There could be a
risk of students and people being misled.



1.5 Discuss the questions below and think about your own
conclusions concerning the text Faith of the Engineer.
Jot them down.

1. Is engineering ethics important for society as a whole?

2. How could engineers responsibility for safe design be nurtured?

3. How could we manage risk better?

4. Can we protect ourselves from unscrupulous competitors by setting high product
standards?

5. Are engineers morally required to act on the basis of professional codes and canons?

6. Are they required to assume ethical responsibility for their activity?

7. Do you agree that the best basis for ethical responsibility is regulation and law?

8. Do you think that the oath of the engineer is unnecessary because engineers, in
general, have an inner moral duty and conscience not to deceive?

9. If a product or structure is an enormous hazard, do we have a duty through our
individual consciousness to make the problem public or do we have to protect our
organization or company?

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10. Should the Oath of the Engineer also embody the ethical commitments of
engineering professionals and reflect moral values and principles which are to be put
into practice.

11. Do you agree with the statement that the oath tells us what engineers stand for when
conducting business and that it enhances the sense of community among members, of
belonging to a group with common values and a common mission? [3]

12. Do you also agree with the fact that the oath of the engineer deserves our special
attention because there are increasingly important new issues in engineering
professions lately?

13. Do you agree with the following statements?
In answers to the question why engineering schools and organizations in Croatia
should draw up the oath of the engineer and codes of the engineer, we can say:

to show moral maturity and responsibilities;
to promote high standards of engineering practice and sustainable
development;
to show that the profession's ethical standards conform to common
regulations and law;
to show that the professions ethical standards can even transcend
commonly accepted morality because ethical issues in new technologies
must be resolved.


1.6 WRITE A SHORT CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH

Probably the shortest paragraph of an essay, the conclusion should be brief and to
the point. It's worth pointing out that a good writer avoids a blatant repetition of
the thesis statement. Repeating the thesis, word for word, in the conclusion seems
lazy and is not very interesting. The conclusion should provide a restatement of the
thesis, and perhaps a solution to the problem. It is best to restate the ideas using
different language, perhaps even to create a sort of dramatic effect that comes
from repetition.

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ASSIGNMENT 1.7

Ethical Issues in New Technologies Must Be Resolved.
Investigate with great thoroughness the article written in
Croatian

Jo se ne zna dovoljno o uincima nanoznanosti. to je nanotehnologija?
Podruje primijenjene znanosti i tehnologije kojoj je zajedniko kontroliranje ma-terije na
razini atoma i molekula, najee od 1 do 100 nanometara (milijunti dio milimetra), te
proizvodnja ureaja i strojeva ije su dimenzije unutar tih parametara.

Europska komisija predloila je zemljama lanicama da usvoje kodeks ponaanja u istraivanju
nanoznanosti i nanotehnologije, budui da ne postoji dovoljno informacija o njihovom uincima
na ljudsko zdravlje i okoli a postoje i neka etika pitanja o potivanju temeljnih prava,
istaknuto je u priopenju.

Komisija smatra da je Europa predvodnik u nanoznanosti i nanotehnologiji, znanstvenom
podruju koje je u punom zamahu i koje bi moglo imati velike negativne uinke u eko-
nomskom, socijalnom ili ekolokom smislu, te se stoga predlae kodeks ponaanja koji bi
se trebao primjenjivat i u tom podruju.
Naa snaga djelomino lei i u pozornosti koju pridajemo odgovornom razvoju i uporabi tih
tehnologija. Kodeks ponaanja je instrument koji je izradila Komisija nakon javne rasprave.
Kodeks e omoguiti da se lak odgovori na legitimnu zabrinutost koju nanotehnologije mogu
izazvati - izjavio je povjerenik za istraivanje i razvoj Janez Potonik. Prema prijedlogu kodeksa,
razvoj i uporaba nanotehnologija moraju bili razumljivi iroj javnosti i potovati ljudska prava.
Pri primjeni tehnologija mora se voditi rauna o interesima drutva i pojedinaca. Zahtijeva se
takoer i da te tehnologije budu sigurne, da potuju etika naela i pridonose odrivom razvoju.


Comment on ETHICAL ISSUES IN NEW TECHNOLOGIES!

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ASSIGNMENT 1.8
Whistleblowing

When an employee discovers unethical, immoral or illegal actions at work, the employee makes
a decision about what to do with this information. Whistleblowing is the term used to define an
employees decision to disclose this information to an authority figure (boss, media or
government official).
The purpose of this chapter is to learn more about how employees make their decisions to come
forward with potentially damaging information and in turn, avoid potentially unethical
employers.

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Is whistle blowing regarded as responsible behavior towards the public?
Should whistle blowers receive legal protection or should they be regardedas
obstructionists?
Can whistle-blowing be justified by arguments using a moral theory?
Are engineers whistle-blowing rights protected in Croatia?
When should an employee blow the whistle? When should he or she "keep
quiet"?

Experts have set guidelines for whistleblowing. Some of those are listed below.
This list is a guideline that will help an employee to determine if a situation merits
whistleblowing. Discuss them by using your own explanation
1. Magnitude of consequences
An employee considering whistleblowing must ask himself or herself these questions: How
much harm has been done or might be done to victims? Will the victims really be
"beneficiaries"? If one person is or will be harmed, it is unlikely to be a situation that warrants
whistleblowing.
2. Probability of effect
The probability that the action will actually take place and will cause harm to many people must
be considered. An employee should be very sure that the action in question will actually happen.
If the employee does not know if the action will happen and if the action will harm people (or
the environment), the employee should reconsider his or her plan to blow the whistle. In
addition, the employee must have absolute proof that the event will occur and that people (or the
environment) will be harmed.
3. Temporal immediacy
An employee must consider the length of time between the present and the possibly harmful
event. An employee must also consider the urgency of the problem in question. The more
immediate the consequences of the potentially unethical practice, the stronger the case for
whistleblowing.
4. Proximity
The physical closeness of the potential victims must be considered. For example, a company
that is depriving workers of medical benefits in a nearby town has a higher proximity than one
1,000 miles away. The question arises about matters of emotional proximity or situations in
which the ethical question relates to a victim with some emotional attachment to the
whistleblower.
By Lizabeth England; English Teaching Forum Online


Background Information


Whistleblowing leads to good and bad results. First, the benefits of carefully considered
whistleblowing can lead to the end of unethical business practices. The lives of individuals and
whole communities have been saved by whistleblowers. Severe damage to the environment has
been stopped by the actions of one individual who blew the whistle on an unethical employer.
Here are some examples of serious ethical violations that have resulted in whistleblowing.
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These examples represent significant consequences to businesses:

Dumping of toxic waste
Padding an expense report
Violating laws about hiring and firing
Violating laws about workplace safety
Violating health laws which lead to documented illness and even death
The actions of whistleblowers are potentially beneficial to society. Businesses that engaged in
unethical practices have been shut down because of the actions of whistleblowers. Lives have
been saved, and severe damage to the environment has been averted because of the courage and
persistence of whistleblowers.
At the same time, an employee who witnesses unethical business practices at work may want to
think carefully before making the decision to inform an authority of the practice. The
consequences of whistleblowing are often extreme and include possible firing, civil action, or
even imprisonment. Furthermore, an employee may want to follow the rule of "chain of
command" that is, begin to discuss issues of whistleblowing with his or her immediate
supervisor first, before discussing the matter with anyone else.). Company loyalty is an
internationally held value. Employees want positive work environments. Most workers do not
like to have disagreements with their bosses. At the same time, bosses and managers do not want
employees to complain to others in the workplace about a problem that the manager might be able
to solve. Complaining to ones colleagues can be harmful to morale and should not be confused
with careful thinking and action on behalf of unethical business practices. One companys
unethical practices were uncovered by an employee who was later fired for "blowing the whistle."
No employee wants to be branded as having bad judgment.


ASSIGNMENT 1.9
CONCLUSION

Discuss the importance of the following arguments that
employees and employers should take into consideration:

foster the open communication;
be aware of and obey the laws and regulations;
manage their business in compliance with local and international laws and
regulations, and highstandards of morale and ethics;
respects and preserve the environment in accordance with the specific local
and international regulations;
employees should be encouraged to exercise their rights;
be committed to develop a professional relationship based on openness, respect,
confidentiality;
promote fair competition and legal behavior among competitors;
encourage diversity and respect the culture and business practices in every
country;
act in accordance with anti-corruption laws;
protect confidential and proprietary information and communicate it only
when it is necessary for conducting our business;
not use this information for personal advantage;
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respect ethical code and adhere to the highest standards of ethical behavior
and business conduct ;
be cmmitted to meet all laws and regulations designed to promote fair
competition and legal behavior among competitors;
respect business relations with our dealers, resellers and other partners;
not restrain the free trade;
not obstruct competition;
develop our products and services in order to meet the expectations, needs
and requirements of our customers, partners and shareholders,
do our best for improving our portfolio of products and services;
protect our assets, including intellectual and physical property;
use all resources and assets in group's interest;
comply with all laws and regulations that govern and protect our own and
others' intellectual property rights;
be committed to avoid any conflict of interests in performing their activities,
inside the organization or outside of it;
develop a professional relationship with each other based on openness and
respect;
provide equal employment opportunity for all applicants as well as equal
treatment for all employees;
develop a professional relationship with each other based on openness and
respect.


ASSIGNMENT 10

Write a short conclusion paragraph using the above arguments

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Section 2
ENGINEERING ETHICS AND
TECHNICAL FAILURES


Discuss risk management and technical failures in
groups


Any technical disaster and failures could be classified
into the following groups with:

the role of the human operator, technical design,
organizational systems, and the role of sociocultural factors.

In recent years, numerous engineers have faced ethical
dilemmas in which engineering judgments ultimately led to
technological disasters. The various technical design flaws and
technical miscalculations are cases in point.
Some of the risks now confronting humanity are global in
nature and cannot be mitigated by individual countries or even
by regional communities. Unlike the risks of previous
civilizations, technological disasters are rooted in ecologically
destructive industrialization and are global, pervasive, long-
term, incalculable, and often unknown.



Have a deep scrutiny and analyse radioactivity, chemical
contamination, and other risks




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Presentation 1
Bhopal poison gas release

In 1984, a poisonous cloud of methyl isocyanate, a chemical compound used to make
pesticides, escaped and passed over the town of Bhopal, India, eventually causing the
deaths of an estimated 14,000 people. In addition, more than 30,000 permanent
injuries (including blindness), 20,000 temporary injuries, and 150,000 minor injuries
were reported.

The Bhopal disaster may not have happened
if the refrigeration unit had not been disconnected;
if all gauges had been properly working;
if the proper safety steps had been taken upon the immediate detection of the deadly
methyl isocyanate instead of waiting an hour or so to do anything about it;
if the vent scrubber had been in service;
if the water sprays had been designed to shoot high enough to douse the emissions;
if the flare tower had been of sufficient capacity.
Such obvious violations of basic safety procedures were the unintended consequences of
the decision to cut costs.

.
...


Presentation 2
Do you remember The Paris DC-10 case which raised a host of
organizational, professional, and ethical issues because top management, a subcontractor that
designed the cargo door, had known about the faulty design from memoranda circulated by a
senior vice president of engineering, warning of the likelihood of a crash?
Do you know that management at McDonnell Douglas, the company that designed and
manufactured the DC-10 jumbo jet, as well as managing directors knew of the potentially
deadly problems associated with the rear cargo doors of the DC-10?
Consequently, they all became aware of the problem after an incident in 1972 over Windsor,
Ontario, where a DC-10 had to make an emergency landing when its rear cargo door blew
open.
Did you read the news that On May 25, 1979, an American Airlines McDonnell Douglas
DC-10 jumbo jet crashed into a field shortly after taking off from Chicago-OHare
International Airport, killing 273 people on board.
What was the cause of the crash?
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It was the result of a series of factors:
During take-off, the left engine broke loose, severing control and hydraulic cables
housed in the body of the wing.
The loss of those control cables made it impossible for the pilots to maneuver the wing
slats - extensions of the wing that provide additional lift during takeoff and landing.
Consequently, the left wing of the aircraft lost its ability to provide lift and it diped
low; at the same time, the right wing rose until the wings were perpendicular to the
ground, causing the plane to crash.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) reported that the engine broke loose
of the large pylon holding it to the wing as the result of cracks in the pylon.
According to the report, these cracks were overlooked because of an improper
maintenance procedure.
The NTSB report chastised the Federal Aviation Administrations maintenance
policies.
Additional questions arose when it was learned that McDonnell Douglas knew
about the improper maintenance techniques that led to the pylon cracks.
Besides questions about the ethical adequacy of the FAAs maintenance
policies, should McDonnell Douglas have informed the FAA that airlines were
using a nonstandard method for removing the engine and pylon assembly?

A McDonnell Douglas DC-10 jumbo jet crash may not have happened if

.
..............................................................................................................................


Presentation 3

Ford Pinto rear- end collisions

In 1978 the Ford Motor Company was charged with reckless homicide in the deaths of three
teenage women whose Ford Pinto burst into flames after it was struck from behind by another
vehicle on August 10, 1978. An eyewitness to the fiery crash testified during the trial that the
car exploded like a napalm bomb when struck from behind by a van. The three women died
from burns they suffered in the accident.

The charges held that Ford executives consciously allowed an unsafe car to be manufactured
and sold to unsuspecting consumers. The controversy surrounded the design and placement of
the gas tank. The Pinto gas tank was placed behind the rear axle of the car, where it was
vulnerable to puncture if the car were struck from behind. In prototype testing, it was
discovered that the Pinto had a propensity to burst into flames if struck in its rear end at speeds
as low as 3035 mph.
Between 500 and 900 victims died as a result of rear-end Pinto collisions.
The three DC-10 crashes and the Ford Pinto rear-end collisions all involve technical design
failures.

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Ford Pinto rear- end collisions may not have happened if






.................................................................................................................................


Presentation 4

Read the text and complete the following sentences

DC-10 crashes
In 1974 a Turkish Airlines DC-10 crashed outside of Paris, killing all 346 on board. The cause
of the crash was traced to a defectively designed rear cargo door. It blew open at an altitude of
12,000 feet, triggering rapid cargo cabin depressurization. Cabin depressurization, in turn, caused
the floorboards, which separate the cargo cabin from the passenger cabin above, to tear apart.
Unfortunately, the plane was designed to have all of the hydraulic and electrical control wires
run along directly under the floorboard. Hence, when the floorboards ripped apart, so did the
hydraulic and electrical systems that control the aircraft. With the crucial control systems
destroyed, the pilots lost all control, and the plane crashed to earth with breakneck speed.

A Turkish Airlines DC-10 crash may not have happened if










Presentation 5
Manhattan Project
The World War II Manhattan Project is known as the U.S government research
project (1942- 45) that produced the first atomic bombs. Under Manhattan Project,
the U.S. government built, in a relatively short period, such facilities as production
reactors, chemical-reprocessing plants, test and research reactors, and weapons
production facilities.
Oppenheimer (in J. Robert Oppenheimer (American physicist) ) participated in the efforts of
British and U.S. physicists to seek a way to harness nuclear energy for military purposes, an
effort that became known as the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer was instructed to establish and
administer a laboratory to carry out this assignment.
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The first atomic bomb was built in Los Alamos, N.M., during World War II under a program
called the Manhattan Project. Los Alamos was approved as the site for the main atomic
bomb scientific laboratory on Nov. 25, 1942, by Brig. Gen. Leslie R. Groves and physicist J.
Robert Oppenheimer and was given the code name Project Y. One bomb, using plutonium,
was successfully tested on July 16, 1945.
American scientists, many of them refugees from fascist regimes in Europe, took steps in
1939 to organize a project to exploit the newly recognized fission process for military
purposes. The first contact with the government was made by G.B. Pegram of Columbia
University, who arranged a conference between Enrico Fermi and the Navy Department in
March 1939. In the summer of 1939, Albert Einstein was persuaded by his fellow scientists
to use his influence and present the military potential of an uncontrolled fission chain
reaction to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In February 1940, $6,000 was made available to
start research under the supervision of a committee headed by L.J. Briggs, director of the
National Bureau of Standards. On December 6, 1941, the project was put under the direction
of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, headed by Vannevar Bush.
From Encyclopedia Britannica on-line







Presentation 6

Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Plant DISASTER

The disaster at Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Plant in Japan on March 11, 2011, destroyed tens
of thousands of lives and had ripple effects around the world as nations reliant upon or
considering nuclear power rethought their plans.
The meltdown of three of the six nuclear reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi plant, about 130
miles north of Tokyo, was the worst nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine
in 1986. The result of a 9.0-magnitude earthquake and associated tsunami waves that reached
heights exceeding 100 feet, the disaster demonstrated that nuclear power plant operators may
not have anticipated the full range of worst-case scenarios that could beset their facilities.
The tsunami's swift and massive waves crippled the power plant by taking out its power
supply and cooling system, with workers resorting to desperate measures to cool the reactors
to prevent an even more significant disaster.
The damage at the plant was so severe that more than 100,000 residents of the nearby
Fukushima Prefecture had to be relocated, and complex cleanup operations at the plant
continue.
In the U.S., the disaster spurred the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, which is
responsible for overseeing the 100 nuclear power plants operating in the country, to
re-assess safety planning and issue some new requirements for plants that are of
similar design as Fukushima. Exelon, which is the country's largest nuclear-reactor
operator, runs 17 of the commercial reactors.
According to a New York Times report, the company expects to spend up to $500 million
upgrading its plants based on lessons learned from Fukushima.
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Fukushima woke up the world nuclear industry, not just the U.S., the chairwoman of the NRC,
Allison M. Macfarlane, told the Times. It woke everybody up and said: Hey, you didnt even
think about these different issues happening. You never thought about an earthquake that could
create a tsunami that would swamp your emergency diesel generators and leave you without
power for an extended period. You never planned for more than one reactor going down at a site,
you have to think about that now.
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Plant disaster consequences might have been reduced if








Presentation 7

Read the text and research the most important strategies for
more sustainability that could also be implemented in Croatia;
Jot down these strategies in note form

Environmental and Resource Protection
Strategies for More Sustainability By Martin Orth

Which forms of energy will we use in the future?
How can everyone be assured access to enough water?
These important questions are closely linked to environmental and climate protection


What can Croats learn from Europes most populous country? Do we know how Germany
saves energy, lowers carbon dioxide emissions and generates power from renewable energy
sources. Germany cut its greenhouse-gas emissions by 18% between 1990 and 2005,the
magazine writes, while emissions in the USA rose by 16% in the same period.Time Magazine
paints a picture of a new Germany where wind farms, biogas plants and solar roofs have become
a normal part of the landscape. The main point is that the German Federal Government paved the
way for change early on. It introduced an eco-tax to reduce oil consumption. It built up a
recycling system to conserve resources and re-use raw materials. And above all, it passed the
Renewable Energy Act (EEG).

Indeed, the EEG, which came into force in 2000, is at the heart of German energy and climate
policy. It encourages citizens, businesses and local authorities to generate electricity for
themselves from renewable sources and to sell any excess on to the power utilities. Some people
have been making a tidy profit out of this scheme. And the proportion of power consumption
generated by renewables has risen to 14% within a few years. The target is 25 to 30% by 2020. In
the meantime, 47 countries have themselves passed legislation modelled on the German
Renewable Energy Act. After all, not only the climate benefits from the programme of market
incentives, but also the economy.
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One in three solar cells and almost half the worlds wind turbines are made in Germany. The
German greentech industry is the technology leader. According to a recent study, by 2020 it
will have the potential to take over from the successful mechanical-engineering and automotive
industries as the biggest employer in Germany. Environmental protection and jobs are not a
contradiction.
On the contrary, the two are mutually dependent on a global scale,says Sigmar Gabriel,
Germanys Federal Minister for the Environment. People are already talking about the third
industrial revolution.

The idea is not as utopian as it may sound, because protecting the environment and climate is one
of the greatest global challenges of the 21st century and will require enormous efforts.

How can climate change be stopped?
How can an equitable and sufficient supply of water and food be assured for the worlds growing
population?

These are the most pressing issues of our time. Consequently, environmental protection has
become an important part of German foreign policy. Diplomats speak of foreign policy for
environmental protection, and mean a three-pronged approach consisting of future provision,
conflict prevention and active security policy. After all, environmental issues (e.g. unfair
distribution of water) can lead to considerable social and political tensions. The Federal Foreign
Office is therefore promoting international environmental protection on many levels, be it in
negotiations on international environmental agreements or by organizing conferences.

The Water Unites conference and meeting launched the Central Asia Water Initiative, which
comprises a wide range of collaborations and support measures to counteract the negative
consequences of water shortages in the region.

Germany was very close to delivering on the commitment it made in the Kyoto Protocol to reduce
greenhouse-gas emissions by 21% by 2012. Furthermore, Germany is second only to Sweden in
the 2008 global Climate Protection Index, which rates the performance of 56 countries in climate
protection. In its efforts Germany applies a dual strategy of improving energy and resource
efficiency and expanding the use of renewable energies and renewable primary products. The
country is also taking the lead within the European Union. If other countries are prepared to
follow suit, Germany has said it is prepared to aim for even higher targets than some of those
specified by the EU, which envisage a 20% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020
compared to the figure for 1990, raising renewable energys share of the energy mix to 20%, and
reducing energy consumption by 20%. On Germanys initiative the heads of state and
government of the eight leading industrial nations (G8) have agreed to halve CO2 emissions by
2050. The aim here is to limit the rise in the average global temperature to two degrees.

The key issue will be reaching agreement on a new, comprehensive climate-protection regime to
avoid international climate protection efforts coming to a standstill after the 2012 Kyoto Protocol
has run out. The integration of economically advanced NICs (newly industrializing countries)
such as China, India, South Africa, Brazil and Mexico will be high of the agenda in this context.
After all, the global challenge of climate protection cannot be mastered without these partner
countries.
July 28, 2008 Deutschland Magazine www.magazine-deutschland.de

sustainable development = odrivi razvoj
sustainability = odrivost
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NOTES










Assignment 7.1

Write a short composition on:


Strategies for more sustainability that are to
be implemented in Croatia

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Presentation 8
Every Man For Himself? By Howard G.Eoan

1

A captain's flight from his sinking ship raises a debate about traditions of the
sea.
After having read this article from the magazine Time discuss ethics and traditions of the sea.

2
I
In somebody else's shoe
Imagine you were in the shoes of the captain of one sinking ship. How would you act?

The order to abandon ship automatically presupposes two rules: women and children first and
the captain is last to leave or goes down with his vessel. Romanticized by novels and films as
well as history, the maxims seem almost to have the force of law. Thus though all 571 people
aboard the Greek cruise liner Oceanos survived its spectacular sinking off the coast of South
Africa last week, the ship's captain has been widely castigated as cowardly and irresponsible.
The captain left the Oceanos aboard a rescue helicopter while some 160 passengers, including
several elderly and infirm, still awaited evacuation. He abdicated the hero's role to a South
African entertainer, who not only operated the shipboard radio and made certain everyone
was safe but also rescued the captain's' dog and released his pet canary from its cage before
becoming one of the last to quit the sinking vessel.
In reality there is no law of the sea that requires the captain to remain with his ship to the end.
And the captain backed by his employers, argued that with communications so bad on board,
the evacuation was best directed from shore. But the captain did not help his popular standing
with his statements immediately after the disaster. "When I order abandon ship, it doesn't
matter what time I leave," he said last week. "Abandon is for everybody. If some people like
to stay, they can stay."
The captain's "crime" was in not fitting the mold of tradition. That tradition was
exemplified by, among others, Captain E.J. Smith of the Titanic, who exhorted those
remaining on board the doomed liner to "be British!," made sure women and children left
first, and did, in fact, go down with his ship (and 1,500 passengers and crew).
Such nautical chivalry, however, is relatively recent. It began, coincidentally, with another
sinking off the South African coast. In 1852 the British troopship Birkenhead went to the
bottom with nearly 500 men. All 13 women and children on board were saved because
soldiers gave up their places in the few lifeboats available. Nothing of the kind had been
heard of before. Previously women were likely to be tossed overboard in emergencies so that
the men could have a greater supply of rations. The modern ideal has its own rough edges. On
the Titanic the rule of "women and children first" was enforced with guns. "Children" often
did not include little boys, who were expected to be little men. And immigrant women and
children in steerage didn't qualify for the noblesse oblige above decks.
Going down with the ship, as Smith did, may in some way have been an escape. After all, it
was he who had boasted that "I cannot conceive of any disaster happening to this vessel."
Losing one's ship to the treachery of the sea can be punishment enough, however.
From Time, August 19, 1991
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Presentation 9

HAZARDS

Hazards of navigation due to irregularities in depth of the shallow water close to the land are rather
common. Oil tankers are at hazards from groundings and explosions. The most likely cause of sinking
is a breaching of the hull envelope by collision. The consequenses of the resulting flooding are
minimized by subdividing the hull into compartments with watertight bulkheads. Ships that must have
a high probability of surviving a collision, are built to the onecompartment standard, meaning that
at least one compartment bounded by watertight bulkheads must be floodable without sinking the
ship. A twocompartment standard is common for larger passengercarrying shipsa measure that
presumably protects the ship against a collision at the boundary between two compartments.
However, the greatest ever disaster and the victim of the most famous sinking in the North Atlantic
the Titanic was built to the twocompartment standard, but its collision with an iceberg on its
maiden voyage just before midnight on April 14, 1912, ripped open at least five compartments. The
Titanic could not survive such damage, but its many watertight compartments did retard the flooding
so that the ship required two hours and forty minutes to sink. Aspects of this event are still being
argued. As with all great disasters, eyewitness accounts of the loss of the Titanic vary widely:
The lookout first sighted the iceberg onefourth of a mile dead ahead. Instinctively he gave three
rings on the bell above the crows nest. Iceberg right ahead! the lookout warned the bridge.
Ironically, his words doomed Titanic. In response to the warning her officerincharge tried to
reverse engines and turn hard to starboard. The reversal actually turned the ship slowly to port, and
she suffered the fatal gash in her starboard side. Had she rammed the berg headon, she would likely
have flooded only two or three compartments and remained afloat. Captain Edward J Smith, who was
not on the bridge at the time, went down with his command.
The great liner plunged to the bottom two hours and 40 minutes after the iceberg tore a gash some 300
feet long in her starboard side near the bow. Six of her 16 watertight compartments were flooded, and
as the sea rose above the watertight bulkheads, adjoining compartments flooded. Yet Titanic stayed
afloat more than an hour longer than most experts on board predicted.
Many of the 2, 227 passengers and crew had abandoned ship or been swept away when the vessel
briefly upended in the water, then settled back at an angle. All 20 lifeboats and rafts less than half
the number needed had been launched, many of them only partly filled. Nearly all had pulled away
from the ship for safety. That action doomed most survivors afloat, for the temperature of the sea was
28 F and none could last more than an hour or so. The nearest ship to respond was still two hours
away.
With the movement of the ice southwards each year the perils of the Atlantic passages are increased.
Ships captains warn each other of the presence of these great, giant floating islands, but they are
often hidden by fog even in broad daylight there may be only a few feet of a monster visible above
the surface. Generally the portion of the berg visible above water is only oneeighth or one ninth of
its total depth. Many ships have been wrecked by these floating monsters.
Collision, grounding, fire, explosion, contact or heavy weather damage can result in water ingress or
oil outflow. So, in an emergency, the best course of action to save your ship, crew and cargo and
protect the marine environment may not be quite obvious. How could consequences of a casualty at
sea be lessened? They can be even made worse if the wrong decision is taken. In such a situation, a
full appreciation of the vessels damage stability and damage longitudinal strength is essential.
Many of the great ships met disaster on the rocks, sandbanks and reefs off the rugged coast.
Life does not get any better for seafarers. Unpaid wages, stranded and abandoned crews, traumatised
survivors of violent pirate attacks and assaults and shocked shipmates often left high and dry in ports
thousands of miles away from home, with little money and few supplies, are just some of the
problems the modern seafarer has to face.
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9.1 Match the nouns with their descriptions or synonyms

1. .. ship in distress a) in danger, jeopardy
2. .. shipwreck b) wreck, wreckage; ruin or destruction
3. .. wreckage c) flowing out of oil
4. .. wrack d) remains or fragments of something that has been wrecked
5. .. oil slick e) entering of water
6. .. gash f) causing a vessel to run aground, stranding
7. .. grounding g) deep cut
8. .. in peril h) the state of a ship requiring immediate assistance, because
it is in trouble or great difficulty
9. .. water ingress i) a smooth area on the surface of water caused by the presence of oil
10. oil outflow j) a ship lost at sea or (partly) destroyed
11. ... mainstay l) a chief part


9.2 Match the verbs with their synonyms

1. ripped open a) when the ship touches the bottom, stranded
2. exacerbated b) ruined or destroyed
3. wrecked c) made worse, aggravated
4. breached d) broken through, ruptured
5. grounded e) torn apart or split open
6. plunge f) hinder or impede, make slow
7. retard g) dip
8. wreck h) to strike with great force, dash violently against
9. ram i) devastate, destroy, become wrecked (a vessel)
10. .. doom j) escape to move off
11. .. pull away from k) condemn to death
12. .. upend l) rise or set up on its end


9.3 Fill in the appropriate prepositions:
to, at , in, against, on, off

ship .. distress .. course
danger .. hazards
the boundary between close the land
its maiden voyage broad daylight
casualty sea .. an emergency
protect the ship .. a collision built the onecompartment standard

9.4 Questions
1. What are the most common casualties?
2. What are oil tankers often at hazards from?
3. What is the most likely cause of sinking?
4. What is the one and what two compartment standard?
5. What is the best course of action to save a ship in distress?
6. What is free surface effect?


9.5 SOS
SOS is an internationally recognized signal of distress in radio code ... used especially
by ships calling for help but it is also a call or request for help or rescue.

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9.6 What does the descriptive note SERS stand for?

Ship Emergency Response Service SERS

This service, offered by LR, provides a rapid computer assisted analysis of a damaged ship's stability
and damaged longitudinal strength and grounding in the event of a casualty to the ship. A 24 hour,
365 dayayear service provides subscribers to SERS with rapid, independent, naval architectural
information based on computer simulations to evaluate how the stricken vessel will respond to rescue
options. Standard ship emergency exercises and oil outflow calculations are also available, helping
clients to satisfy the demands of OPA 90, the ISM Code and IMO Marpol. To prepare the data
required for SERS, the ship will be numerically modelled on the extensive computer systems. When a
ship is live in SERS, simulations of a specific casualty can be undertaken quickly and accurately to
help find the best remedial action.
Where an Owner adopts this service, the descriptive note SERS, 'Ship is registered with LR's Ship
Emergency Response Service', will be entered in the Register Book.


Presentation 10
Oil recovery ships
In 1989 the super tanker Exxon Valdez went aground and spilled millions of gallons of oil on
Alaskas coast. This hazard had a devastating impact on the ecology of this area immediately affected.
The demand for a thorough cleanup united environmentalists, the fishing and tourist industries,
NativeAmerican organizations, many ordinary citizens, and scientists, who tried to clean up oil
slicks and oilspills (or oil spillages).
Oil recovery ships are indispensable in such situations. They are intended to separate the oil film from
the surface of the water by passing a film over a weir into a collection area (weir skimmers) or by the
use of moving belts, ropes or revolving disks which pass through the oil films and the oil which then
adheres to them is scraped or squeezed off and collected (Adhesion skimmer). Other modes of
operation may also be considered. The oil thus recovered will then be collected in the ships tanks and
subsequently disposed of ashore. Operation is assumed to take place at a safe distance from the source
of oil spill with respect to the risk of fire and explosion.
The arrangement for collection, handling and transfer of recovered oil is to be such that the risk of oil
spill on deck and overflow is minimized and the operation should be performed as far away from the
accommodation spaces as possible. Steps should be taken to minimize the risk of creation of slippery
areas, i.e. working areas should if possible be made on gratings or similar arrangements.

Vocabulary

oilrecovery ship ship for regaining the previous state of the sea
weir an embankment built by passing a film over an oil spill to hold it in its place
skim to take up or remove(floating oil) from the surface of the ocean, sea or river.
We skim cream from milk.
adhere (to) stick fast (to)
adhesion (Physics) the molecular force of attraction acting in the area of contact between
two or more dissimilar substances
scrape to remove adhering substances or matter
squeeze to press forcibly together
grating a fixed frame of bars covering slippery area
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Presentation 11

WHY DID THEY FLOUNDER?

10.1 Read the following text and complete the title in note form

The vessel can practically be made unsinkable if ..


..
..

The Lusitania, a passenger liner sank because of lack of damage stability. Longitudinal bulkheads
limited the flooding to one side, causing the ship to heel quickly.

The Titanic, however, is unsinkable. Her bullhead system is so complete that she cannot possibly go to
the bottom. That was the opinion of an expert, given an answer to a question as to the possibility of
getting leviathan to port.
A representative of the builders informed an interviewer that the Titanic hull was of tremendous
strength. By means of fifteen transverse bulkheads the hull was divided into separate compartments, any
two of which might be flooded without danger to the ship. Each bulkhead was fitted with watertight
doors, those giving communication between the various boiler rooms and engine rooms being arranged
on the drop system.
Each door, said the official description, is held in the open position by a suitable friction clutch,
which can be instantly released by means of a powerful electric magnet controlled from the captains
bridge, so that, in the event of accident, or at any time when it may be considered advisable, the captain
can, by simply moving an electric switch, instantly close the doors throughout, practically making the
vessel unsinkable. Moreover, as a further precaution, floats are provided beneath the floor level, which,
in the event of water accidentally entering any of the compartments, automatically lift and thereby close
the doors opening into that compartment if they have not already been dropped by those in charge of the
vessel. A ladder or escape is provided in each boilerroom, and similar watertight compartment, in
order that the closing of the doors at any time shall not imprison the men working therein; though the
risk of this eventuality is lessened by electric bells placed in the vicinity of each door, which ring prior
to their closing and thus give warning to those below
It is thus plain that the Titanic chances of reaching port depended upon the strength of the bulkheads in
the flooded fore compartments. It seems an awful lot of fuss is made over the construction and
placement of collision bulkheads. However, we know that collision bulkheads do not prevent collisions,
but what purpose do they serve?
An expert answers: You are correct. Collision bulkheads do not prevent collisions. How wonderful it
would be if they did. The purpose of collision bulkheads is to provide some added degree of safety to
help keep your vessel afloat should the unthinkable happen and you actually have a collision. As a
consequence, the stiffeners of a collision bulkhead are stronger than for other bulkheads and the plating
is made considerably thicker. This is to insure the bulkhead is sufficiently strong to withstand the
slashing of free water should the forward part of the ship be laid open to the sea because of a collision.
Naturally, such a safety member of the ship must be water tight and is usually "intact,'' that is, without
openings. It must also extend from the ship's bottom to the upper or freeboard deck. Most classification
societies require that this transverse partition be located at not less than onetwentieth of the vessel's
length aft from her stem, measured at load waterline. Lastly, but also very important, all ships are
required to have a collision bulkhead fitted. Nevertheless, we hope you never need the extra safety
these strength members of the ship provide.

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Presentation 12
SAFETY ON BOARD
11.1 Translate the words in bold form into Croatian.
What concentrates our minds is the thought of possible emergency scenarios where as many as 5000
people or more have to be safely and efficiently evacuated from a stricken ship, possibly into hostile
seas and darkness, perhaps with no other vessels in the immediate vicinity or in an ocean area remote
from search and rescue (SAR) resources. Many safety devices, systems and procedures currently
employed are based largely on principles developed for a different era, and were invariably conceived
for operation by accomplished seafarers. Ships may have never been safer, but now may be the time to
assume a more proactive role in simplifying matters of safety.
Safety products as a protection emergency control and evacuation system have to comply with the
latest international requirements on their lifesaving equipment. The specially designed safety
technology should ensure uncomplicated evacuation of passengers even in extreme weather conditions.
The lifesaving outfit comprises a safety cabin that may be suspended from the rig or platform,
lifeboats, supported by one rescue boat and a further fast boat, but in addition the safety systems can
carry a pair (one each side) of a verticalchute marine escape system, each with a main raft and four
25person dropoverboard life rafts.
A lifejacket is stowed beneath each individual passenger seat. Externally, there is a pickup boat aft,
four 50 person inflatable life rafts port and starboard on the upper deck alongside the passenger
saloon, and two emergency ladders stowed port and starboard either side of the life rafts. Doors
from the upper passenger saloon are provided amidships port and starboard, and forward on the
main deck there are exit hatches in the roofs of the two luggage rooms and the air conditioning room.
The lifesaving outfit should allow the crew of a rig or platform to remain at a site during a fire
emergency. During an emergency, the crew retreats within. Fresh breathing air is supplied. Inside, there
is an emergency control centre consisting of a microcomputer with a keyboard and video display
unit. From the emergency control centre, communication can be maintained with the computers
onboard the rig or platform to operate the following systems: public alarm, processing of oil and gas,
sub sea and drilling, fire and gas, power generation and management, riser disconnect, ballast etc.,
active and passive positioning, and meteorological monitoring.
If abandonment ultimately becomes necessary, the cabin is lowered by a passive launch system,
landing 10 m to 12 m from the structure. The safety system is equipped with an azimuth thruster at its
fore body for manoeuvrability. The diesel engine develops 195 kW. The propeller is dimensioned for
pull rather than speed. A present autopilot guides the cabin in the evacuation direction.
Another safety issue that has to be brought into sharp focus is sea traffic control. Because of the ever
increasing speeds of vessels and congestion of the sea lanes, stricter traffic control rules must be
adopted. The faster we get, the more control we need. Consequently, radar and, more importantly,
satellite and land based radars and surveillance systems will have to become more important. Data will
be collected from vessels and a plot will be transmitted to each individual ship. Electronic data
interchange will bring interesting possibilities.
On board computers have already taken over some mundane tasks and freed personnel to deal with
more unusual situations.
Also, at the navigation workstation, the following facilities are to be available: radar/ARPA, position
fixing systems displays, echo sounder display, speed and distance log display, wind speed and
direction indication, steering controls and indication, rate of turn indication, course/track
monitoring system, main propulsion and thruster controls and indication, watch safety system
acknowledge, watch safety system manual initiation, internal communications system, VHF
radiotelephone, time indication, window clear view controls, navigation lights controls, whistle
controls, Morse light keys, wheelhouse/equipment lighting controls. Where automatic track
following is provided, the positionfixing systems are to initiate an offtrack alarm when the ships
position is at a given distance from the planned track. Wire rope fairleads are generally to have a
minimum diameter of 20 times the wire rope diameter. Anchor line length has to be sufficient to avoid
uplift forces occurring at the anchors in the worst damaged survival condition. That's just what we have
to do in favour of safety.
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12.2 More and more we read about fires aboard ship that are caused by
gasoline igniting or that gasoline caused a minor fire to become a
catastrophe. If gas were stowed properly, couldn't many of these
fires be prevented?

The answer is that they certainly could. Gasoline is highly flammable and has been either the cause or
contributing factor to many serious fires, both at sea and ashore. Proper stowage and handling of the
volatile liquid could have prevented many of these catastrophes.
Shipboard gasoline, when carried in cans for the ship's own use, should be stowed in the paint and
flammable liquids storeroom. Where two such storerooms are available, the gasoline should be equally
divided and stowed in each. In ships not having flammable liquids store rooms, the gasoline must be
stowed on the weather deck and located so that the containers can be readily released overboard directly
into the sea. This weather deck stowage must not be located in the vicinity of hatches, galleys, heat
producing compartments, ventilation intakes or exhaust. Also, wherever practical, weather deck
stowage should be near the stern of the ship. Quick releasetype racks should be inspected frequently to
insure proper operation so if you have to jettison, it will happen quickly and properly.
Air cushion catamarans e.g. have also watertight compartments, which are fitted with bilge systems and
each engine room has fire alarm and total gas flooding systems. There is also a fire pump in each engine
room plus hydrants and fire extinguishers located around the vessel.
For fire protection, all passenger areas are to be covered by sprinklers, while the vehicle decks are fitted
with drenchers, and the machinery spaces are protected by both CO
2
and the soontoberequired
auxiliary equipment (Hifog high pressure water mist).
Thats how we could prevent fires aboard ships.


12.3 Match words with their descriptions and synonyms

1. launch a) a ship which experienced trouble or mishap
2. a stricken ship b) a large motor driven boat used for carrying people.
3. slice c) to get rid of by throwing
4. jettison d) to cut off
5. rack e) to act in accordance with the law, rule
6. to comply with f) a framework on which life saving equipment is arranged
7. azimuth thruster g) a propeller mounted in a transverse tunnel near the bow or
the stern to push the bow sideways without producing forward
motion or even it can be rotated in place, if the two thrusters act
in opposite directions.

12.4 Study these patterns

The more advanced technology we use, the more necessary it is to implement stricter laws
and stricter safety requirements.


Ive never travelled by the hovercraft, which is why I cant tell anything about this vessel.


Thats just what.., where.., when.., why.., how.., we , too.

We have to install a tuned damper to reduce vibrationcausing cracking of a bulk carrier shaft.
Thats what we have to do, too.

We can detect surface flaws by carrying out an ultraviolet magnetic particle test.
Thats how we detect them, too.

I carry out this test because in this way I can detect surface flaws.
Thats why I carry them out, too.

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We carry out completely independent structural analyses.
Thats what we do, too.

We can determine fatigue endurance of this component only at LRs research laboratory.
Thats where I can do it, too.


12.5 Insert the articles where necessary (autocorrective test, page 278 )
Safety simulations

. human behaviour is . key element in . evacuation simulation. Such . simulation has to
take into account . ship heeling and . movements, . blackout and . smokeincorridor
situations, . panicking passengers, . passengers returning to . cabins to collect their luggage
or carrying . luggage and thus blocking . corridors. Also, . passenger age, . intoxication,
and . mobility impairment has to be included. . simulation can include . combinations of .
human behaviour in several conditions, random location of . passengers, all . passengers
gathered into . same area, and . several whatif cases.
Some real situations have highlighted . critical significance of . human behaviour in .
distress situation: for example, 15% of . passengers will be unable to act at all and 60% will not
act without . instructions from . crew. With . evacuation simulation, it is also possible to
simulate . situations with . casualties.
. most valuable benefit of . evacuation simulation is more realistic results, . most interesting
being . total time required for . evacuation under . different conditions. With . simulation
critical design, . behaviour and . environmental parameters can be found and . bottlenecks
detected, which makes it . excellent design tool for . safety improvements. . evacuation
simulation can also be used as . onboard training tool: . simulation can be run before each
departure, based on . actual number of . passengers and . correct occupancy of . cabins,
and in this way . possible evacuation situation can be practised to establish . most critical areas
in . distress situation.

12.6 Vocabulary

blackout darkness caused by an electrical power failure
panicking passengers panicstricken, terrified
intoxication drunkenness or intoxication with drugs, a gas
mobility impairment weakness of mobility
highlighted emphasized
bottlenecks narrow passageway


12.7 Study these Compounds

initial passenger evacuation simulations are initial simulations that simulate passenger
evacuation
crew safety training is training of the crew with the purpose of gaining safety
vessel's technical safety status is the status of the technical safety of the vessel
new class notations are notations indicating that a new class has been appended to the
ship.

12.8 In somebody elses shoes

Imagine you were aboard a ship where an evacuation simulation is run before each
departure as an onboard training. Imagine a possible evacuation situation that could
be practiced to establish the critical areas in a distress situation.


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LECTURE 4

Section 1
What are Engineering,
Technology and
Science Nowadays?

Section 2
How to write an abstract



A brain is an apparatus with which we think we think.

Thinking without learning is a dangerous thing.

A leopard cannot change his spots.

Birds of a feather flock together.

A man is known by the company he keeps.

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Images of smoking chimneys and steamy factories seem out of place in the
world of 21
st
century, but this was public face of industry around the turn of the
last century, as six key sectors positioned themselves for take-off. The
electronics, aircraft, chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive and energy industries
have revolutionized life in the course of the 20
th
century, and the revolution within
the industries themselves are happening at an ever-faster rate.
We can start with electronics because it contributes so heavily to the
other five, and because it epitomizes the accelerating rate of change in industry
as a whole.
The first useful valve was developed in 1907, followed by the emergence of
the transistor after World War Two, the silicon chip in the 60s and since then a
succession of advances in computer technology. The whole term electronics is
getting out of date, because the industry is moving towards working with light.
Just about everything with which we come into contact in everyday life,
from headache tablets to jumbo jets, is a product of one of these six industries.
Industry and engineering collectively and at times individually are also likely to
reflect and influence global economics and politics.
The aircraft industry was in any case moving from a defence-based to a
mass-transit industry, developing more sophisticated civil aircraft for ever-
growing lists of customers.
The Wrright Brothers made the first flight in 1903. Not so long ago only
four-engined aircraft were deemed safe enough to cross the Atlantic; now two
engines are considered sufficient. The fact is that you can pack an aircraft with
technology, but does it necessarily make it a better aircraft?
And can the industry ensure that people are trained to the necessary
sophisticated hardware?
The chemical industry has come a long way from the 1900s and the
emergence of viscose, rayon and Bakelite. The industry is fighting to keep pace
with new environmental demands by working on production of, say, bio-
degradable plastics or to cater for animal-free diets artificial fats.
Some large companies are moving away from bulk and towards the
more expensive fine chemicals, such as the raw materials needed for
pharmaceuticals.
The pharmaceutical industry has come a long way since the introduction
of aspirin in 1899, with companies using advances in biotechnology to control
the deseases of old age and to combat epidemics. It is spending ever-incresing
sums of money on developing the new drugs vital for its future.
Environmentalist have long lobbed the automotive industry to produce
vehicles able to run without burning fossil fuels. The race to produce a genuinely
competitive electric car goes on.
Industrial revolutions concern not only the products but the methods of
production.
So, Henry Ford launched the model T in 1907, and cars contain the same
basic elements today as they did then. What has hanged dramatically, however,
is the means of production. We now have robots replacing people and just-in-
time mass production.
Without energy none of the other industries can survive, let alone
advance. No other industry so affects governments social and economic policy.
That the planets natural energy resources are limited is a fact of life. It is not so
much a question any more of if our oil and coal supplies cease, but when?
And, more important, what are we going to do when they are gone?



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Core Text 1

ASSIGNMENT 1
Write subtitles in question forms.

What are engineering, technology and science nowadays?
Human Ingenuity or A Step Gone Too Far?

Have Science and Technology Made Our World?

Have We really Gone A Step Too Far?



Once shaped only by the forces of nature, our world is being transformed by the products of human
ingenuity. Key inventions and technologies, which are grown from them, are changing not only our
environment but the way we live in it, our comfort, prosperity and even lifespan. Science and
technology have come to pervade every aspect of our lives and, as a result, society is changing at a
speed which is quite unprecedented. There is a great technological explosion around us, generated
by science.


A simple watch-spring enabled navigators to set out across uncharted oceans. Today satellite time-
keepers in space can pinpoint shipwrecks or track missiles to their target. Impurities in a crystal
brought about the computer revolution and the ubiquitous silicon chip. Stores of knowledge ranging
from libraries to laser discs, linked by strands of glass, are weaving a network of data around our
planet. Radio and television distribute news almost as it happens, and yet engines put every nation
within reach. Even our food and drink have been transformed by technology.



The electronics, aircraft, chemical, pharmaceutical, automotive and energy industries have
revolutionized life in the course of the 20th century, and the revolutions within the industries
themselves are happening at an ever-faster rate. It is fascinating how electronics epitomizes the
accelerating rate of change in industry as a whole.
Modern engineering relies heavily on scientific principles because it has to deal with sophisticated
systems and to strive to produce and manufacture affordable and optimized products. We all know
that in 1781, James Watt invented a version of the steam engine, which gave an impetus to the
Industrial Revolution and that thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency
of steam engines. Undoubtedly, modern science emphasizes the importance of experiment over
trial-and-error approach. Therefore, engineering students are grounded solidly in mathematics,
physics, chemistry, biology and other calculus-based sciences before learning the art of engineering.
Engineering science studies are heavily dependent on calculus to express the laws of nature, on the
non-Aristotalian science inscribed in the work of Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Leibniz, Maxwell
and others. The most complex engines and machines would not have been possible without the
powerful mathematical calculus given to humanity by those geniuses. Thus, critical-thinking skills
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acquired in engineering science classes are needed to tackle global warming, to provide new
sustainable energy forms, fresh water, to erect optimal living spaces, to create products from the
needle to the airplane. Students at the freshman level who called for an early hands-on experience
should be taught and told that creativity and art are only two parts of engineering. The third part,
science will be and should be taught in due time although, of course, students faced with math-
heavy engineering science classes might howl that those classes are not what they signed for.
So, modern engineering as a human endeavor nowadays applies equal parts of creativity, art and
science to improve the quality of life. We have just presented the three faces of engineering.



However, the question is if all inventions and discoveries have made man happier and his life
easier? Has engineering really improved the quality of our lives?
Enormous knowledge, technology and engineering have brought great benefits but also grave perils
to mankind. Progress has always been double-edged. Thats why an array of philosophers have
stressed that progress must be directed by something more than just knowledge. Bertrand Russell
sets out to seek a means of balancing knowledge with an equivalent offsetting of wisdom. For, he
thinks that although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has been no
correlative increase in wisdom. There are several factors that contribute to wisdom. Of these I
should put first a sense of proportion: the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a
problem and to attach to each its due weight. This has become more difficult than it used to be
owing to the extent and complexity of the specialized knowledge required of various kinds of
technicians.



You study the composition of the atom from a disinterested desire for knowledge, and incidentally
place in the hands of powerful lunatics the means of destroying the human race.
In such ways the pursuit of knowledge may become harmful unless it is combined with wisdom,
and wisdom in the sense of COMPREHENSIVE VISION is not necessarily present in specialists in
the pursuit of knowledge. The semantic meanings of being comprehensive as well as
comprehensible come from the verb comprehend which means:
1. understand fully and be comprehensible and
2. include referring to be comprehensive
That means that if you have comprehensive vision you are able to comprehend fully because you
have a comprehensive mind and thus are capable of performing a comprehensive survey and seeing
a comprehensive and overall picture of the world. A researcher must be aware of all the
consequences his research might bring.



Knowledge must be directed by wisdom. Do we know what wisdom is?
The definition of wisdom might be as follows: power of judging rightly and following the
soundest course of action based on knowledge, experience, understanding, good judgment, sagacity,
erudition and comprehensive viewpoint.
Wisdom is inner knowledge, inner consciousness and inner conscience.
Engineering science and ethics must be directed by wisdom and comprehensive vision of the
world, i.e., that is by the fourth face of modern engineering.



Nowadays computer-based risk assessment models can provide rough estimates measuring the
probability and consequences of problems. These models might enable enineers to take systematic
approaches that can incorporate many variables that might otherwise be overlooked.
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Moral responsibility is a characteristic that can only be assumed by individual human beings, not by
corporations or big companies. Engineers through their professional organizations or their
individual consciences have to assume ethical responsibility for the applications and results of their
achievements, in short they have to behave responsibly, and foster safety design. We might design a
code of ethics that all engineering societies could adopt.



The question how safe we should be may not always be answered by safer because risk
assessment is a social problem and requires social solutions that may even involve accepting or
rejecting technologies. Thus, no social technologies are immutable; as a matter of fact they change
beyond recognition and have been improving steadily.

1. Do you agree with the statement that pushing out the very frontiers of human
achievements can be very perilous and that engineers are not supposed to bridge the gap
previously thought unbridgeable but they should bridge conflicts between members who
identify with the industries and managements that employ them, conflicts that are thought
to have been unbridgeable.

2. Engineering problems require multidisciplinarity, i.e., multidisciplinary efforts from
engineers, scientists, social scientists as well as thoughtful discussions between public and
private sectors; they require once again a comprehensive vision of the projects.

3. How should the risks that are part of or by-products of the engineers work be managed?

4. Do you think that engineers have special professional responsibilities?

5. Do you think that we should offer increased protection to those who blow the whistles?
What is your attitude towards whistle-blowing?

6. Do most accidents occur in routine use or from design failures?

7. What are the four faces of modern engineering?

As we live in a technological world, taking largely for granted the benefits that science and
technology have brought us, many advances have been made at immense cost both human and
financial. Technological achievements leave much room for mistakes and also modern science has
brought grave perils to mankind.

So, what happens when we try to go a step too far, when a desire to innovate and
improve leads to disaster?
Were the failures foreseeable, what lessons were learnt and how have thay
changed our lives?
Could you examine some major advances and the disasters which followed?
Read the texts (pages)

Is crossing the border important?
Jot down your attitudes:

........
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Core Text 2

ASSIGNMENT 2: Write subtitles in question forms.

WHAT IS ENGINEERING and WHAT IS AN ENGINEER?

.

Whether building bridges, designing machines, developing new materials or constructing
complex electronic devices, the engineer is a central figure in the progress of a modern
industrial society.

.

Engineers produce most of Man's material wealth, change the face of the Earth, create every new
product of modern technology and increasingly make life easier and more convenient.

...........................................................................................................................................
According to one wit: "an engineer does for twenty-five pence what any fool could do for fifty." In
the same vein, an aeronautical engineer is described as "a man who designs a part weighing eight
ounces that any fool could design to weigh a pound." Clearly, engineers have to be cost conscious,
and some have to be weight conscious; but all have to be ecology and energy conscious. Are they
really energy minded? Do all of them think twice about all the energy they use and waste?



Certainly, almost all of them are deeply concerned with how long things will last, what they will
accomplish and with what efficiency; their reliability, safety and a thousand other factors. An
engineer's whole life is spent balancing conflicting factors like these, weighing one against another
and coming up with the best possible answer. Each of his products is a compromise: it could always
be improved if it were made more expensive; it could always be made lighter, if reliability was
unimportant and much cheaper if it did not have to last long.
In a certain sense, the successful engineer is a malcontent; a person who is never satisfied with
what has been achieved, always trying to change things for the better.



Therefore, during product development many problems deal with complex, strategic, and
influential issues that require team resolution. A poor decision on these problems may not be
easily corrected later or noticed in time to correct it. Poor results may have. significant
impact on product quality, cost, and development time.

..

If the team had made a poor choice, they might have ended up making a product that did not sell
well, was overpriced, or was late to market.
Teams often dont know how well they have done until long after the decision is made, so
it is imperative that they make the best decisions possible. Thus, engineers are encouraged to
generate multiple alternatives. One manager said that his engineers always had at least three
alternatives. When asked why, he responded that he would not approve a new idea unless at least
two other solutions for the problem were presented at the same time.
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.

Experience suggests that effective team situations generate multiple alternatives as the result of
normal communications. This is especially true in a collaborative environment, when team
members have established an atmosphere of trust. Team members can easily fulfill and
implement comprehensive vision of the project and comprehensive scientific principles.

..

Ship construction today is also not only a marvellous blend of art and science, and obviously, a very
complicated compound of various fields of science such as hydromechanics (the study of fluids in
motion), hydrostatics (the study of fluids at rest), the study of materials and structures but also a
team work.

..

The design of ships employs many technologies and branches of engineering that are also found
ashore, but the imperatives of an effective and safe operation at sea require oversight from a unique
discipline which is called naval architecture. The basis of the design includes the statement of the
problem and the assumptions, conditions, restrictions that underlie the design work.

..

When a naval architect is required to design a vessel to carry 1, 000 tonnes deadweight at 42 knots,
he is asked to draw a design which must include the values such as deadweight (weight of cargo
plus fuel and consumable stores, and lightweight as the weight of the hull, including machinery and
equipment). He must also choose tentative values of length, breadth, depth, draft and displacement,
so that the displacement of the vessel is equal to the sum of the deadweight and the lightweight
tonnages. Then he must decide upon the finest shape of the hull appropriate to the speed. Freeboard
rules, of course, determine the draft.
Consequently, the draft enables the depth to be defined to a first approximation. The designer must
achieve a weight balance. He must also select a moment balance because centres of gravity in both
longitudinal and vertical directions must provide satisfactory trim and stability. Additionally, he
must estimate the shaft horsepower required for the specified speed, which determines the weight of
machinery.



The strength of the hull is of course the overriding quality. This means that an adequate amount of
material has to be put into the structural elements in order to enable them to resist the loads
connected with the most adverse service conditions. Structural thickness of material is a very
important component of safety factors that has to be introduced. They must be reasonably high so
as to compensate for any irregularities, such as excessive working loads, impaired safe working
load capacity of parts due to their corrosion, wear and tear, pitfalls in shipyard practices, etc. But in
any case, structural elements should be of minimum weight consistent with the feasible design
adopted on a more or less sound basis. The strength of the hull must be adequate for the service
intended; detailed scantlings (frame dimensions and plate thicknesses) can be obtained from and
should comply with the rules of the classification society. These scantlings determine the requisite
weight of hull steel. The cost of a ship may increase far above average, unless the naval architect
gives due consideration to the tables and construction rules and tends to rely on standard structural
arrangements.
On the other hand, no standardization should preclude the design studies from creating new and
more advanced styles of construction. When this is the case, standardization provides for efficient
structural arrangements, leads to great economical gains and becomes thus a factor contributing to
progress in shipbuilding.
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So, engineering as a career implies optimizing and efficiency. Efficiency costs money, safety ads
complexity, and performance increases weight. The engineering solution is the optimum solution,
the most desirable end result taking into account many factors, it may be the cheapest for a given
performance, the most reliable for a given weight, the simplest for a given safety, or the most
efficient for a given cost. Engineering is optimizing. It implies efficiency in engineering operations.

.

What does efficiency mean? To the engineer, efficiency means output divided by input. His job is
to secure a maximum output for a given input or to secure a given output with a minimum input.
The ratio may be expressed in terms of energy, materials, money, time, or men. Most commonly
the denominator is money; in fact, most engineering problems are answered ultimately in dollars
and cents. Efficient conversion is accomplished by using efficient methods, devices, and personnel
organizations.
When great quantities must be produced at low cost, it becomes an engineering problem.
Since output equals input minus losses, the engineer must keep losses and waste to a minimum.
Losses due to friction occur in every machine and in every organization. Efficient functioning
depends on good design, careful attention to operating difficulties, and lubrication of rough spots,
whether they are mechanical or personal.
Engineering of the highest type is required to conceive, design, and achieve the conversion of the
energy of a turbulent mountain stream into the powerful torque of an electric motor a hundred
miles away.

...

The engineer's creations are of steel, aluminium, glass, glass fibre, plastics, concrete and
every other material used by Man. The engineer must have a deep knowledge of these
materials and may be skilled at fashioning them; His own tools are a drawing board and
notebook, pencils and pens, slide rules, typewriter, test equipment, computer, instruments
and dozens of volumes of reference books, catalogues and articles from the technical press.

..

More recently scientists and engineers have been seen in an a new light, as people who created and
influenced our lives by their sheer originality and breadth of vision. Therefore, it is said that all
engineers create something out of nothing. Sometimes, as with suitcases or even motor cars, the
engineering design is not really a dramatic step into the unknown; the new product is technically
very similar to what has been made before, and most of the effort is concerned with making it look
attractive while keeping down the production cost.

..

But other engineers spend their whole lives pushing out the very frontiers of human achievement.
Aircrafts are made to carry greater loads, trains to go faster, telephone systems to handle more traffic
with fewer breakdowns, newspaper presses to work faster at lower cost, home sewing machines to be
more versatile yet smaller and neater than before, life-support systems to enable an astronaut or
aquanaut to go where man could not go before, and a bridge to span a great river previously
thought unbridgeable.



Unlike the scientists, the engineer is not free to select the problem which interests him and he is not
reputed to have pushed out the very frontiers of human achievement;




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the engineering design is not really a dramatic step into the unknown; Though some engineers do
spend their whole lives pushing out the very frontiers of human achievement they must also solve
the problem as they arise, and his solutions must satisfy conflicting requirements. The 19
th
century
gave us the Industrial revolution, the 20
th
century gave us a new Information revolution that
triggered a massive social upheaval and today we are at the dawn of the Quantum revolution.

.

Advocates of this Information Revolution have properly foreseen our future with digital
superhighways criss-crossing the globe. We are now able to shop, play, learn, and even make love
while sitting alone in our homes. The contents of the worlds best libraries are instantly accessible.
The race between computer and telecommunication companies to exploit the potential of this new
revolution is just taking place. Also, the revolution within the industries themselves are happening
at an ever-faster rate. We can give an example of electronics because it contributes so heavily to
the other fields, that it epitomizes the accelerating rate of change in technology as a whole.
Anyway, engineers will be required to solve an array of problems and to improve and develop:

Economically feasible energy sources
Transport methods
Reliable telecommunication
Waste disposal
Food manufacturing
Agricultural machinery
Monitoring and recording of peoples health
Improving the lives of the disabled
Engineering principles to reduce pollution


ASSIGNMENT 3 - SUMMARIZING

Write an abstract of the texts What is Engineering?
Essential ideas:

...................


The most important information.

...................................................

Conclusion:

.............................
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4 CODE TRANSFER (English Croatian)

Logical interpretation.
computer-based risk assessment models .................................................................
cost conscious ............................................................................... ...............................
drawing board .............................................................................. ................................
man's material wealth ........................................... . ..................... ................................
weight conscious .......................................................................... ................................
production cost ............................................................................ ................................
a massive social upheaval ........................................................... ...............................
at an ever-faster rate .................................................................... ................................
reference book............................................................................. ................................


5 ROLE PLAY

1. If you were in somebody elses shoes how would you introduce engineering as a career to
beginning students of that discipline?

2. Any problem involving the low-cost production of large quantities of any item is an
engineering problem even if the item itself originated in the work of other disciplines.

3. Explain in detail why efficiency costs money, safety ads complexity, and performance
increases weight. Is this always true?

4. Can we state that the engineering solution to most problems is the most desirable end result
taking into account many factors?

5. How would you like a car you can leave to park itself? Would you be interested to know how
the experts see the hi-tech kitchen of the furniture? Could you find out about the latest
research on pollution control, space probes, high-energy physics and weather forecasting? Is it
true that much of the opposition to science and technology comes from those who have gained
little knowledge and education.

6. If you have a degree in German Literature, Naval Architecture or in any mental discipline, this
equips you to do the other. You could study the sciences because you have the necessary
analytical mind.

7. Is science regarded as the discipline which could save the world or the discipline we are afraid
of? Science links and divides people thanks to the environmental and other right movements.
8. Is science essential if the developing world is to become the developed world?

9. Have we witnessed any sudden upsurge in interest in the sciences as a result of the advances in
technology?

10. Why is Establishment frightened of science? Is there something frightening about not wanting
to know things which are evident, and always true? Why are we not able to live with the truth?
Some people run away from science because it symbolises such terrifying things: of getting to
grips* with the huge, mysterious thing that is universe.

11. Should we all have an inkling* of what is going on right now in the area of science?

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12. Why science as a discipline has not been brought out of the labs and research rooms into
the living-rooms?

13. Few people have the privilege to write about new discoveries in science. The world we
live in today is shaped and affected by the discoveries (but not inventions) of the pioneer
scientists.
_______________________________________________________________________
to be at grips nositi se sa;
to come/get to grips uhvatiti se u kotac
to have not the slightest inkling of nemati pojma o, ni ne slutiti OR
to get/have an inkling of naslutiti neto


ASSIGNMENT 6

Should mechanical engineers and naval architects have an icon
to call their own? Answer this question and then read the text.

You'll report back on your decision in your own composition.
Write your own ideas on this subject.

.............
....
....
.................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................

....
.....

...........
....
.......
....
..
........................
..
..
.........
..............

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RETURN OF THE ICONS

Should mechanical engineers and naval architects have an icon to call their own? Some engineers
can convey to the general public the essence of what they do with a simple image a bridge, an
airplane, a computer.

It appears that other engineering disciplines do a much better job in defining their disciplines for
non-engineers with certain distinguishing icons, Satyandra K. Gupta wrote in Mechanical
Engineering Magazine. What should serve as an icon for mechanical engineering?
We put that question to the readers of Mechanical Engineering Magazine Online and for the past
several months they have been answering with their ideas. While there was no overwhelming
favorite so far, a few solid proposals kept recurring. Since the majority of those questioned agreed
that mechanical engieers should have an icon of some sort, we wanted to narrow the field down
to five semi-finalists.

There were, of course, many more than five submitted suggestions. They ranged from the Rubiks
Cube to the aircraft carrier to a picture of Earth. But the five listed below seem to capture the gist
of what our readers were driving at in coming up with a mechanical engineering icon.
Perhaps the most basic of the candidate icons is the wheel, which was suggested in a number of
comments. The development of the wheel by ancient people later on opened the door to human
development, wrote one person in the comments on our Web site. Another reader pointed out
that without the wheel, the work of the civil, aerospace, and electrical engineers would be
impossible.

Another suggested icon was the hexagonal nut and bolt. Fasteners like this are ubiquitous in
modern society, the argument in favour of this icon went, and the hexagoon already conveys
mechanical or industrial meaning to wide swath of the population.

A number of different engines or turbines received votes, though it wasn't always clear what
exact icon was being suggested. Engines and turbines exhibit how a few of our broad fields
harness and conserve energy, one commenter wrote.

Perhaps the most popular suggestion was to use the gear as the icon of mechanical engineering.
What seemed to appeal the most to those who suggested the gear was its basic simplicity. Gears
represent physical contact, wrote one person. The gear represents motion, machines, and
mechanics, wrote another.

The reason I suggest the gear, added another reader, is because most mechanical eyuipment is
in motion and the gear is the only mechanical component that is used evrywhere, whether in
automobiles, airplanes, or in much smaller devices.

A popular nominee is the icon that Gupta suggested in his original article: the robot. A robot is
a device that has unlimited possibilities for implementation, wrote one reader.

So, for the next Question of the Month, we pose this:Do any of the above objects rise to the level
of being an icon for mechanical engineering? If the goal is, to justify why mechanical
engineering fundamentals are critical pieces of knowledge that are needed to confront some of the
biggest challenges of the 21st century, does the weel, the gear, the blade of the propeller or any
other proposed icons actually accomplish that?





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Section 2

Core Text

HOW TO WRITE AN ABSTRACT OR OCOMPOSITION




STUDY THE FOLLOWING

2. 1 COMPOSITION PROFILE





Write a short essay/composition in your own words
focusing on or choosing one of the following ideas:

What does engineering mean to me?
A good engineer must be able to have
comprehensive vision of the world and his design
Engineering is double edged
Engineering means pushing out the very frontiers of human
achievements
Engineering always means balancing conflicting factors
Engineering has gone a step too far
The world today is forced to keep pace with increasingly difficult
technologies
Bertrand Russell thinks that although our age far surpasses all
previous ages in knowledge, there has been no correlative
increase in wisdom.


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Content and organization


EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD
knowledgeable, substantive, thorough development of thesis relevant to assigned topic;
logical sequencing and fluent expression of ideas which are clearly stated and supported,
succinct, well-organized and cohesive

GOOD TO AVERAGE
Some knowledge or adequate range of subject, limited development of theses that are
mostly relevant to topic, but lacks detail; ideas are logical but loosely organized with
incomplete sequencing, somewhat choppy but main ideas stand out

FAIR TO POOR
limited knowledge of subject and inadequate development of topic showing little substance;
ideas are non-fluent, confused, disconnected and lack logical sequencing and development

VERY POOR
does not show knowledge of subject and it is non-substanctive, not pertinent, and as a whole
not enough to evaluate; this composition does not communicate, has no organization and it
is not enough to evaluate


Vocabulary, language use and mechanics (punctuation, spelling etc.

EXCELLENT TO VERY GOOD
sophisticated and effective range of word/idiom choice and usage, i.e., word form mastery,
and appropriate register; effective and complex constructions, few errors of agreement,
tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns and prepositions; demonstrates
mastery of conventions, few errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing

GOOD TO AVERAGE
adequate range of vocabulary showing occasional errors of word/idiom form, choice and
usage but meaning is not obscured; effective but simple constructions, minor problems
in complex constructions, several errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/function,
articles, pronouns, prepositions but meaning seldom obscured; occasional errors of spelling,
punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing but meaning not obscured

FAIR TO POOR
limited range of vocabulary showing frequent errors of word/idiom form and meaning
confused and obscured; major problems in simple/complex constructions, frequent errors
of negotiation, agreement, tense, number, word order/ organisation, articles, pronouns,
prepositions and/or fragments, run-ons, deletions, meaning confused or obscured; frequent
errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, poor handwriting and meaning
confused or obscured

VERY POOR
little knowledge of English vocabulary, idiom, word form, essentially translation and as a
whole not enough to evaluate; virtually no mastery of sentence construction rules and
dominated by errors, briefly it does not communicate and is not enough to evaluate;this
composition shows no mastery of conventions, it is dominated by errors of spelling,
punctuation, capitalization and paragraphing, handwriting is illegible and in short it is not
enough to evaluate



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2.2 SCHEME AND PROCEDURAL APPROACH
OF WRITING AN ABSTRACT

If students cannot write properly, they will never be able to express their ideas in
clear, persuasive and effective ways.

Some common grammatical errors may be acceptable in conversation but not in
writing.Therefore, check your drafts to catch awkward wording or sentence
structure.

Students have to distinguish between language used in conversation and that used
in writing. Clearly, clarity and simplicity are always preferable to complexity. The
academic tone in writing will be studied, identified and defined. Also, students
have to distinguish between central, essential, main points and ideas and the
most important supporting or peripheral ideas.

How to summarize in writing? Students can summarize an article in 80-100 words.
In this way, it is important to isolate primary, secondary, and tertiary issues. Also,
the right idiom for the type of writing must be learned.

Examine the roles played by sentences, paragraphs, parentheses, footnotes,
chapters, prefaces and conclusions. Students are encouraged to think in terms of
paragraphs. What function is served by particular paragraphs. Do they explain,
inform or persuade?

What is the logic behind footnoting and other conventions of academic writing?

The first time students are given a writing assignment, they have to examine the
issues they need to consider, e.g. study the essentials of good writing that are the
same under all circumstances.

Common mistakes the students make are:
- inconsistency in verb tense
- confusion of singular and plural
- common spelling mistakes, not to rely on computer spell checkers
- eliminate intensifiers as very etc.
- use the right idiom
- the logic of the presentation
- cohesion (povezanost) and coherence (suvislost)

coherent logically connected, consistent; clearly articulated suvisao
cohesive sticking together koji povezuje
coherence suvislost
cohesion povezanost

Reread your first draft
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2.3 SCHEME AND PROCEDURAL APPROACH OF WRITING AN ABSTRACT

When writing an abstract of an engineering text, reduce the volume of the text by
keeping the following levels in mind:

1 Write the title, the topic in block letters;

If small letters are used all the initials of the words are written in capital letters
except the prepositions, conjunctions and articles; the title must be as short as
possible containing primarily the novelty of the information, a new piece of
information, the essence and the main idea of the article content that is
further elaborated in the body of the abstract;


2 Write key words, i.e. the basic engineering concepts;

Set up relations between the concepts so as to convey concise, clear and
precise information.


3 Select only the essential information of the article (cca 100 words);


4 Organize the form of the summary i.e. divide the text into:

a) the introduction, i.e. the relevant essential or core idea
b) the body which supports the basic information of the article
c) the conclusion


5 Coherence and cohesion of the summary must be ensured:

by keeping the order and logic of the article content so that one sentence
must be logically and semantically linked with another sentence; Cohesion
may be realized by reference, by the pronouns this and these, by inter
sentential links known as sentence linkers, by synonymous expressions,
etc.;


6 Engineering concepts must be properly matched by the appropriate
language structures and the type of discourse used, e. g. descriptive,
expository, informative, argumentative, chronological, experiment-
result oriented, etc.

7 There are two types of abstract predominantly used in technical English:
a) the topic oriented abstract, used in the written form, where information
content is reported as given by the article;
b) the author (paper, article) oriented abstract, used in the oral report, in which
the content is reported from the point of view of the author.
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2.4 A LIST OF INTRODUCTORY PHRASES:



This paper deals with and considers discusses..
This paper is concerned with
The concern of the article is ...
The focus is on the following aspects
This paper sets out to examine
The most interesting aspects are
This paper discusses
The object of this article is
The subject of this article is
It is the chief aim of this paper to
The main aim of this article is .
This paper treats the problem ..
This article gives a survey of
The article presents an overview of
This article provides a short account of
The basic principles of text .
The only criterion in this article is .
In this paper it is shown how .
It is argued that there is
This report explains the method
A short description is given of .
A general survey is given of
The following can be singled out .
In this article some basic concepts are given and it is shown how ...
In this paper a new formula, a method for . is derived and described.
The first part of this article offers an exhaustive analysis of
The only criterion elaborated in this text is .
The following can be singled out in this article
From the insight gained into discourse structures a synthesis may be
deduced.




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2.5 Sentence Linkers

1. To show addition:
and, besides, again, additionally, in addition to this, furthermore, moreover, as well as,
also, apart from, except for, possibly, more surprising, another point is that,

2. To show contrast:
although, but, however, nevertheless, despite, yet, otherwise, in spite of, unlike, while,
whereas, whilst, instead, on the other hand, in contrast to, as contrasted to, by way of
contrast, by contrast, as opposed to, on the contrary, fortunately, alternatively,
irrespective of, notwithstanding, regardless of, except, conversely, it is very unlikely,
rather,

3. To show comparison:
like, in like manner, similarly, unlike, in the same way, so, likewise, correspondingly,
in comparison with this, regarding, as regards, with reference to, regarding, concerning,
referring to, in/with relation to, without regard/respect to, regardless of, without
reference to, without referring/relation to,

4. To show emphasis:
in fact, actually, in fact, as a matter of fact, certainly, indeed, above all, clearly, obviously,
really, surely, significantly, rather (tovie, zapravo), more importantly, it is worth
remembering, it is worth pointing out, it is worth noting, naturally, of course, put
otherwise, undoubtedly, interestingly enough,

5. To show concession:
even though, although, though, despite this,

6. To introduce an example:
for example, e.g. (= exampli gratia), in particular, for instance, namely, i.e. (=id est., or
that is), in other words, viz. (= vide licet, that is to say); put another way, rather (bolje
reeno, bolje rei),

7. To introduce reason or result:
as, thus, as a result, therefore, so, hence, due to, consequently, accordingly, since,
because of this, on account of, for this reason, given (the fact), inasmuch as,
in so far as, owing to, then, it follows that, no doubt,

8. To introduce conclusion:
in summary, in conclusion, (taken) as a whole, taken together, finally, briefly, overall,
to sum up, to summarize, on the whole, in short, interestingly, we can conclude,

9. To show sequence:
in the beginning, at first, initially, first(ly), second(ly), subsequently, afterwards,
eventually, next, finally, later on, ultimately, at last, lastly, not suprisingly, then, in time,

10. To show a cause effect:
due to, owing to, because of, on account of, since, as

11. To show condition:
if, unless (if not), provided (providing) that, on condition, whether

12.To show doubt or hypothesis:
possibly, probably, maybe,
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3 Assignments


Write the abstracts of the following texts:

Text A
Fighting Noise with Antinoise

Text B
Keeping In Touch

Text C
Human Factors Engineering



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3 DICTATION - The Science of SOUND

Sound plays a vital part in our lives, but how much do we really know
about it?
We could begin some investigation into the subject, from the mysterious
songs of the humpback whale to the stressful effects of noise pollution
in our cities. We can take a journey through the middle ear and eavedrop
on echo-locating bats; we could examine the way animals and humans
communicate through sound, we could hear a range of singing styles
from around the world, extremes of sound could also be under
investigation from the ultrasonic chatter of rats and mice to the
infrasonic calls of the elephant. There is the healing power of sound and
music on the one hand and its irritation factor on the other.


3.1 The text you have just read has helped you understand a lot more
about sound/noise control. What could you tell about applications of
noise-cancelling headphones?


In short, modern active noise control is achieved through the use of a
computer, which analyzes the waveform of the background aural or non-
aural noise, then generates a polarisation reversed waveform to cancel it
out by destructive interference. This waveform has identical or directly
proportional amplitude to the waveform of the original noise, but its
polarity is reversed. This creates the destructive interference that
reduces the amplitude of the perceived noise.



3.2 Study the following wordlist of the text
Fighting Noise with Antinoise

din a loud, continuous, deafening sound, painful to the ears
noise loud shouting, a sound of any kind, (the noise ofthe rain)
uproar loud, confused sound as of shouting, laughing
clamour loud shouting as in protest
drumming engine noise a loud, reverberating sound and noise made by an engine
ANT. quiet


electronic mufflers any of various devices for silencing, suppressing noises; a larger section with
a baffler or baffles in the exhaust pipe of an internal-combustion engine.
muffle Syn.to deaden, mute, soften, silence, weaken, reduce, suppress the sound
soften reduce, weaken
baffle to hinder, impede, interfere with
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midair any point in space, not in contact with the ground or other surface do
not confuse with middle ear (see also external ear and inner ear)
matte not shiny or glossy; dull
earmuffs cloth or fur coverings worn over the ears to keep them warm in cold
weather
whine whiz, hiss, whistle, whisper
rumble to make a deep, heavy, continuous, rolling sound as thunder
deafen to make deaf
deaf unable to hear, deaf to her pleads
slinky sinuous and graceful in movement
seesaw a plank used by children at play to ride the ends so that when one goes
up, the other comes down; ljuljaka;
mute unable to speak, deaf from infancy, deaf-mute
mute soften or muffle the sound
blast to make a loud, harsh sound
eavesdropping devices device for listening secretly to the private conversation of others;
eavesdropper lit. one who stands on the eavesdrop to listen
muzzle straps fastened over the mouth of an animal to prevent its
biting; anything that prevents free speech or discussion

3.3 An example of abstract scheme:

At the beginning of the article the author gives the fundamental idea, essential relations
between and the . Moreover, fundamentals of are given in order to

Then he shows the close relationship which exists between and . Some data related
to are also offered.

Finally, the necessary steps for are defined in order to .
In the conclusion the author underlines the impact of on


3.4 Abstract of the TEXT A


An example of the abstract (109 words)

This article is concerned with reducing noise level by using
earphones, which generate sound waves 180 out of phase with
the noise that should be blocked. Thus, the noise wave and the
generated waves cancel each other out and no noise is heard. This
phenomenon is known as destructive interference.

The main use of these earphones is to block excessive noise in the
airplane and helicopter cockpits. However, this device is not
perfect, because it cannot block very high-pitched noise.

It is worth mentioning that there are many companies working on
the anti-noise systems, so that the first one to develop a perfect
system will make a fortune.


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TEXT B - Assignment 3.5

Keeping in touch
A product doesn't just disappear into the ether after design; it leaves
tracks to follow in the real world.
By Jean Thilmany, Associate Editor

Write subtitles for each paragraph



TECHNOLOGY THAT HELPS ENGINEERS pass design ideas back and forth and
brainstorm with others involved in a project can be harnessed down the line in a product's
life to provide much-needed information about those early days. Equally important, it can
encourage engineers involved at the beginning of a product during its designto think
about how it will be used during its entire life. It's sort of like making sure that children are
inoculated against diseases they might encounter later in life.
By using technology to forecast and plan for the uses of products such as computers and
automobiles before they're even created, engineers and manufacturers can minimize the
environmental impact the products will have at the end of their useful lives. And the same
technology used in product creation, called product lifecycle management, or PLM,
software, can be reactivated farther down a product's lifefor instance, when the owner of a
Peugeot wants to find out what's causing that billowing smoke from the exhaust.
PLM isn't always thought of as forward-thinking technology because it's used mainly at
the front end of product creation. But it leaves a rich trail of information about original
design and marketing intent that can be called upon later.



Some companies couple PLMwhich allows engineers and manufacturers to exchange
design files and communicate about product developmentwith a mix of other technologies
to forecast a product's life and to come up with more environmentally friendly products.
Companies, such as the French automaker Peugeot, use a blend of technologies, including
PLM, to give them contact with products long after they've been driven off the lot. Peugeot
s technology, from IBM, uses a vehicle's original engineering and bill of materials
information to troubleshoot problems that crop up for owners anywhere down the road.
PLM also comes into play in a method of environmentally friendly product design called
design for the environment. Government agencies and some manufacturers have found
economic value in designing and manufacturing products with parts that can be recycled
after the product is at the end of its service life. Recycled parts might take their place as
material in a new product, rather than be tossed into a landfill, according to the Minnesota
Office of Environmental Assistance.



Ironically, it's the quickly changing technology landscape, in which new software
applications and computer upgrades are introduced at ever-faster rates, that takes a
heavy toll on the environment. It does so by introducing heavy and toxic metals into the
waste stream, according to several studies, which say that the need to design products made
partly of reused material is crucial to America's current technological state. Each computer
or television display contains an average of 4 to 8 pounds of lead. Cathode ray tubes used in
computer monitors and TV sets are hazardous waste, which is banned
from California landfills, according to a March 2001 letter from the California Department
of Toxic Substances Control.
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Computers are discarded fairly rapidly these days, what with constant innovation and greater
affordability. About 315 million computers will have become obsolete between 1997 and
2004, and together they'll contain more than 1.2 billion pounds of lead, according to the
letter.



The Minnesota Office of Environmental Assistance urges manufacturers to harness product
lifecycle management technology to help reduce this technological waste. In design for
environment, PLM is helpful in the very early design stages by cuing engineers as they track
design changes and exchange information to consider the environmental impacts of a
product throughout its lifecycle.
Potential environmental impacts range from the release of toxic chemicals into the waste
stream to consumption of nonrenewable resources and excessive energy use, according to
the Minnesota OEA. So, product lifecycle management might be used to link engineers and
manufacturers while they design and produce a computer made with less lead, or one that
runs on less energy than past models. Used this way, a PLM software application ties
together all stages of design and manufacturing in determining the most environmentally
sound method of production and the most suitable materials, both for the product and for the
environment.
Because mechanical and manufacturing engineers, designers, marketers, and many others
are involved in creating a product, a PLM system helps these people exchange plans and
ideas via the Internet, whatever their location, to brainstorm design and manufacturing.



ASSESSING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
The Minnesota environmental office defines five stages of a product's life. In each stage, the
PLM system can be used to consider the product's environmental impact.
During the design stage, for example, engineers determine the raw materials that will make
up the product. They can choose low-impact materials that can be more readily recycled
than other materials. At manufacture, engineers can find methods of making products that
use less energy than other production methods.
The packaging and distribution stage is the point at which the product can be minimally
packaged and sent on an efficiently planned delivery route.
The Minnesota OEA defines the use and maintenance stage as the time after the customer
buys the product until the customer is ready to dispose of it. Here, technologies tied to the
PLM system, like the one used at Peugeot, come into play.
At the end of its life, the product, of course, is recycled, remanufactured, or sent to a dump
or incinerator. If engineers chose to use easily recyclable products during product creation,
fewer materials wind up in a landfill.



Other nations have already passed laws that stipulate design for environment, such
as Japan's Electric Home Appliance Recycling Law that took effect last year. Under
the law, manufacturers must ensure that their product is recycled when it can't be
used anymore. A take-back scheme has to be in place, too, so the product can be
easily dropped off for recycling.
Since 1991, Germany, the first nation to pass packaging laws, has required
manufacturers to assume the costs of collecting and recycling used packaging.
The French automaker PSA Peugeot Citroen has found a way to incorporate its PLM system
during the use and maintenance stage of its vehicles' lives. At that stage, when a
customer is using the product on a regular basis, it might become easy for the manufacturer
to be out of the loop.
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But Peugeot is using a technology system called Tele-Assistance that ties together a blend of
software and hardware applications, including the PLM system, to remotely diagnose
vehicles that might have been sold years ago. The system, which is hooked up to the car
while it's in the garage for repair, uses the vehicle's original bill of materials and
information about its current operating state to help find and fix problems. In some
particularly hard-to-diagnose cases, the engineer who helped design the vehicle might even
be consulted via the Internet.
"We give the service technician everything that he needs to do a particular repair job," said
Alan Chakra, the director of IBM's Service After Sales Solutions division, which provides
the technology to Peugeot. IBM's PLM team, which makes Enovia software, also helped to
develop the system.



Chakras division makes software that focuses on a product during what he calls its service
lifecycle; that is, during its use by consumers. Such technology helps cut warranty
expenses for manufacturers, reduces labor costs, increases parts and service business after
the warranty expires, and saves time needed to solve repair problems, he said.
"Let's say you have a Peugeot of some kind and you go into the dealership to get it fixed,"
Chakra said. "The technician may not have seen a case like this, so he might try many things
to see if they work."
But using Tele-Assistance, in place at Peugeot since 1999, the technician enters into the
computer vehicle serial number and, like a doctor, also enters a list of symptoms (black
smoke billows from the exhaust pipe when the car is moving, for example). The system tells
him of any part recalls that might be affecting the vehicle.



If a recalled part isn't the problem, the technician then plugs what's called a diagnostic
connector under the dashboard and plugs the other end into a computer attached to the Tele-
Assistance server. The connector loads all the codes from the vehicle's many minicomputers
into the system. This is like taking an X-ray of the vehicle. All its internal workings are
documented and displayed on a screen viewed by an off-site expert who helps with
diagnosis.
"If a sensor has failed, it says why it failed, what time it failed, and under what load it
failed," Chakra said. "We know everything that's inside this particular vehicle, and we've got
the BOM, so we know how it's supposed to run. We know what software components are in
the control unit. Based on that, the server builds a profile for this particular vehicle."
The system houses information on thousands of other cars of the same make and model as
the one in the garage, Chakra said. It's a veritable database of past problems with similar
cars, attendant information on why those problems cropped up, and how they were
successfully repaired.



"The reason Peugeot launched this technology in the first place is because its vehicles went
from one computer on board, to vehicles with a local area network on board, to what they
call a canbusa controller area network," Chakra said. "In these cars you can get
up to 30 computers connected on a network. One computer operates the security system, one
the dashboard, one the radio, another window, another engine.
"Peugeot needed some kind of software to support this copulation of highly complex
vehicles," he said.
Eight thousand Peugeot automobiles are made every lay, said Jean-Philippe Fournier,
Peugeot's technical director for parts and services. The system has allowed Peugeot
technicians to diagnose and repair 80 percent of its cars within one day, rather than the
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several days it might take without the Tele-Assistance system, he said.

REPAIRING A CAR ONLINE

Let's say a vehicle fails in Sao Paolo," Chakra said. "If the technician can't fix it, he can call
a number and speak to someone who speaks his language."

The expert on the other end of the line is certified by the National Institute for Automotive
Service Excellence. He or she requests the dealership identification number, asks about the
issue at hand, and then consults a computer that showslives via the Internetall the data
coming from the vehicle.
"So the expert is doing diagnostics on the vehicle with the technician on the line with him,"
Chakra said. The expert has easy access to these 10,000 past cases in the system. He can tell
the technician, 'Okay, we've seen this before. This is what you do.' "
If the diagnostic expert can't fix the problem, the engineers who originally worked on the
vehicle can be consulted. The minute the vehicle is fixed, the system is automatically
updated to include the new solution in its database for future reference.

.

The Tele-Assistance system grew out of similar technology developed at IBM and used for
the computers it makes, Chakra said. IBM servers that use the technology send a message
usually via a pager or cellular phone when one of their parts is about to go bad.
"When you have a server supporting a company that has 10,000 workstations attached to it,
you can't afford to have the server go down," Chakra said. "So the server is attached to a
diagnostic server. Before the server starts having problems, it can say, 'I'm getting ready to
fail. I have a component ready to fail.'
"IBM ships the necessary part to the customer before you have a failure. That's the whole
idea that spawned the automaker idea," he added.

.....................................................................................................................................

The remote monitoring component is the next step in the Tele-Assistance system, Chakra
added. IBM officials next envision a wireless link that connects the vehicle, via a cellular
telephone, to a customer support center. Computers at the center would monitor the
vehicle to see if a part is about to break or a sensor is ready to fail.
If something is about to go wrong, the driver would get a phone call that says, for example,
the engine is about ready to overheat or the clutch is starting to slip. Taking advantage of
global positioning technology, the system could also tell the driver where the nearest
Peugeot service center is and exactly how to get there.
Sales and marketing people are currently using the Tele-Assistance system at Peugeot to
profile vehicles. They can figure out how long, on average, a model will run until it needs
servicing. Chakra expects the system to be used for more marketing efforts in the future.
PLM technology, often thought of as a tool that's useful in the first stages of product design
and manufacture, is now being used to project a product's life, to follow a product even after
it's sold, and to ensure an environmentally sound product in the first place.

September 2002, Mechanical Engineering
Vocabulary List

brainstorm a sudden inspiration, idea, or plan
harness to control so as to use the power of (to harness ones energy)
inoculated to introduce ideas
billowing a large wave,
forecast to plan in advance; foresee
the lot a quantity of material processed or manufactured at the same time
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troubleshot to detect and correct faults
troubleshooter a person who locates and repairs mechanical breakdowns; a person charged
with locating and eliminating the source of trouble in any flow of work
crop up appear or arise unexpectedly
service life life of the vehicle in service
in service in use; functioning: said esp. of an appliance, vehicle, etc.
toss to throw lightly or carelessly
computer upgrades improved computers
on the upgrade improving, making progress
upgrade raise to a higher grades
hazardous waste risky, dangerous, useless, superfluous or discarded material, as garbage
obsolete no longer in general use; of a discarded or outmoded type; out of date
cue to insert and direct engineers to come in a specific place
make up form, compose, constitute
dispose of get rid of
dump heap of rubbish; place where rubbish, etc. may be unloaded and left
incinerator furnace, enclosed fireplace for burning rubbish
wind up come or bring to an end a landfill
landfill the disposal of garbage or rubbish by burring it under a shallow layer of
ground
stipulate put forward, insist upon
veritable real, rightly named
hook up any combination of created parts; a connection, the elements as set up
for operation
bill of material written statement of charges for goods delivered or services rendered
warrantly written or printed guarantee to repair or replace defective goods
expire come to an end
When does your driving license expire?
recall revoking something
attendant information accompanying information
controller area network
spawn produce in great numbers
envision to picture mentally
slip


Translate into Croatian


forward-thinking technology
environmentally friendly
at ever-faster rates ......
It takes a heavy toll on the environment
environmental impact ...
throughout its lifecycle ..........
non-renewable resources
excessive energy use ..
low-impact materials can more readily be recycled than other materials
.......................................
pass the law .........
take effect .....
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the product can be dropped off for recycling.
be tossed into a landfill
wind up in a landfill ............
current operating state
veritable database of past problems
environmentally sound project
service lifecycle

Translate the following sentence into Croatian:

The system, which is hooked up to the car while it's in the garage for repair, uses the vehicle's
original bill of materials and information about its current operating state
to help find and fix problems.

...........

WORD FORMATION

to afford affordability affordable
to sustain sustainability sustainable
to know knowledge knowledgable

Summarizing

Essential idea

...............

The most important supporting information

....................
....................

Conclusion

....
...................................................................................................................................
...............
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TEXT C - Assignment 3.6

HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING
During most of the centuries of mans history, his technological progress was limited, to a
large extent, to the development of improved devices and methods of utilizing his own
manual energ.y, readily available natural sources of energy (for example, the wind in
sailing), and certain animals (for example, oxen and horses). Such progress slow and
faltering as it was may be viewed as embracing two separate but related areas. In
the first place there was the discovery of the technology as such the physical
principle or fact that made possible the development or improvement in question, for
example, the principle of the lever, which was basic to the development of such
devices as clubs, oars, axes and hoes. And in the second place, there was the
adaptation of the technology to better serve his own purposes. The oar, for example,
was adapted to human use in terms of the size and shape of the handle, to fit the
hands and of other physical characteristics (e.g., length, width and balance) that would
make it effective as a device for human use.
The process of developing tools and equipment for human use was essentially one of
evolution. Through the use of a particular device, it was possible to identify its
deficiencies and to modify the device accordingly, so that the next "generation" of the
device would better serve its purpose in actual use. Experience, then, was the primary
basis for improvement and further adaptation.
It was a combination of scientific discoveries and developments that made the
industrial revolution possible. The technological developments that have been
made in the past 1 1/2 centuries have also been accompanied by the adaptation of
tools, devices, equipment, and environments to human use. During this period,
also, the adaptation process was guided primarily by the experiences of people with
the many new types of devices that had been created.
The time during and since World War II probably will be recorded in history as a period
of scientific explosion. The epidemic of scientific breakthroughs has made possible a
wide assortment of technological developments, including entirely new types of
equipment for both military and civilian use. It has been found, often through unhappy
experiences, however, that some of these devices were not designed appropriately for
human use. It was found, for example, that some items of equipment, such as higher-
speed aircraft, radar, and fire-control systems, could not be managed effectively by
their operators, that human errors were excessive, and that many accidents occurred
because of human mistakes which were attributed to design deficiencies. Such
deficiencies probably can be attributed, in part, to the fact that such equipment, being
more elaborate than that which people previously had used, created greater "human factors"
problems than were characteristic of earlier devices. Further, since some equipment was
designed and produced "from scratch", rather than through gradual evolution, there was no
opportunity to benefit from previous experience in the use of earlier models.
The current development of complex man-machine systems such as missiles, space ships,
surveillance systems, and automated production systems creates a similar type of situation.
Such systems must be designed and produced without much opportunity for evolution from
previous generations of somewhat related equipment. The time and cost involved in retrofit
processes frequently preclude major modifications once the basic design has been created
and production has been started. (Retrofitting is the process of modifying models that
already have been created.)
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Such time and cost considerations therefore place a high premium on creating original
designs which, when actually produced, will be satisfactory both from the point of view of
strictly engineering considerations and from the point of view of human use
In connection with the human factors aspects of such systems therefore, it is important that,
in the initial design of systems, human factors considerations be taken fully into account.
The solutions should be based on the availability of pertinent information about human
capabilities and limitations. In the absence of information specifically pertinent to the
problem, one would usually wish to rely upon expert judgments on the part of individuals
who are knowledgeable about the human performance characteristics in question.
The development of a body of information and principles that would be applicable is
primarily dependent upon research.
In a practical design problem, if pertinent information is not available regarding some human
performance characteristic, there are two or three alternatives from which to choose. In the
first place one can pick answers out of thin air; this obviously is a pretty risky business,
although it is, unfortunately, a fairly common practice. In the second place, it may be
possible to carry out some research project to develop the needed information; such
projects can of course range from those of a quick and dirty nature to those of a fairly
broad-scale, even basic-research nature. In the third place, it is possible to solicit the
judgments of experts in the particular area.

Write an Abstract

Key words: ............................................................................................

Essential Idea

..
..
.........

Supporting Information

..
..
.........
....
..
.............

Conclusion

....
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....
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LECTURE 5
Section 1
GEARS



Section 2
PROPELLERS




A chain is no stronger than its weakest link.

He that makes himself a sheep,
will be eaten up by a wolf.

Desperate diseases need desperate cures.

Might makes right.
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Core Text 1

Gears
1 TRANSLATE the following texts into Croatian.

Gears are toothed wheels whose teeth mesh with one another and which serve to transmit
rotary motion or power from one shaft to another. A gear is different from a pulley in that
a gear is a round wheel that has linkages ("teeth" or "cogs") meshing with other gear
teeth, which allows force to be fully transferred without slippage. Depending on their
construction and arrangement, geared devices can transmit forces at different speeds,
torques, or in a different direction, from the power source.
The commonest situation for a gear is to mesh with another gear, but a gear can mesh with
any device having compatible teeth, such as linear moving racks.
The smaller of a gear pair may be termed the pinion and the larger may be called the
gear. The rotation speeds of the shafts are inversely proportional to the numbers of teeth
on their respective gears. These teeth may be internal as well as external.

Gear types - External vs. internal gears

Unlike most gears, an internal gear does not cause reversal direction.
An external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone.
Conversely, an internal gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder
or cone. When two meshing gears both have external teeth, then their shafts rotate in
opposite directions; when one gear has external and the other has internal teeth, the shafts
rotate in the same direction. This latter arrangement may be employed in cases where the
axes of the respective shafts are very close together. A third arrangement rack and pinion
gearing comprises a pinion with a straight toothed bar (the rack) and it can be used to
convert rotary motion into longitudinal motion or vice versa. See Fig 1.















Fig 1 Types of gear arrangement:
a - gears with external teeth, b -gears with internal teeth, c - rack and pinion





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The interlocking of the teeth in a pair of meshing gears means that their circumferences
necessarily move at the same rate of linear motion (eg. metres per second, or feet per
minute).
Since rotational speed (eg. measured in revolutions per second, revolutions per minute, or
radians* per second) is proportional to a circumferential wheel speed divided by its
radius, we see that the larger the radius of a gear, the slower its rotational speed will be,
when meshed with a gear of the given size and speed.
The same conclusion can also be reached by a different analytical process: counting teeth.

*N.B. Radians


We can measure
Angles in
Radians.
1 Radian is about
57.2958 degrees.
Fig 2 Radian
Radian is the angle made by taking the radius and wrapping it along the edge of a circle.
Since the teeth of two meshing gears are locked in one to one correspondence, when all of
the teeth of the smaller gear have passed the point where the gears meet i.e., when the
smaller gear has made one revolution, not all of the teeth of the larger gear will have
passed that point, the larger gear will have made less than one revolution. The smaller the
gear, the more revolutions it makes in a given period of time; it turns faster. The speed
ratio is simply the reciprocal ratio of the numbers of teeth on these two gears.
(Speed A * Number of teeth A) = (Speed B * Number of teeth B). This ratio is known as
the gear ratio.
The torque ratio can be determined by considering the force that a tooth of one gear
exerts on a tooth of the other gear.
Consider two teeth in contact at a point on the line joining the shaft axes of two gears. In
general, the force will have both a radial and a circumferential component. The radial
component can be ignored: it merely causes a sideway push on the shaft and does not
contribute to turning. The circumferential component causes turning. The torque is equal to
the circumferential component of the force times radius. Thus we see that the larger gear
undergoes the greater torque; the smaller gear the less. The torque ratio is equal to the ratio
of the radii. This is exactly the inverse of the case with the velocity ratio. Higher torque
implies lower velocity and vice versa. The fact that the torque ratio is the inverse of the
velocity ratio could also be inferred from the law of the conservation of energy. Since a
gear is not a proper circle but a roughened circle, it does not have a radius.
However, in a pair of meshing gears, each may be considered to have an effective radius,
called the pitch radius, the pitch radii being such that smooth wheels of those radii would
produce the same velocity ratio that the gears actually produce. The pitch radius can be
considered as an "average" radius of the gear, somewhere between the outside radius of the
gear and the radius at the base of the teeth. Thus, The pitch radius is a radius touching the

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teeth of a gear-wheel at points where they mesh with the teeth of another gear wheel.
When selecting your gears, the three most important numbers you must know about gear
pitch are pitch, pitch diameter, and number of teeth.

Fig 3 Gears Mesh at the Pitch Circle

The pitch diameter is as shown. To calculate the pitch, simply use this equation:
Pitch = # teeth / pitch circle diameter (in inches)
For example, a gear with 72 teeth and a 1.5" pitch diameter is 48 Pitch. Gears that mesh
must both have the same pitch and pressure angle (usually 20 degrees).


2 Revision. Pair Work. Answer the following questions:

1. Describe gears. Describe the pinion and the gear (i.e., driving and driven gear). Are
rotation speeds direct or inversely proportional to the number of theeth?
2. Explain external and internal gears with reference to the rotation of their shafts.
Describe the arrangement of the rack and pinion gearing. See Fig 1
3. Give the equation for the rotational speed and explain the speed ratio known as the
gear ratio. What is a gear ratio? In other words, we say that the larger the radius of a
gear, . .
Also, the smaller the gear, .. .
4. Explain a radial and a circumferential component of gears. What is the torque ratio?
Give its equation. Explain the fact that the torque ratio can be inferred from the Law of
the Conservation of Energy. Complete the following:
Thus we see that the larger gear undergoes the torque; the smaller
gear the . Higher torque implies
velocity and vice versa. The torque ratio is .. of the velocity
ratio.
5. Explain the gear pitch.

3 TRANSLATE INTO CROATIAN

The smaller the gear, the more revolutions it makes in a given period of time, i.e., it
turns faster.

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Spur gears may be used to connect parallel shafts. They are the simplest and the
commonest type, with teeth that are parallel to the axis of rotation and cause the parallel
shafts to rotate in opposite directions, i.e. these gears can only mesh correctly if they are
fitted to parallel axes.

Spur gears on non-parallel shafts can mesh, but only point contact will be achieved, not
line contact across the full width of the tooth; also the length of the path of contact may
be too short. See Fig 4.



Fig 4 Types of gears with respect to the form of teeth:
a spur gears, b - helical gears, c - double helical gears

Helical gears may also be used and differ from spur gears in the way that the teeth are
formed. Helical gears have their teeth inclined in relation to the axis. They ensure a
smoother and quieter action with a better load capacity.
They have, however, the disadvantage that the teeth set up a side pressure which causes
thrust on the bearings. To overcome this lateral thrust, double helical or herringbone gears
may be used.

Skew shafts may be connected using spiral gears. Helical gears offer an advantage of
refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of
rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth
shape to be a segment of a helix. The angled teeth engage more gradually than do spur gear
teeth. This causes helical gears to run more smoothly and quietly than spur gears. Helical
gears also offer the possibility of using non-parallel shafts.

A pair of helical gears can be meshed in two ways: with shafts oriented at either the sum or
the difference of the helix angles of the gears. These configurations are referred to as
parallel or crossed, respectively. Because of the small area of contact, crossed helical
gears can only be used with light loads.


4 Jot down the differences between spur and helical gears

............
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Bevel gears are employed in cases where the shafts form an angle with each other. When
the angle is a right angle, the gear is termed a miter gear. Miter is the surface forming the
beveled end or edge of a piece where a miter joint is made. Miter gears are cut with a
generated tooth form that has a localized lengthwise tooth bearing. They are offered in
various modules, number of teeth, speed ratio, materials and designs. Miter gears are made
of steel, brass, bronze, aluminium, nylon and duracon. To obtain more efficient meshing,
bevel gears may be provided with spiral teeth instead of straight teeth and are then known
as spiral bevel gears. In the case where shafts cross each other at a greater distance a part
then crossed axis helical gears may be used. See Fig 5.













Fig 5 Gearing of non-parallel shafts:
a - bevel gearing, b worm gearing


Worm gear is often used when large forces have to be transmitted. It is a gear that
resembles a screw, because it is a helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat
large (i.e. somewhat close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial
direction. One of the gears is called the worm and is usually meshed with an ordinary
looking, disk-shaped gear, which is called the "wheel", the worm wheel (or more simply
the gear). Worm gears can be used to connect skew shafts and shafts at right angles. The
prime feature of a worm-and-gear set is that it allows the attainment of a high gear ratio
with few parts, in a small space. In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the
gear.


5 Jot down the differences between bevel and worm gears.

..............
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Helical and Worm Hand, ANSI/AGMA 1012-G05


6 AN AUTO - DICTATION

Cover up the text What is a Rack and Pinion? you have just listened to or
read and write down what you have heard or read. Then check your
listening or reading comprehension.

What is a rack and pinion?

A moving rack is a moving toothed bar into which a pinion,
worm gear, etc. meshes for receiving or transporting motion.
A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector
gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature.
Torque can be converted to the linear force by meshing a rack
with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line.
Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation
of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie
rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth
shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius),
and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that. The rack
and pinion gear type is employed in a rack railway.

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7 Study a speed-reducing system
Give reasons for the fact that the speed-reducing system is
introduced between the engine and the road wheels.
What do we call the device that permits one of the two
driving wheels to be driven around at a greater angular
speed than the other?
An internal-combustion engine cannot develop power unless the crankshaft can rotate at a
relatively high number of revolutions as the torque is lowest when the angular velocity is at
its minimum. It is, therefore, necessary to introduce a speed-reducing system between the
engine and the road wheels in order to permit the number of revolutions of the crankshaft to
be maintained when the vehicle is climbing a hill or carrying a heavy load.
The common practice is to introduce three or four sets of different sizes of toothed wheels,
any pair of which can be put into engagement of a single lever. The lowest of these gear
ratios, i.e., the one which allows the crankshaft to make the greatest number of revolutions
to one revolution of the road wheels, is required for starting purposes, and the highest gear
ratio, i.e., the one which allows road wheels to make the greatest number of revolutions in
relation to those of the crankshaft, is employed for high-speed travelling on the road. From
the last change-speed shaft, the power must be transmitted to the road wheels through a
differential gear and trough one or other of the types of final drive.
speed reducing system reduktor
toothed wheel zupanik
starting torque okretni moment pri pokretanju
crankshaft radilica, koljenasta osovina, vratilo
gear change lever ruica mjenjaa
change-speed gears mjenja, mjenjaka kutija
differential gear diferencijal
final drive krajnji pogon
put into engagement zahvatiti zupanike


VOCABULARY ENGLISH ENGLISH

to mesh interlock
shaft bar or rod joining parts of a machine or
transmitting power
inversely proportional concerning the relationship of two quantities
one of which increases proportionally as the other
decreases
vice versa with the conditions reversed, the other way round
inversely proportional the relationship of two quantities one of which
increases proportionately as the other decreases
smooth having a surface like that of glass, not roug
thrust a pushing force or pressure exerted by a thing or
a part against a contiguous one. (similar to tension
but acts in the opposite direction)
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bearing device that supports moving parts and reduces friction
to overcome to negate, surmount, get the better of
lateral of or from the side
herringbone shaped like the bone in a herring (a sort of fish)



spiral a continuous curve winding round a central point
skew twisted or turned to one side
circumferential lying within the circumference


8 MATCH THE WORDS WITH THEIR SYNONYMOUS EXPRESSIONS:

a) engage, interlock 1 continuous
b) completely different 2 mesh
c) set-up a side pressure 3 opposite
d) consist of 4 inclining
e) most usually found 5 ensure
f) sloping 6 lateral
g) side pressure 7 a right angle
i) ninety degree angle 8 comprise
j) uninterrupted 9 the most common
k) the other way round 10 skew
l) turned to one side 11 reversed conditions
m) pushing force 12 winding line around
the screw or nut
n) thread 13 thrust


9 DEFINITIONS

Gear ratio
1.the ratio of the rotational speeds of the first and final gears in a train of
gears or any two meshing gears.
2. the ratio of the diameters of the pitch surfaces of any two meshing gears
or of the numbers of their teeth.
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The pitch radius is a radius touching the teeth of a gear-wheel at points where
they mesh with the teeth of another gear wheel.

The circumference is the outside edge of an area of any size or shape; it is the
line enclosing a circular space.

The miter joint is a joint formed by fitting together two pieces, bevelled to a
specified angle (usually 45C) to form a corner (usually a right angle).

Rack and pinion mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the
rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod.

The tie rod is a rod connecting a front wheel of an automotive vehicle to the
steering mechanism. (letva volana)


10 Write definitions for the following expressions:

Herringbone gear

A moving rack

Lateral

Skew

A left-hand helical gear

Bearing

Thrust


11 True or false?

Read the following passage:

Screw gearing or worm gearing is used to transmit power between shafts with
perpendicular, non-intersecting axes. The worm wheel is essentially a helical gear with a
face curved to fit a portion of the worm perihery. The tooth form and shape are obtained
by cutting the wheel with a special form cutter known as a hob which is essentially a
replica of the worm, furnished with longitudinal flutes to provide cutting edges.

1. Power can be transmitted between two shafts with perpendicular, non-intersecting
axes by worm gearing.
2. A helical gear is essentially a portion of a worm wheel.
3. A hob is used for cutting the form and shape of a worm wheel.
4. The flutes on a hob are a replica of those on the worm.

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12 VOCABULARY LIST

ENGLISH CROATIAN

contiguous susjedan, koji se dotie
pulley koloturnik
pinion kota zupanika, nazubljeno kolo
the pinion and the gear pogonski i pogonjen zupanik
interlock zahvaati jedno u drugo
torque zakretni moment
inversely proportional to obrnuto proporcionalan prema
skew kos, nakriv, asimetrian
mite pravokutni spoj
miter gear zupanik pod pravim kutem
idle gear prijenosni zupanik
cog zubac zupanika (AE ka:g)
slippage proklizavanje
compatible uskladiv, kompatibilan
bevel gear konini, stoasti, kupasti zupanik
helical gear zupanik sa zavojnim zupcima, helikoidni zupanik
helix zavoj, zavojnica, spirala, spiralna linija
angling iskoenje
herringbone gear zupanik koji izgleda kao riblja kost
reverse gear zupanik za hod unazad
spur gear cilindrini zupanik pravih zubaca
spiral gear zupanik sa zavojnim zupcima
spiral bevel gear konini zupanik sa krivim zupcima
worm gear puni zupanik, puni pogon
gear box prijenosna kutija zupanika
gear box casing kuite prijenosnika
gear chain lanani prijenosnik
gear tooth zub zuanika
gear toothed rack ozubljena letva, zupasta letva
gear wheel zupanik
gearing zupanici, sustav zupanika
gear train niz zupanika
gear control ruica mjenjaa (kod automobila)
to shift gear mijenjati brzinu
rack nazupana tranica
mesh zahvaati (zupci zupanika)
meshed gears zupanici u zahvatu
meshing of gear teeth zahvatanje zubaca zupanika
thread navoj, narez
can be inferred from moe se zakljuiti, izvesti zakljuak
respectively odnosno
to pay 100 and 50 dollars respectively. Platiti 100 odnosno 50 dolara.
(jedan 100 a drugi 50 dolara)
the attainment of postignue
recede gubiti se iz vida
counterclockwise obratno od smjera kazaljke na satu
the gear ratio omjer prijenosa
the torque ratio omjer zakretnog momenta
pitch gear korak zavrtanja
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circumference obujam, obodnica
circumferential wheel speed obodna brzina zupanika
c circumferential and radial component obodna i radijalna komponenta
axial osovinski
lateral thrust lateralni odriv
drive, drove, driven pogoniti
hob puasti gloda
flute uzduni lijeb, udubina

13 PUT THE VERBS INTO THE CORRECT PARTICIPLE FORM.

1. When two (mesh) .. gears have external teeth, then their shafts
rotate in opposite directions.
2. (Cross) axis helical gears have many functions.
3. Lubrication must be repeated at (give) . times.
4. Two external helical gears (operate) on parallel axes must be of
opposite hand.
5. Miter is the surface (form) the bevelled end or edge of a
piece where a miter joint is made.
6. An external gear is one with the teeth (form) on the outer surface
of a cylinder or cone.
7. A gear can mesh with any device (have) compatible teeth.
8. Helical gears have their teeth (incline) in relation to the axis.


14 TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH (auto-corrective exercise)
Konstruktor je vrlo esto suoen s problemom prenoenja snage s jedne osovine na
drugu odravajui odreeni omjer brzina rotacije osovina. U tu svrhu su se razvili
razliiti tipovi sustava zupanika koji rade tiho i sa malim gubicima trenja. Gladak rad
bez vibracija osiguran izborom pravog geometrijskog oblika konture zubiju. Oblici
kao i dimenzije zupanika su standardizirane. U tu svrhu postoje razliite vrste
zupanika kao to su: elni zupanici, elni zupanici s kosim zupcima, zupanici sa
spiralnim zupcima, konini zupanici s ravnim zupcima, konini zupanici s kosim
zupcima itd.*

(*be confronted with the problem of; transferring power; maintaining a definite
ratio between; spur gears, helical gears, spiral gears, straight bevel gears, spiral
bevel gears )






CORRECT YOUR TRANSLATION

The designer is frequently confronted with the problem of transferring power from one shaft to another
while maintaining a definite ratio between the velocities of rotation of the shafts. Various types of
gearing have been developed for this purpose which will operate quietly and with low friction losses.
Smooth and vibrationless action is secured by giving the proper geometric shape to the outline of the
teeth. The proportions of the gear tooth, as well as the size of the teeth, have been standardized. For this
purpose there are various types of gearing as: spur gears, helical gears, spiral gears, straight bevel gears,
and spiral bevel gears.
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Core Text 2

PROPELLERS


2.1 Read and translate the vocabulary in the boldface into Croatian

Propellers are revolving shafts with a central hub and radiating blades placed so that each
forms part of a helical (spiral) surface. By its rotation in water, a propeller causes a ship to
move by the backward thrust of water. A propellers thrust is proportional to the product
of the mass of water that is acting on and the accelerating rate. For the most efficient
propulsion, the mass should be large and the acceleration small. There are several types of
propellers. Mostly four-bladed propellers were in use for a long time. However, five-
bladed or six-bladed propellers are used in modern ships. Propellers are now generally
made of manganese bronze to make them stronger and to obtain a better surface. Zinc
plates must be fitted to the ships hull in their vicinity to prevent galvanic action by the
manganese bronze upon the steel of the hull.
Some propellers are supported by the propeller struts, which usually have an oval section
and are placed in the path of the streamlines to reduce resistance to their passage through
the water.
Propeller manufacturers have undertaken deep studies into the theoretical requirements for
the propulsion of high-speed vessels and, resulting from a research programme, have
succeeded in developing a propulsion system with a very high overall efficiency. The
system is based upon controllable pitch propellers (CPP), using a simple actuating
system, and includes the hull design and low drag in daily use on high speed monohulls,
catamarans and trimarans. Although the idea of the CPP has been around almost as long as
the screw propeller itself, it wasnt until the 1930s that the CPP started to become
commercially viable. Now CPPs are being used in a wide range of vessels, including
cargo carriers, tankers, passenger ships, icebreakers, offshore vessels, tugs, fishboats and
Navy ships. The conventional, fixed pitch, propeller is in no danger of becoming obsolete,
but for a number of vessel designs the CPP offers the promise of improved performance,
economy, safety, easier automation, availability and ship maintainability.
Controllable pitch propeller blades employ the latest technology to achieve the maximum
efficiency. Losses incurred by tip whirl have been considerably reduced.
The trial results showed an increase in speed from 36 knots to 38 knots. A reduction in
vibration and noise was also apparent. By using controllable pitch propellers for all
manoeuvring operations it is only necessary to fit one train of gears within the gearbox.
Gears are available in V, H, A or U drive form. The latest design is the VD 250 vee-drive
gear which has an angle of 10 between the input and output shafts.
To further reduce vibration and inboard ship noise, Servogear has designed a flexible
mounting for use with the gears. Manoeuvring is conducted by alterations of the propeller
pitch only. This reduces the frequency of failures, engine wear and maintenance costs,
particularly in respect of maneuvering clutches. The speed of the vessel is instantly
controlled at any point between zero and maximum ahead or astern. This is a distinct
advantage over fixed pitch propeller systems.

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2.2 Find in the above text translations for the following noun phrases and
compounds:

niska zatega
ukupna propulzivna uinkovitost
reduktori s jednim stupnjem .
skrokovi propelerskog vijka
krajevi propelerskog vijka
u brazdi (toku) strujnih linija
najgornji dio lopatice
ulazna i izlazna vratila
planetni reduktori
pozitivni potisak prema naprijed .
temeljite pokusne plovidbe .
lopatica turbine ..
lopatice brodskog vijka .
optimalna vrna zranost brodskog vijka .
popreni brodski vijak
kormilarski ureaj


2.3 Write a short paragraph comparing controllable pitch proplellers (CPP)
with fixed pitch propeller systems.


..
..
.
.
.
..
.
..



2.4 Definition of skew angle


The maximum skew angle of a propeller
blade is defined as the angle, in projected
view of the blade, between a line drawn
through the blade tip and the shaft
centreline and a second line through the
shaft centreline which acts as a tangent
to the locus of the mid-points of the
helical blade sections (see Fig. 1 Skew angle).

Fig 1 Skew angle

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LECTURE 6
GRAMMAR FILE I

Continuous Aspects

Perfect Aspects

Passive Aspects


Can you match these proverbs with their meanings?
1. Forewarned is forearmed.
2. Where there is a will there is a way.
3. As you sow so you must reap.
4. Its always darkest before the dawn.
5. Help yourself and God will help you.
6. Every cloud has a silver lining.
7. To err is human.
8. Many hands make light work..
9. He is all fingers and thumbs.
10. Necessity is the mother of invention.

a. Knowledge of possible dangers and problems allows one to prepare for them.
b. We all make mistakes sometimes.
c. If you want to make a new beginning, youll have to put up with some difficulties.
d. A person with determination will find a way of doing something.
e. There is always a comforting or more hopeful side to a sad or difficult situation.
f. Every action has its reaction.
g. Your will is everything that matters.
h. Togetherness makes life easier and a task is soon completed if many people help.
i. He is very clumsy.
j. Circumstances and need force us to find a way of getting something.

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Core Study

1 CONTINUOUS ASPECT



2. I am studying English right now.


3. I was studying English when you called.
while you were reading.
at seven o'clock last night.
for a long time.


4. I have been studying English since September.
recently.
for a long time when he came toAmerica.


5. I had been studying English since September when he dropped the course.


6. I will be studying English at this time next year.


7. I will have been studying English for ten years by this time next year.


The Continous aspect - active expresses:
1. activity in progress
2. temporary activity
3. possibly incomplete activity
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2 Perfect Aspect is used when
the exact time of the verb action is not important
the action is completed BEFORE another time

BEFORE PRESENT
(some time before present)
Have you ever been to America?

BEFORE PAST
(some time before I arrived)
When I arrived, he had already left.

BEFORE FUTURE
(some time before tonight)
I'll have finished the report by tonight.

Study the following perfect aspects:
I haven't finished this boring book yet;
I've read only 22 pages so far.

By the end of last year I had read only 10 pages,
and by next year I will have read two more.

Study Present Perfect Simple and Continuous, Units 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14;
Past Perfect Simple and Continuous, Units 15 and 16;
Future Perfect Simple and Continuous, Unit 24 from English Grammar in Use by Raymond
Murphy
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3 Passive aspect

1 [Subject or thing receiving action] +
2 [the verb to be in the required tense] +
3 [Past participle of the required verb] +
4 [by] + [thing doing action]


Active Form

Petra washed the dishes.
thing doing action verb object receiving action

Passive Form

1The dishes 2were 3 washed 4 by Petra.

1 Subject receiving action 2+3 passive verb 4 agent - doing action



ACTIVE PASSIVE

They often do it. It is often done.
They are doing it now It is being done now.
They did it yesterday. It was done yesterday.
They were doing it last week. It was being done last week.
They have already done it. It has already been done.
They had done it earlier. It had been done earlier.
They will soon do it. It will soon be done.
They will soon have done it. It will soon have been done.
They have to do it at once. It has to be done at once.
They may not have done it. It may not have been done.


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LECTURE 7

REVISION
GRAMMAR FILE I
EXERCISES


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I. GIVE THE CORRECT FORM OF ALL THE VERBS IN BRACKETS

1.1 Breakfast or Lunch?
It was Sunday. I never . (get up) early on Sundays. I sometimes (stay)
in bed until lunch time. Last Sunday I (get up) very late. I .. (look
out) of the window. It (be) dark outside. What a day! I thought.
It . . (rain) again. Just then, the telephone (ring). It
. (be) my sister Mary. I . . (just arrive) by bus,
She said. I ..(come) to see you.
But I . . .. (still have) breakfast, I said.
What . . (you do?) she asked.
I .. . breakfast, I repeated.
Dear me, she said. . (you always get up?) so late? It's one
o'clock.!


1.2 An Exciting Trip
I . .. . (just receive) a letter from my brother, Paul. He is in China.
He .. . (be) there for two months. Paul is an engineer. He .. ..
(work) for a big firm and he .. . . (already visit) a great number of
different places in China. He .. (just go) to Peking. My brother ..
................. (never be abroad) before, so he
(find) this trip very exciting.


1.3 Too Late
The plane was late and detectives . (wait) at the airport all morning. They
.. (expect) a valuable parcel of diamonds from South Africa.
A few hours earlier someone .. . (tell) the police that thieves . ..
(try ) to steal the diamonds. When the plane .. (arrive), some of the detectives ..
(wait) inside the main building while others . .. (wait) on the
airfield. Two men (take) the parcel off the plane and .... (carry) it into the
Customs House. While two detectives (keep) guard at the door, two others
.................... (open) the parcel. To their surprise, the precious parcel . (be) full of
stones and sand!


II. CORRECT MISTAKES IN EACH SENTENCE

Sold Out
The play may have begun at any moment, I said
It may already begin Mary answered.
I hurryed to the ticket-office. May i have two tickets please? I asked.
Im sorry, we are sold out, the girl said.
What pity! Mary exclaimed.
Just then, a man hurried to ticket-office.
Can I return this two tickets? he asked.
Certain, the girl said.
I am going back to the ticket-office at once.
Could I have those two ticket please? I asked.
Certainly, girl said, but they are for next Wednesday performance. Do you still want it?
I might have them as well*, I said sadly.

*NOTA BENE
I might as well have them = Not really, but I ll have them
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III. Using Grammar Translation Techniques Effectively
Translate into English the following dialogues using the proper present, past and
future tenses
Test 3.1

1 - Jeli se juer loe ponaala u kazalitu?

2 - Moe li sada uti radio?
- Naravno da mogu. Mogu ga uti savreno.

3 - Kome si kupila knjigu? Tomici ili njegovom prijatelju?
- Kupila sam ju naravno njemu.

4 - Ide li uope ikada u kazalite?
- Da, otiao sam na dramu proli tjedan.

5 - Jesi li ve vidio najnoviji film?
- Da, upravo sam ga vidio.

6 - Zato ne narui juhu?
- Jer sam ju ve naruio.

7 - Je li stigao taksi?
- Da, upravo je stigao. Stigao je pred minutu.

8 - Jesi li ikad dobio nagradu?
- Da, dobio sam kolsku nagradu pred mnogo godina.

9 - Kako si ozlijedio svoje stopalo? -
- Ozlijedio sam ga dok sam se penjao.

10 - Gdje si bio kad su se svjetla ugasila?
- Veerao sam kad su se svjetla ugasila.

11 - to e raditi slijedei tjedan u ovo vrijeme?
- Skijat u se na Pohorju.

12 - Zato je bio tako uzrujan?
- Nisam predala obavijest Mariji.

13 - Imam vie odijela od tebe.
- Dobro, ali moja su ljepa od tvojih.

14 - Koju kuu voli vie?
- Vie volim stariju.

15 - On je paljiv voza, zar ne?
- Da, on je najpaljiviji voza kojeg sam ikada sreo.

16 - Kad je roendan tvog oca?
- etvrtog kolovoza.

17 - Petar stie slijedeeg ljeta a ja sam mislio da stie u jesen.

18 - Jesi li vidio Petra?
- itao je u knjinici kad sam ga zadnji puta vidio.

19 - Kada je poelo puhati?
- Poelo je upravo puhati kad sam zavrio sa poslom.

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20 -Koliko dugo se poznajete?
-Poznajemo se od prole godine.
21 - Koliko si puta iao na taj ispit?
- Iao sam tri puta do sada.

22 - Je li ti dugo vremena trebalo da napravi projekt?
- Napravio sam ga za tri sata, nisam nikada prije tako brzo napravio projekt.

23 - On obino odsjeda u hotelu ali danas e odsjesti kod svog prijatelja.

24 - Zar si zaista bacio novine?
- To je bila pogreka. Shvatio sam to im sam ih bacio.

25 - Nikad te nisam vidio da igra ah.
- Ali ja esto igram ah. Pa juer sam ga igrao!

26 - Oni opet bue cestu. Nadam se da sutra nee vie buiti cestu.

27 - Radi li ve dugo svoje vlastito vino?
- Ne, upravo sam ga poeo raditi.

28 - Je li ih sreo na zabavi?
- Ne, vidio ih je prije nego to je otiao na zabavu.

29 - Jesu li polagali ispite?
- Da, jesu. Do sada su ih poloili osam.

30 - Vru si. to si radio?
- Trao sam.

31 - Koliko si projekata nacrtao?
- Kad napravim ovaj projekt biti e ih zajedno tri.

32 - Ja sam mu poslao mail.
- Nisi trebao! Ja sam mu ve poslala jedan.

33 - Je li uo istinu na sastanku?
- Ne, uo ju je prije nego je otiao na sastanak.

34 - Jo nisi popravio Nokia-u?
- Ne brini! Popravit u je do veeras.

35 - Koliko krumpira za olupit!
- Bojim se da je tako. Vjerojatno emo ih lupit cijeli dan.

36 - Ima li jo vijesti od Petra?
- Ne, dao sam ti sve vijesti koje postoje.

37 - Stefan me zove cijelo jutro.
- Ne pretjeruj! Zvao te je samo dva puta.

38 - Zato si vozio tako opasan auto?
- Nikad ga prije nisam vozio, pa nisam znao da je opasan.

39 - Sutra u ruati u kantini.
- Onda emo se vidjeti. I ja u ruati tamo takoer.

40 - Kada e imati vremena poslati estitke?
- Poslati u ih za vrijeme ruka.

41 - Jesi li ikad prije imao slinu nesreu?
- Nikad nisam imao niti jednu nesreu sve dok mi se nije dogodila ova.
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TEST A - AUTO-CORRECTION

MANNER PLACE TIME
1 - Did you behave rudely/badly at the theatre yesterday ? ( T) S/V/O/M/P/T

2 - Can you hear the radio now?
- Of course I can. I can hear it perfectly well.

3 - Who did you buy the book for? Tom or a friend of his? (one of his friends?)
- I bought it for Tom, of course.

4 - Do you ever go to the theatre?
- Yes, I do, I went to a drama last week.

5 - Have you seen the newest film yet ?
-Yes, I have, I have just seen it.

6 - Why don't you order the soup?
- Because I have already ordered it.

7 - Has the taxi arrived yet?
- Yes, it has just arrived. It arrived a minute ago.

8 - Have you ever received a reward?
- Yes, I received a reward many years ago.

9 - How did you hurt your foot?
- I hurt it while I was climbing.

10 - Where were you when the lights went off?
- I was having supper when the lights went off.

11 - What will you be doing at this time next week?
- I shall be skiing on Pohorje.

12 - Why was he so upset?
- I hadn't given Mary the note (or his message). OR ( I hadn't given the note to Mary.)

13 - I have more suits than you have.
- Well, mine are prettier than yours.

14 - Which house do you prefer?
- I prefer the older one.

15 - He is a very careful driver, isn't he?
- Yes, he is the most careful driver I've ever met.

16 - When's your father's birthday?
- It's on August 4th.

17 - Peter's arriving next summer and I thought he was arriving in the autumn.

18 - Have you seen Peter?
- He was reading in the library when I saw him last.

19 - When did it begin to get windy?
- It was just beginning to get windy when I finished work.

20 - How long have you known each other?
- We've known each other since last year.

21 - How many times have you taken the exams?
- I've taken them three times so far.
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22 - Did it take long to design the project? -
- I designed it in three hours, I've never designed a project so quickly before.

23 - He usually stays at a hotel.
- Well, he's staying at (the house of) his friend today.

24 - Did you really throw away the papers?
- It was a mistake. I realized it as soon as (the moment) I had thrown them away

25 - I have never seen you play chess.
- But I often play chess! I was playing it only yesterday!

26 - They' re drilling the road again.
- I hope they won't still be drilling the road tomorrow.

27 - Have you been making your own vine for long?
- No, I've only just started making it.

28 - Did you meet them at the party?
- No, he had seen them before he went to the party.

29 - Have they been taking their exams?
- Yes, they have. They've taken eight of them so far.

30 - You look hot. What've you been doing?
- I've been running.

31 - How many projects have you designed now?
- When I've finished this one I'll have designed three altogether.

32 - I've sent him an e-mail.
- You needn't have done that. (You shouldn't have done that). I'd already sent him one.

33 - Did you hear the truth at the meeting?
- No, he'd heard it before he went to the meeting.

34 - You haven't repaired your Nokia yet?
- Don't worry! I'll have repaired it by midnight.

35 - What a lot of potatoes to peel!
- I'm afraid so. We'll probably be peeling them all day.

36 - Have you any more news of Peter?
- No, I've given you all the news there is.*

37 - Steven's been telephoning me all morning.
- Don't exaggarate! He's only telephoned you twice.

38 - Why did you drive a dangerous car like this?
- I'd never driven a car like this so I didn't know it was dangerous.

39 - I'll be having lunch at the canteen tomorrow.
- We'll be seeing us there. I'll be having lunch there, too.

40 - When will you have time to send the cards?
- I'll send them at lunch- time.

41 - Have you had an accident like this before?
- I'd never had an accident at all
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Test 3.2

Translate into English the following dialogues using the proper present,
past and future tenses


1 - Jesi li juer ula dobar razgovor na radiju?

2 - Gdje je Petar?
- Bit e da jo spava.

3 - Kome si posudila novac? Petru ili njegovoj sestri?
- Posudila sam ga naravno njoj.

4 - to si juer donio Mariji?
- Donio sam joj ruu.

5 - Otiao je u Junu Ameriku. Nikada prije nije bio tamo, zar ne?

6 - Zato ne posjeti taj grad?
- Jer sam ga ve posjetio.

7 - Je li Marija nazvala?
- Da, upravo je nazvala. Nazvala je pred minutu.

8 - Jesi li se ikad penjao na planinu?
- Ne, ali sam se popeo na drvo kad sam bio dijete.

9 - Kako si sreo svoju suprugu?
- Sreli smo se dok smo bili u Rimu.

10 - Gdje si bio kad je dola susjeda?
- Kosio sam travu kad je dola susjeda.

11 - Vi ne elite jesti previe, zar ne?
- Ne brinite! Ne emo jesti puno.

12 - to e raditi slijedee godine u ovo vrijeme?
- Poet u raditi na fakultetu.

13 - Zato je bio tako ljut?
- Nisam mu pripremila ruak.

14 - Imam vie roaka od tebe.
- Dobro, ali moji su bogatiji nego tvoji.

15 - Koju haljinu vie voli?
- Volim vie duu.

16 - On je rano ranilac.
- Da, on se ujutro budi najranije od svih koje sam ikad sreo.

17 - Kad je roendan tvog strica?
- Dvanaestog svibnja.

18 - Oni stiu u subotu uveer a ja sam mislila da stiu u podne.

19 - Vi ste neko slikali portrete, zar ne?
- Da, ali sada slikam pejzae.

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20 - Kada je poela padati kia?
- Poela je padati kia ba kad sam se vratio sa posla.

21 - Koliko dugo studira na ovom fakultetu?
- Studiram ovdje ve dvije godine.

22 - Koliko si puta sanjao taj san?
- Sanjao sam ga tri puta do sada.

23 - Je li ti je trebalo dugo da napravi taj posao?
- Napravio sam ga za tri sata, do sada nisam nikad prije tako brzo napravio posao.

24 - On obino putuje vlakom ali danas e putovati avionom.

25 - Zar si uistinu pustio van pse?
- To je bila greka. Shvatio sam to im sam ih pustio.

26 - Nikad te nisam vidio da nosi make-up.
- Ali ja esto nosim make-up. Pa juer sam nosila make-up.

27 - Ona ga opet eka. Nadam se da ga sutra vie nee ekati.

28 - Koristi li se dugo ovom bankom?
- Ne, upravo sam ju poela koristiti.

29 - Je li izgubio naoale u kazalitu?
- Ne, izgubio ih je prije nego to je otiao u kazalite.

30 - Jesu li posjeivali muzeje?
- Da, jesu. Do sada su ih ve pet posjetili.

31 - Mokar si. to si radio?
- etao sam po kii.

32 - Koliko ste sada napisali knjiga?
- Kad napiem ovu biti e sve zajedno pet knjiga koje sam napisao.

33 - Kupila sam ti novine.
- Nisi trebala. Ja sam ih ve kupio prije.

34 - Jo nisi prevela to pismo?
- Ne brini! Prevest u ga do veeras.

35 - Koliko testova za ispravit!
- Bojim se da je tako. Vjerojatno u ih ispravljati cijeli dan.

36 - Ima li jo informacija o nesrei?
- Ne, dala sam ti sve informacije koje postoje.

37 - Ona vie na mene cijelo jutro.
- Ne pretjeruj! Povikala je na tebe samo dva puta.

38 - Zato razgovara sa tako neuljudnim ljudima.
- Nisam s njima nikad prije razgovarao pa nisam znao da su neotesani.

39 - Sutra u ruati u kantini.
- Onda emo se vidjeti. I ja u ruati tamo takoer.

40 - Kada e imati vremena napraviti vjebe?
- Napravit u vjebe noas.

41 - Jesi li ikad prije koristio slian mobitel?
- Nikad nisam koristio nikakav mobitel sve dok nisam koristio ovaj!
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AUTO-CORRECTION - B TEST
1 - Did you hear a good talk on the radio yesterday? (T) S/V/O/M/P/T

2 - Where's Peter?
- I expect he is still sleeping.

3 - Who did you lend your money to? Peter or his sester?
- I lent it of course to her. (N.B. borrow from but lend, lent, lent to)

4 - What did you bring to Maria yesterday?
- I brought her a rose.

5 - He has gone to South America. He has never been there before, has he?

6 - Why don't you visit this town?
- Because I've already visited it.

7 - Has Maria telephoned?
- Yes, she has telephoned. She telephoned a minute ago.

8 - Have you ever ridden a donky?
- Yes, I rode one last week.

9 - How did you meet your wife?
- I met her while I was staying in Rome.
N.B I met her when I was in Rome.

10 - Where were you when your neighbour came?
- I was mowing the lawn.

11 - You won't eat too much, will you?
- Don't worry! We shan't eat much.

12 - What will you be doing this time next week?
- I'll be starting a job at the university.

13 - Why was he so angry?
- Because I hadn't prepared the lunch for him.

14 - I have more relatives than you have.
- Well, mine are richer than yours.

15 - Which dress do you prefer?
- I prefer the longer one.

16 - He is an early riser.
- Yes, he is the earliest riser I've ever met.

17 - When is the birthrate of your uncle?
- On July 12th.

18 - They're arriving on Saturday evening and I thought they were arriving at midday.

19 - You once painted portraits, didn't you?
- Yes, but I'm painting landscapes now.

20 - When did it begin to rain?
- It was just beginning to rain when I returned from work.

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21 - How long have you been studying at this university?
- I have been studying here for two years

22 - How many times have you dreamed this dream?
- I have dreamed it twice so far.

23 - Did it take you long to finish this job (to do this job)?
- I did it in three hours, I've never done a job so quickly before.

24 - He usually travels by train, but he's travelling by plane today.

25 - Did you really let out the dogs?
- It was a mistake. I realized it as soon as (the moment)I'd let them out.

26 - I have never seen you wear make-up.
- But I often wear make-up. I was wearing it only yesterday

27 - She's waiting for him again.
- I hope she won't still be waiting for him tomorrow.

28 - Have you been using this bank long?
- No, I've only just started using it.

29 - Did he lose his glasses at the theatre?
- No, he had (he'd) lost them before he went to the theatre.

30 - Have they been visiting museums?
- Yes, they have. They have visited five of them so far.

31 - You look wet. What have you been doing?
- I have been walking in the rain.

32 - How many books have you written now?
- When I have written this one I'll have written five books together.

33 - I've bought you the newspapers.
- You needn't have done that. (You shouldn't have done that).
I'd already bought one.

34 - You haven't translated this letter yet?
- Don't worry! I'll have translated it by this evening.

35 - What a lot of tests to correct!
- I'm afraid so. I'll probably be correcting them all day.

36 - Have you any more information on accident?
- No, I've given you all the information there is.*

37 - She has been yelling (shouting) at me all morning.
- Don't exaggerate! She's yelled (shouted) at you only twice.

38 - Why did you speak to such rude people?
- I hadn't spoken to them before, so I didn't know they were rude.

9 - I'll be having lunch at the canteen tomorrow.
- We'll be seeing us then I'll be having lunch there, too.

40 - When will you have time to do your exercises?
- 'll do them tonight.

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41 - Have you had a mobile like this before?
- I'd never had a mobile at all until I had this one.



* N. B.

Have you any more news of John?
No, Ive given you all the news there is.

Have you any more work, mending to give me?
No, Ive given you all the work/ mending there is.

Have you any more proof/ evidence of his guilt?
No, Ive given you all the proof/evidence of his guilt there is.

Have you any more information about the accident?
No, Ive given you all the information there is.

Have you any more washing/ironing to be done?
No, Ive given you all the washing/ironing there is.

All the news that there is = the noun is defined by a relative clause and note the omission of that



IV. Role-play. Read the texts, underline or give the correct form of the
verbs and retell the stories without making mistakes


4.1 Out of the Darkness
Nearly a week passed before the girl was able to explain what had happened/ happened
to her. One afternoon she set out/had set out from the coast in a small boat and was
caught/has been caught in a storm. Towards evening, the boat struck/had struck a rock
and the girl jumped/was jumping into the sea. Then she swam/was swimming to the
shore after having spent/spending the whole night in the water. During that time she had
covered/covered a distance of eight miles. Early next morning, she saw/ has seen a light
ahead. She knew/has known she was near the shore because the light was high up on
the cliffs. On arriving at the shore, the girl struggled/was struggling up the cliff towards
the light she had seen/saw. That was all she remembered. When she woke up/had
woken up a day later, she found herself in hospital.


4.2 The Mediterranean Games
The Mediterranean Games .. (hold) in our country in four
yearstime. As a great many people . (visit) the country, the
government . (build) new hotels, an immense stadium, and
a fine new swimming pool. The Games .. (hold) just outside the
capital. Workers . (complete) the new roads by the end of this
year. By the end of next year, they .. (finish) work on the new
stadium. The fine modern buildings . (design) by our architects.
Everybody . (watch) anxiously as the new buildings go
up. We are all very excited and . (look) forward to the
Games because they (never hold) before in this
country.

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4.3 Food and Talk
Last week at a dinner-party, the hostess asked me to sit next to Mrs Rumbold, a large,
unsmiling lady in a tight black dress. She did not even look up when I took my seat beside
her. Her eyes were fixed on her plate and in a short time, she was
busy eating. I tried to make conversation.
A new play .. (come) to the Cinemastar soon, I said
. (you see?) it?
No, she answered.
.. (you spend ?) your holidays abroad this
year? I asked.
No, she answered.
.. (you stay?) in Croatia? I asked.
No, she answered.
In despair, I asked her whether she was enjoying her dinner.
Young man, she answered, if you .. (eat) more and (talk) less,
we would both enjoy our dinner!


V. USE PASSIVE ASPECT CORRECTLY

5.1 But Not Murder
I (test) for a driving license for the third time. I
(ask) to drive in heavy traffic and had done so successfully. After
.. (have/instruct) to drive out of town, I began to acquire
confidence. Sure that I had passed, I was almost beginning to enjoy my test. The examiner
(must/please) with my performance, for he smiled and said, !Just one more thing, Mr
Petrovich. Let us suppose that a child suddenly crosses the road in front of you. As soon
as I tap on the window, I want the car to .... (stop) immediately.
I continued driving and after some time, the examiner tapped loudly. Though the sound
.... (could/hear) clearly, it took me a long time to react. I
suddenly pressed the brake hard and we both ......... .. (throw)
forward.


VI. USE ARTICLES CORRECTLY
6.1 Journey to the Centre of the Earth

One hundred and thirty years ago, Jules Verne sent ..... characters in his famous novel on
..... epic journey down ..... tunnels, through ..... passages and across ..... vast subterranean
sea towards ..... Earths core. Their adventures and discoveries were as vivid as their
authors imagination.
Such ..... science fiction is now ..... science fact, but ..... todays scientists use .....
instruments to probe ..... depths of ..... planet. We can set out on ..... new Journey to .....
Centre of ..... Earth, but beginning this time from ..... point in ..... space.
With ..... rockets and ..... radar we can probe ..... boundaries of ..... terrestrial influence:
where ..... Earths magnetic field begins to deflect ..... wind of ..... particles from ..... sun;
where ..... atmosphere begins; where ..... air is ionised to relay our radio programmes over
..... horizon; and where ..... rarified ozone protects us from ..... ultraviolet radiation.
Descending through ..... clouds we encounter first not ..... bedrock (i.e., the main stretch of
solid rock in the ground supporting all the soil above it) but ..... fragile veil of ..... life across
its surface, and ..... mysterious depths of ..... oceans. Only then do we go underground, to
..... remains of ..... dinosaurs, ..... roots of ..... volcanoes, ..... seats of ..... earthquakes and
..... cores white heat.
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LECTURE 8
PRELIM EXAM 1
(25 points)

Early to bed, early to rise,
makes you healthy, wealthy and wise.

The early bird catches the worm.

Dont put off for tomorrow what you can do today.

A stich in time saves nine.

Make hay while the sun shines.
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I. Grammar Revision (20 points)

1. Translate into English,
2. Translate into Croatian,
3. Fill in the proper tense,
4. Fill in the proper articles,
5. Write plural forms of nouns
6. Write modal forms.

Tenses Revision:
Present Simple and Present Continous, Past
Simple and Past Continous, Present Perfet
Simple and Continous, Past Perfect Simple
and Continous,
Nouns, Articles and Modals

II. Write an abstract (5 points)

e.g. REPAI RS TO THE TURBI NE RUNNERS AT ASWAN
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Write an abstract of the following text

REPAIRS TO THE TURBINE RUNNERS AT
ASWAN
The first inspections of the turbine runners at the Aswan High dam power station in
Egypt, after the machines had been in operation for several thousands of hours, revealed
fatigue cracking. This article describes investigations into the phenomenon and a
subsequent repair programme carried out by a French company, which gave an
extended life to the runners.
The Aswan High dam was built between 1960 and 1970. It is a gravity dam, with
a height of 111 m above its foundations and a length of 3830 m at the top. The
stored water extends 500 km upstream, with a possible capacity of 140 x 10
9
m
3
,
that is approximately twice the average yearly flow of the Nile. The
hydroelectric power station built on the right bank, is equipped with 12
Francis turbines, each having an output of 180 MW. The energy thus produced,
transmitted to Cairo by two 500 kV lines, represents an important asset. In 1982,
the power station produced 8.6 TWh that is approximately 37 per cent of
Egypt's total electricity consumption.
The main component of each turbine is the Francis runner, with a weight of 140
t and a diameter of 7 m. The 14 blades of each runner were welded in the workshop
onto the ring and the upper crown (external diameter 7.2 m); all the components are
made of 13 per cent chrome and low carbon cast steel.
The first inspections, carried out after several thousand working hours, led to the
detection of fatigue cracks affecting most of the blades and starting at the trailing edge.
This part is very thin (1015 mm) for a length of approximately 7 m. Consequently,
there is a risk of vibration and the slightest weakness (such as a scratch or a welding
point) can lead to the start of progressive cracking.
Soviet technicians tried to stop the crack phenomenon by increasing the thickness of the
blades at the ring and crown joints, using welded reinforcements of austenitic steel. This
work was, however, carried out in difficult conditions by poorly equipped welders. The
large number of welding defects to be found in these reinforcements, where high residual
stresses existed, represented new sources from which cracking would inevitably
continue to develop. In view of this unsatisfactory result, The Egyptian Electricity
Authority (EEA) referred the problem to international experts whose conclusions
ranged from simply replacing the runners to carrying out repairs without any
guarantee, the latter requiring the runners to be dismantled. At the beginning of 1980,
the problem was referred to Elec-tricite de France (EDF).

Investigations
Non-destructive tests (gamma ray, ultrasonic and dye penetrant made it possible to
locate and measure the extent of the cracking, which in some cases was as long as several
tens of centimetres. Metallurgical examinations showed that they were fatigue cracks
which had developed from numerous flaws in the reinforced areas. Measurements
confirmed the existence of high residual stress in and near the area reinforced with
austenitic steel.
A series of stress measurements by radio-transmission in the area of the joint of the
trailing edge and the upper crown led to the discovery of quite high average stress levels
(250 MPa); in addition to these, there were vibration stresses with a maximum
amplitude from crest to crest of 66 MPa. These values were recorded during operation at
full power, and no particular vibration regime was established.
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The report was sent to EEA by EDF at the end of 1980. It concluded that: it should be
possible to stop the systematic cracking phenomenon by removing the faulty
reinforced areas, repairing the cracks and incorporating a suitable design (thickness and
shape) of the areas subject to the highest stress.
Repair proposal
At the request of EEA, a proposal was put forward by EDF for the repairs to the
runners without dismantling them, a solution which particularly interested the
operating staff. The proposal suggested the following processes:
carrying out non-destructive tests (gamma ray and dye penetrant) to locate the
flaws;
cutting out, by arc-air, a triangular piece on each blade at the connecting area of the
trailing edge and the upper crown;
eliminating the cracks and all defects by arc-air and grinding (in several places
the cracks had progressed into the upper crown, and large cavities were necessary);
filling the cavities by a suitable welding technique, namely:
(1) buttering after pre-heating the base metal to 150C with Molinox austenitic-
ferritic electrodes (20 per cent Cr, 10 per cent Ni, 3 per cent Mo); and
(2) filling with martensitic OK 68-37 electrodes (17 per cent Cr, 4 per cent Ni) with
strict maintenance of a temperature of 100C between the layers, so as to
minimise any risk of cracking in the welds;
installing on each blade a triangular piece of 17/4 cast steel with a shape and
dimensions specially designed to withstand incipient fatigue cracking. The welding
technique used was perfected after workshop and laboratory
trials; and,
after joint grinding, applying a hammer peening treatment to the joining area of the
upper crown and trailing edge. This surface treatment was to improve the resistance
to fatigue and was carried out by equipment specially developed for the purpose.
(From INTERNATIONAL WATER POWER AND DAM CONSTRUCTION by J. P. Baetz and H. Waldura, August 1985)


ABSTRACT
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LECTURE 9

Section 1

Isaac Newton and his

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS


Paraphrase and discuss these citations:

To begin with, we may investigate the forces of
nature, and from these forces demonstrate the other
phenomena.

the whole burden of philosophy seems to
consist in this, from the phenomena of motions to
investigate the forces of nature, and from these forces
to demonstrate the other phenomena.

(Isaac Newton, PRINCIPIA PHILOSOPHIAE, 1686)


Genius is one percent inspiration
and ninty-one percent perspiration .

Great minds think alike.

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Isaac Newton the Scientist His Contributions to Science

Isaac Newton was the greatest scientist who has ever lived.
It is, in fact, generally accepted that he is probably the greatest
scientist who ever will live, since no one, no matter how brilliant,
will again be in such a unique historical position.

His most famous work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica, was published in 1687. His discoveries span all
aspects of the physical world with special emphasis on
experimental and theoretical physics and chemistry and on
applied mathematics. He invented virtually the entire science
of mechanics and most of the science of optics. During this
work, he invented such mathematics as he needed or as
interested him including the discipline known as calculus.

Isaac Newton the Scientist Discoveries and Inventions

Isaac Newton was both an experimental and theoretical scientist.
He personally constructed the models and machinery with which
he carried out extensive experiments in chemistry and physics.
For example, when he invented the reflecting telescope, he first
built a brick oven. In that oven he carried out metallurgical
experiments to formulate the composition of the mirror. He then
made the mirror with which he constructed the telescope.

Of unequaled mental ability during his entire adult life until his
death at age 85, Newton's powers are legendary. It is often told,
for example, how later in his life a problem in mathematical
physics posed by the great mathematician Bernoulli, was
forwarded to Newton from the Royal Society.
The problem, to determine the curve of minimum time for a
heavy particle to move downward between two given points,
had baffled the famous 18th Century mathematicians of Europe
for over six months. Receiving the problem in the afternoon,
Newton solved it before going to bed. Although the solution
was sent to Bernoulli anonymously, he is said to have exclaimed
upon reading it, "tanquam ex ungue leonem as the lion is
known by its claw" in reference to his recognizing Newton's
method.


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Section 1
Core Text 1

THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS
The science of mechanics has as its object the study of the motions of material bodies, and its aim
is to describe the facts concerning these motions in the simplest way. From this description of
observed facts, generalizations can be formulated which permit valid predictions as to the behavior
of other bodies. The motions occurring in nature are the result of interactions between the various
bodies which make up the system under consideration. That portion of the subject of mechanics
which describes the motion of bodies, without reference to the causes of the motion, is called
kinematics, while that portion which studies the relationship between the mutual influences and
the resulting motion is called kinetics. These two subjects are usually combined under the name
dynamics.
The Laws of Motion. The principles of dynamics are founded upon extensive experimental
investigations. The first noteworthy experiments were performed by Galileo (1564-1642). Other
investigators followed Galileo, among them being Newton (1642-1727), who, after carrying out a
large number of experiments, formulated the statements which are now known as Newton's
Laws of Motion:
(1) Every body persists in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, except in
so far as it may be compelled by force to change that state.
(2) The time rate of change of momentum is equal to the force producing it, and the
changes take place in the direction in which the force is acting
F = (mv); or, for constant m, F = ma; m = F/a kg or Ns/m *
(3) To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, or the mutual actions of any two
bodies are always equal oppositely directed.
These statements are interpreted as summing up the results of experimental investigations, and
their validity rests upon the fact that all observations subsequent to Newton's time are in
agreement with them. The study of Dynamics consists of the development of techniques for
interpreting the Laws of Motion, and of an understanding of the physical significance of the
properties of motion.
Force and Mass. The primary objective of the science of mechanics is the study of the interactions
which occur between material bodies. These interactions are of various types and might be, for
example, impacts, electrical or gravitational attractions, mechanical linkages, etc. Experience
shows that during these interactions the velocities of the interacting bodies are changed.
We define force, by Newton's first law, as an action which tends to change the motion
of a body. The fact that forces arise from mutual interactions and thus occur in equal and
opposite pairs forms the empirical content of Newton's third law. The concept of force
is made quantitatively precise by the definition that a unit force produces a unit
acceleration of a specified standard body.

NOTA BENE
* Read as follows: derivative of m times v with respect to t; or for constant m, F is directly
proportinal to m times a; whereas m is inversely proportional to a.



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The mass of a body may now be defined by Newton' s second law as the ratio of
the force acting on the body to the resulting acceleration.
The force exerted upon a body by the earth's gravitational field is called the weight of the
body. The weight of a body is thus variable, depending upon the location of the body
wi t h r espect t o t he eart h. The magni t ude of t he earth's gravitational field is
specified by the acceleration of gravity* (g) which is the acceleration of an otherwise
unrestrained body attracted to the earth.
The gravitational acceleration has been determined experimentally and is given at a
latitude and by the empirical formula:
g = 9,780318 [1 + 0,0053024 sin
2
-0,0000059 sin
2
(2)] m/s
2

*The terms gravity and gravitation are mostly interchangeable in every day use, but a distinction may be
made in scientific usage. Gravitation is a general term describing the phenomenon responsible for
keeping the Earth and other planets in their orbits around the Sun, whereas gravitiy is the theoretical force
responsible for the apparent attraction between a mass and the Earth.

(From APPLIED MECHANICS, DYNAMICS by G. W. Housner, D. E. Hudson D.
Van Nostrand Company, inc., New York 1950)


1 Antonyms


N.B.
with respect to, without regard/respect to
regarding/concerning regardless of
with reference to without reference to
referring to without referring to, consideration of
in/with relation to/related to without relation to
to be in a state of rest, at rest to be in a state of motion, in motion
directly proportional inversely proportional, reciprocal of
uniform motion non-uniform motion
attractions repulsions




2 How Gravity Works

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3 INFORMATION TRANSFER COMPREHENSION CHECK
1.1 Use the information from the text "The General Principles of Dynamics" to
complete the statements.
1. We define force, by Newton's ................................ .as an action which . ..
the motion of a body.
2. The science of mechanics has as its .................... the study of the
..... of material .
3. The principles of dynamics .......................... . . extensive
experimental ......................................................... .
4. Newton, ............................................... . a large number of
experiments, formulated the. which are now known as .
..........................................................................................
5. That portion of the ..................... . of mechanics which describes the . .
of bodies, without reference to the ... of the motion is called
.........................................................
6. The mass of a body may ......................................... by Newton's second law as
the of the force acting on the body to the
.
7. The motions . in nature are the result of ...........................
between the . bodies.
8. The first ............................... .. experiments .............. . by
. .

4 SUMMARIZING
4.1 Write a summary of the text "The General Principles of Dynamics".

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4. 2 In your own words try also to summarize the differences between the three
laws of motion which Newton defined.
The first law states that

The second law states that

The third law states that

4.3 Listening Comprehension
Why do we weigh less at the equator?
When we stand on a scale, we push down on it, and by Newtons third law, the scale
pushes back up on you. The number the scale gives for our weight is actually the force that
the scale is pushing up with.
If we werent accelerating, the net force on us would be zero, and the scale force would
exactly balance the force of gravitiy. But at the equator (or anywhere but at the North or
South Pole), you are in circular motion because Earth is rotating. There must be a net force
toward the center of that circular path. At the equator, the center of our circular path is
Earths center, and the direction toward that center is downward. In order that there be a
downward force on us, the force of gravity must be stronger than the scale force; thus, the
scale reads less than it would be at the pole (or elsewhere on Earth), and we weigh less.
Actually, we do not weigh less; weight is the force gravity exerts on us, and that stays the
same. But our apparent weight changes.

4.4. Cover up the text you have just read or listened to and write down what you
have read or heard. Then check your listening comprehension.

..........................
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5 COHERENCE AND COHESION
5.1 Match the terms below with their definitions:
a) acceleration 1.Anything that tends to change the state of
a body with respect to motion or the relative position
of the molecules composing the body.
b) dynamics
2. The inert material or matter composing a body.

c) force 3. The sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he effect of

forces upon t he form or motion of bodies.

d) kinematics 4. The science dealing with the motions of bodies
and systems without regard to the forces producing the
e) mass motions.

5. The subdi vi si on of mechani cs t hat deal s
f) mechani cs wi t h forces whi ch produce a change i n t he
motion of the body upon which they act.

g) mo me n t u m 6. The moment um of a movi ng body at any
i nst ant i s t he pr oduct of t he mass of t he body and
its velocity at the instant.

7. The rate at which velocity changes.


6 Speed and Velocity
The speed of a train is the distance it is travelling per unit of time. Its speed in a given
direction is called its velocity. If the velocity of the train changes with time, the train is said to
undergo acceleration or deceleration. The speed of an object is the rate of motion of the
object, or the rate at which the object changes its position. It is usually expressed as the distance
d travelled by the object per unit of time t. Speed is a scalar quantityit indicates how fast the
object is travelling, but not the direction in which it is travelling. Vehicles often have a
speedometer to measure their speed. When an object (such as an aircraft) is moving horizontally
as well as vertically, a distinction is made between its "forward speed" and its "climbing speed."

The term velocity on the other hand, is used when one combines the speed of a moving object
with the direction in which it is moving. Thus, velocity is a vector quantity, and speed may be
regarded as the magnitude component of velocity. For example, the phrase "five meters per
second" indicates the speed of the object, whereas the phrase "five meters per second east"
indicates the velocity of the object.

The term rate is used for a certain quantity or amount of one thing considered in relation
to unit of another thing and used as a standard or measure: at the rate of 60 miles an hour.

Measurement of speed and velocity

The speed or velocity of an object is calculated by a simple mathematical formula:



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The average velocity (v) of an object moving, where d is the distance moved by the object (or
its "displacement") and t is the time it takes to move through that distance.
Both speed and velocity are measured in the same physical units, but speed does not contain the
element of direction that velocity has.


time rate koliina, brzina u jedinici vremena
at the rate of brzinom od
conversion rate brzina pretvaranja
reading rate brzina oitovanja
rating nazivna vrijednost



6. 1 Cover up the text you have just read or listened to and write down
what you have read or heard. Then check your dictation.

..........

...............

......

......
...



6. 2 Translate into English

Speed i velocity obino imaju isto znaenje. U fizici, speed i velocity imaju
odreena razliita znaenja. Speed jednog predmeta pokazuje kako se ono brzo
kree, t.j. udaljenost koju e predmet prijei u dato vrijeme. Ona nam meutim
nita ne kazuje o smjeru u kojem se predmet kree. Speed je skalarna kvantiteta
koja se odnosi na kako se brzo jedan objekt kree.

Kvantiteta u fizici koja kombinira brzinu tijela sa smjerom u kojem se kree
naziva se velocity. Velocity se definira kao relativna brzina (rate) premijetanja
sa mjesta, t.j. relativna brzina gibanja u posebnom smjeru.
Velocity je kvantiteta vektora koja se odnosi na brzinu kojom jedan objekt
mijenja poziciju.
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6.3 Correct your translation

Speed and velocity are commonly given the same meaning. In physic s, speed and
velocity have definite separate meanings. The speed of an object indicates how fast it is
moving, that is, the distance the object will travel at a given time. It tells us nothing,
however, about the direction in which the object is moving. Speed is a scalar quantity that
refers to "how fast an object is moving

The quantity of physics which combines the speed of a body with the direction in which
it moves is called velocity. Velocity is defined as the rate of displacement, that is, the
rate of motion in a particular direction. Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to the
rate at which an object changes position.


6.4 Write singular forms of the following nouns:

axes data
formulamaxima media
phenomena criteria
bacteria strata
appendices trapezia


6.5 Write plural forms of the following nouns:

radius bacillus
stimulus nucleus
erratum curriculum
quantum abscissa
matrix analysis
basis crisis
diagnosis ellipsis
hypothes oasis
parenthesis thesis
formula (mathematical term)
formula (general term)
minimum (two plural forms)
maximum (two plural forms)
genius (two plural forms)


6. 6 Write the verb and adjective form of the following nouns:

variability, prediction,
result, validity,
acceleration, act,
behaviour, cause,
change, definition,
form, investigation,
motion, occurance,
performance, precision

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Auto-correction.

verb forms: vary, predict, result, validate, accelerate, act, behave, cause, change,
define, form, investigate, move, occur, perform, state precisely
adjective forms: variable, predictive, resultative, valid, accelerative, active, behavioral,
causative, changeable, definite, formal, investigative, motional, occurent, performable, precise


7 CODE TRANSFER (English - Croatian)
7.1 Find the appropriate expressions in Croatian.
resulting acceleration ..
earth's gravitational field
applied mechanics .....................................................
observed facts ................................................... .
valid predictions ................................................... .
extensive experimental investigations
uniform motion .................................................... .
mutual actions ....................................................
electrical attraction ..................................................... ..
mechanical linkage .....................................................
interacting bodies ........................................................
specified standard body
unit force ...................................................... ..
gravitationa acceleration
velocity ....................................................... ..
time rate
directly proportional
inversely proportional
noteworthy experiments .

7.2 Are the nouns below in plural or singular form?
mathematics .................................... gymnastics ..
dynamics .................................... acoustics .
kinetics .............................................. ethics ..
physics ............................................... statistics ..



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7.3 Complete the table


Noun Verb Adjective
vary
prediction
resultative
accelerative
behave
cause
change
precision
valid
investigate
occur
performable
act
define
formal
motion
link
specify
formulated
develop



7.4 Explain the following logic elements:

Proposition (pouak) is a statement which is capable of being believed or doubted, it
is an expression which is either true or false.

Statement (tvrdnja) is a sentence of a judgement, of presenting on paper.

Postulate (postulat, osnovna postavka) is a proposition which is taken for granted, or
put forth as axiomatic.
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133


Principle (pouak) is a fundamental and general truth or a comprehensive law or
doctrine, from which others are derived; a principle ascertained by experience is a
generalization grounded on experience. E.g. Principle of the Conservation of Energy.

Axiom (aksiom) is an accepted maxim. It is axiomatic means that it is clear and
evident without needing to be proved.

Law (zakon) is an observed regularity in nature, the rule or formula according to
which anything comes into being. Newton's Laws, Lenz's Law.



7.5 Translate into English.

Te tri tvrdnje Newtonovog zakona interpretiraju se kao rezimiranje rezultata
eksperimentalnih istraivanja a njihova se valjanost zasniva na injenici da su sva
promatranja nakon Newtonovog vremena u skladu sa njima.
Studij dinamike se bavi razvojem naina interpretiranja Zakona Gibanja i
rarumijevanjem fizikog smisla karakteristika gibanja.

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Correct your translation
These three statements of Newtons Law are interpreted as summing up the results of experimental
investigations, and their validity rests upon the fact that all observations subsequent to Newton's
time are in agreement with them.
The study of Dynamics consists of the development of techniques for interpreting the Laws of Motion,
and of an understanding of the physical significance of the properties of motion.
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8 STEERING ON WINTRY ROADS

To prevent your car from spinning out of control on an icy roadway, you steer into a skid.
But how far and how fast a turn of the wheel is just right?

The question is more than theoretical in areas like the section of western New York just off
the Great Lakes. Buffalo, for instance, which sits on Lake Erie, averages more than 90 inches
of snowfall every year.

So it's appropriate that a group of mechanical engineers from the University at Buffalo has
set out to study winter driving, in the hope that they can develop new technologies to help
drivers steer safely through ice and snow.

Many drivers instinctively know that turning the steering wheel toward a skid can help
prevent a spinout, but the real trick to stabilizing a car is knowing how much and how fast to
turn the wheel and when to turn the wheel back, said Tarunraj Singh, an associate professor
of mechanical and aerospace engineering. Road conditions and the car's speed, tires, and
weight are important factors when stabilizing a skidding car. It's really impossible for drivers
to know how to react safely in every situation, given all these variables, Singh, an ASME
member, said.

He and a group of fellow researchers are studying winterweather questions using a virtual
reality simulator operated by human subjects.

The goal is to create tools and strategies that enhance the ability of a driver to cope with
inclement conditions, Singh said. Technology can supplement the natural instincs of
drivers, helping them take corrective action and stabilize their cars in worst-case scenarios.

In the university's virtual reality laboratory, drivers at the wheel of the simulator are
confronted with various driving conditions such as icy roads, poor visibility, inappropriate
speed, and locked brakes that, together or alone, might lead to a spin-out. A controller
developed by Singh and his team monitors the vehicle's slip angle as well as the driver's
reactions to various driving conditions.

As drivers in the simulator were confronted with spinout conditions, they were provided cues
to guide their maneuvers and help them stabilize the simulated car.

These cues in the form of audio tones and blinking lights instructed the driver on how
quickly to turn the wheel and in which direction.

The audio cues were particularly effective in helping drivers stabilize the car, even during
the most severe driving conditions, according to Singh.

With the audio cues, every driver we tested was able to stabilize the car with no problem,
he said. The visual cues proved less effective, possibly because the driver was overloaded
with other visual cues from the roadway and dashboard.
Based on the results, Singh and his co-researchers are considering the question of whether
cars could be equipped with alarms that alert and guide drivers when their car is in danger of
spinning out. And the researchers soon will begin testing the effectiveness of tactile cues,
such as a vibrating steering wheel, which would tell drivers what direcion to turn the wheel
to stabilize the car.

Tactile cues may be more effective than audio cues, and they also may be more acceptable
to the driver, Singh explained. Many drivers would be embarrassed if an alarm sounded
while they're driving especially if they have a passenger with them. The implication would
be that they're a bad driver because they put the car in a dangerous situation.

As Singh put it, It's very important to consider human factors when testing the effectiveness
of these technologies.
By Jean Thilmany taken from Mechanical Engineering, April 2005


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8.1 The essential idea of the text:

Mechanical engineers hope to isolate the best winter driving techniques by studying
people while they operate a virtual-reality driving simulator; Moreover, researchers
are creating technology to help drivers take correct action and answer the question
in which direction one turns the steering wheel during a skid.

8.2 Vocabulary

to spin out of control to cause (wheels of a vehicle) to rotate freely and swiftly
without traction, as on ice or in sand
spin out conditions
steer into a skid
skid a sliding drag used to check the motion of a vehicle by
pressure against a wheel proklizavanje
locked brakes brakes which have become locked, fixed, immovable
skiddy having a slippery surface on which vehicles are liable to skid
inclement conditions (of the weather) severe, harsh, stormy, otri
cue to give one the cue , uputu za postupak
to alert to warn to be ready or watchful
audio cues of frequencies corresponding to sound waves hat can
usually be heard by the human ear
tactile cues perceived by the touch; tangible


8.3 Synonymous expressions

to skid to cause (a wheel, vehicle, etc) to slide or slip sideways and out of control
of a vehicle when not gripping an icy road, to slide sharply downward.
to slide implies easy movement, as over a smooth surface, and usually suggests
continuous contact with it (to slide on ice)
to slip more often implies that the surface is frictionless and the contact not
continuos, therefore suggesting an involuntary movement or an accident (to slip and
fall on the ice)
to glide suggests a flowing, smooth, easy, usually silent movement and continuous
or intermittent contact with a surface (gliding dancers)

8.4 Insert the following English equivalents into the wordlist:

steer safely, steer away, steer clear of, steering wheel, spin out of control, steer
into a skid, slip angle, skid, alert, to give one the cue

upravljati skrenuti
izbjei volan
izmaknuti se kontroli
proklizavanje skliznue, kut skliznua
dovesti u stanje pripravnost dati savjet, mig
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8.5 Put questions and answer them a Role-Play


1 How can you prevent your car from spinning out of control on an icy roadway?

2 How far and how fast a turn of the wheel is just right?

3 For which areas must these questions be taken into consideration?

4 Why have mechanical engineers and researchers set out to develop new technologies?

5 What is the real trick to stabilizing a car?

6 What factors must be considered when stabilizing a skidding car?

7 Why is it almost impossible for drivers to know how to react safely in every situation?

8 How can winterweather questions be answered and studied?

9 What is the goal of creating a virtual reality simulator?

10 Can technology really supplement the natural instincts of drivers?

11 Can technology help drivers take corrective measures and stabilize their cars in worst-
case scenarios?
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12 What conditions can drivers be confronted with in virtual reality laboratories?

13 What do researchers and controllers monitor?

14 Are drivers provided cues to guide their maneuvers?

15 What do audio cues instruct the driver and when are they effective and when less
effective?


16 What could be said on effectiveness of tactile cues and audio cues?

17 Are human factors important when testing the effectiveness of new technologies?

8.6 ABSTRACT

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LECTURE 10 A

Section 1
Fourier - Additional Reading

Section 2
CORE TEXT
Mathematical Expressions

Section 3
Additional reading





Like father, like son.

Blood is thicker than water.
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139
Is this mathematican the true father of modern engineering?
By Eugene F. Adiutori

FOURIER
oncepts that engi-
neers use ever y
dayas fundamental
as the homogeneity of
equations and the heat transfer
coefficientwere pioneered by
a French thinker who died in
1830. His name was Joseph
Fourier. He is better known
for his career in mathematics,
but his contributions to
engineering science are so
important that a case can be
made for calling him the father
of modern engineering.
Fourier's contributions to engineering
science, many of which were presented in his
1822 book, The Analytical Theory of Heat,
include the original view of dimensional
homogeneity. The heat transfer science it
presented has been handed down to us
virtually unchanged, and has served as a
model for other branches of engineering.
The book also presented his concept of
"flux" (that is, a flow of something per unit
area and time), his view of homogeneity, and
his original methods for solving engineering
problems, all of which are used today in
many branches of engineering and science.
In short, this treatise by Fourier
presented the groundwork, as well as
some of the finish work, for modern
engineering. Fourier conceived the view
that scientifically rigorous equations must be
dimensionally identicalthat is, each term
in an equation must have the same
dimension. For example, if the left side of an
equation is pounds per cubic foot, the
dimension of the right side must also be
pounds per cubic foot. If the left side is
measured in pounds per cubic foot and the
right side feet per second, the equation is
irrational.
Fourier's view of homogeneity is now
considered almost self-evident, but in the
early 19th century, it was revolutionary. It
required the multiplication and division of
dimensions -mathematical operations that
had been deemed irrational for more than





2,000 years. For example, Hooke'
s law says that stress is proportional
to strain.
Newton's second law holds that the
change of motion is proportional to the
impressed force.
But Fourier was not satisfied with
proportional expressions. He wanted to
arrive at laws in the form of equations
that could be used quantitatively to
describe and predict natural behavior,
specifically of heat transfer. To do it,
Fourier had to create a new kind of
parameter.
During his years at Grenoble, he conducted heat
transfer experiments. In the manner of his
predecessors, he could have considered his
work finished when he observed that
convective heat flux is proportional to tem-
perature difference and that conductive heat
flux is proportional to temperature gradient.
Neither expression will yield a homogeneous
equation.
The proportional expression for convective
heat transfer is q
conv
a T, where a is a pure
number generally referred to as the constant of
proportionality. Fourier would not accept that
as a law because q and T have different
dimensions: The left side is energy flow per unit
time and area, and the right side is temperature.
He solved the dilemma by stating that a is a
parameter with the same dimension as q/T,
which makes the equation homogeneous.
Rather than retain a generic name and symbol
for the new parameter, he called it "heat
transfer coefficient" and gave it the symbol h.
The end result is Fourier's law of convective
heat transfer, q
conv
h T. (American heat
transfer texts call this equation "Newton's law
of cooling," but it should be attributed to
Fourier.)
By a similar process, Fourier arrived at the law
of conductive heat transfer, q
coni
j k dT/dx,
where the constant of proportionality has been
assigned the name "thermal conductivity," the
symbol k, and the same dimension as q/(dT/dx).
Fourier's view of homogeneity makes it
necessary to create parameters such as
resistances and coefficients because without
them, engineering phenomena cannot be

Joseph Fourier

140

140
described by homogeneous equations.
Engineering phenomena are cause-and-
effect processes: electromotive force causes
electric current; temperature difference causes
heat flux; stress causes strain.
Because cause and effect generally have
different dimensions, a third parameter is
necessary to obtain a homogeneous equation.
Ohm's law underwent a transformation from its
original form to make it homogeneous. Georg
Ohm published his treatise, The Galvanic
Circuit Investigated Mathematically, in 1827.
He originally expressed his famous law as:
"The force of the current in a galvanic circuit is
directly as the sum of all the tensions, and
inversely as the entire reduced length of the
circuit." Reduced length is the equivalent
length of a copper wire of a standard diameter.
As an equation, it was I = E/L, which does
not conform to Fourier's view of
homogeneity. To render it homogeneous, a
parameter was later assigned the dimension
"ohm" (a synonym for volts per ampere), and
it is now called "electrical resistance." The
homogeneous form of the equation is E - IR.
Hooke's law, that "stress is proportional to strain,"
also was transformed into a homogeneous
equation in the manner pioneered by Fourier.
It was stated that the proportionality constant
between stress and strain was a parameter.
The parameter was assigned the same dimension
as stress, since that would make the equation
homogeneous. "This parameter is now called
"material modulus." The homogeneous equation
based on Hooke's law is called "Young's law.
Fourier's contemporaries forestalled the general
publication of his work for 15 years while they
claimed to find fault with it. For example,
they strongly objected to his concept of flux, a
concept that now seems so simple and
straightforward as to border on the obvious.
They ultimately accepted his revolutionary
view of homogeneity, solely because he was
able to solve many practical and theoretical
problems that had never been solved. He
attributed his success to the homogeneity in
his equations.
Is this French mathematician the true father of
modern engineering?

Editor's Note: A fuller discussion of Fourier, on which this
article is based, is available at www.memagazine.org.
Eugene F. Adiutori is the author of The New Heat Transfer, which
was published in the 1970s in English and Russian. His article, "Ori-
gins of the Heat Transfer Coefficient," appeared in Mechanical Engi-
neering magazine in August 1990.

30 August 2005 mechanical engineering



VOCABULARY LIST
homogeneity, composition from like parts
homogeneous and heterogeneous
homogeneous - composed of parts all of
the same kind or nature; essentially alike
not heterogeneous;
heat transfer coefficient - koeficient
pretvorbe topline
a case could be made that he is a father
mogli bi dokazati da je on otac moderne
to have a strong case imati jake
argumente
treatise rasprava
virtually- for the most part; almost wholly;
hand down transmit
flux - tok
conceive to form a notion, opinion
rational and irrational
deem judge, regarded as
stress - naprezanje
strain- napetost
predecessor- prethodnik



convection Physics, the transfer of heat by
the circulation or movement of the heated
parts of a liquid or gas; the act of conveying
or transmitting,
convective activity in Meteorology- any
manifestation of convection in the
atmosphere as hail, thunderstorms
it does not conform to nije usklaen sa
to undergo a transformation - biti
transformiran
entire having all the parts or elements;
whole; complete
forestall osujetiti, sprijeiti
straightforward - direct, free from
crookedness, izravan
crookedness - iskrivljenost
attribute pripisivati
to find fault with sth criticize, to seek
and make known defects or flaws
He constantly finds fault with her cooking.
ultimately- konano, nakon svega
solely - merely
yield dati (rezultata)
141

141
ASSIGNMENT
Why is this French mathematician the true father of modern engineering?
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
The essential idea is
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................
The supporting idea is
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................

Explain the Fourier's law of convective heat transfer
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

Translate the following:
"The force of the current in a galvanic circuit is directly as the sum of all the tensions,
and inversely as the entire reduced length of the circuit."

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................

In what way was Hooke's law, that "stress is proportional to strain," transformed into a
homogeneous equation in the manner pioneered by Fourier?

....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................






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142
1 Mathematical Expressions


1 Reading Mathematical Expressions, Formulae and Symbols
1.1 Read out these numbers
Even numbers: 2, 4, 6, 8,...
Odd numbers: 1,3,5, 7, 9, . ..
-teen 13- 19 (fifteen)
-ty 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 (fifty)
Cardinal numbers and ordinal numbers
Roman numerals and Arabic numerals
The whole number 3 and 1/3 fraction
7893 A four-figure number. 3 units, 9 tens, 8 hundreds, 7 thousands
5,078,493 five million seventy-eight thousand four hundred and ninety-three
1,000,000,000 a milliard or a thousand million; US a billion (A comma
is used to separate groups of 000,)
24.621 twenty-four point six two one (In Britain the decimal is
always represented by a point).
0.47 nought point four seven
0,357 proper decimal fraction with decimal places, 3 tenths, 5 hundredths
and 7 thousandths
0, 77777 recurring decimal
0.001 nought point oh oh one (zero is not often used in reading
decimal values)
+ 90 F ninety degrees Fahrenheit above/plus zero
-7 C seven degrees Centigrade below/minus zero Temperature
508-209 five oh eight two oh nine (Telephone numbers)
3: 0 three nil (Football GB)
30: 0 thirty lov (Tennis)
, a third or one third, one fourth or a quarter
one over nine hundred and thirty seven
a/b a over b
Addition (to add)
7+ 9 = 16 seven plus nine equals (is, are) sixteen (sum)
Subtraction (to subtract)
8- 6 = 2 eight minus six equals two (difference, remainder)
Multiplication (to multiply)
4 x 7 = 28 four times (multiplied by) seven equals twenty-eight
(product)
Division (to divide)
27 : 3 = 9 twenty-seven divided by three equals nine (quotient)


143

143
Raising to the Power
3
2
= 9 three squared equals nine
y
3
= 5 y cubed equals five
2
4
= 64 two (to the) power (of) four equals sixty-four
x
-5
x(to the) power(of) minus five
x
n-1
x(to the) power (of) n minus one


Finding the Root (Extraction of Root)
the square root of nine is three
the cube root of eight is two
the fourth root of sixteen is two


Solving Equations
(a + b) (a b) = c a plus b in brackets times a minus b inbrackets equals c.
x[(a+b) (a-b) + 6]=0 x open square brackets a plus b in brackets times a
minus b in brackets plus six close square brackets
equals nought.
(a + b)
2
= a
2
+ 2ab + b
2
= ? the square of the sum of two numbers is equal
to the square of the first number, plus twice the product of
the first and second, plus the square of the second.
(a b)
2
= a
2
2ab + b
2
= ? the square of the difference of two numbers is equal to the
square of the first number minus twice the product of the
first and second, plus the square of the second

B
2
B subscript 2
A' A prime
capital F equals small m small v squared; all over small r
H
2
O h two o
x y x is equivalent to y
x y x is not equal to y
x ~=10 x is approximately equal to ten
x >0 x tends to nought
x < 10 x is less than ten
x >10 x is greater than ten
X 10 x is much less than ten
x 10 x is much greater than ten
X 10 x is less than or equal to ten
x 10 x is greater than or equal to ten
x y x is proportional to y
x> x tends to infinity
x = 3 x equals plus or minus three
x = 0 therefore x equals nought
dx differential of x
dy/dx derivative of y with respect to x
(dx,dy: the differentials) d:differential sign
144

144
1.2 Write some mathematical expressions, formulae and symbols

. round brackets and square brackets
. bracket open ('open brackets') and bracket close ('close brackets')
. circle, circumference
. length of line from A to B
a (one) half, a (one) third and two thirds
. a (one) quarter, one fourth, three quarters and three fourths
. a (one) fifth and two fifths
. one and a half and one and a quarter
. three tenths or three over ten
. a multiplied by b
. a divided by b
.. a over b; a divided by b
. a times b over c times d or ab over cd
. m divided by a times b or m divided by ab
. a sub b or a subscript b
. eight point o two
. two point o o six or two point doubleo six
thirty four point seven 0 two
. a plus b and a minus b
. a multiplied by b
. a equals b or a is equal to b
. a is greater than b and a is less than b
. a equals or is greater than b
. a equals or is less than b
. a is identical to b
.. a to the n
th
(power); a exponent n
a sub b; a subscript b
a to the fourth; a to the fourth power; a exponent 4
five squared; five to the second (power)
five cubed; five to the third (power)
two to the power of six; two to the sixth (power)



1.3 Practise reading out these expressions:











145

145
1.4 Read and interprete the following formulas:

1.


Reading: L equals u over di by dt
Interpretation: Inductance is the relationship of the voltage and the time derivative of the current.

2.



Reading: X sub L equals two times (pai) times f times L
Interpretation: Inductive reactance (in ohms) equals two times (pai) times the frequency
(in cycles per second hertz) times the inductance of the coil (in henrys).

3.

Reading: Z equals root of r squared plus X sub L squared
Interpretation: impedence equals the square root of resistance squared plus inductive
reactance squared.

4.


Reading:I equals E over Z
Inerpretation: Current is the ratio of the voltage and impedance.


1.5 Practise reading out these expressions:












146

146
1.6 Here is the formula for calculating the volume of a cylinder:

Although a cylinder is technically not a prism, it shares many of the properties of a prism.
Like prisms, the volume is found by multiplying the area of one end of the cylinder (base)
by its height. To find the volume of a cylinder, we must find the area of the base (end) and
multiply that by the height. Since the end (base) of a cylinder is a circle, the area of that
circle is given by the formula:
Multiplying by its height we get the volume of the cylinder:

This is a solid metal cylinder of height 10cm and diameter 5 cm. Calculate its volume.



1.7 If you have a solid metal cylinder of height 16,3 cm and diameter 6,7
cm, its volume is:







147

147
1.8 The names for the Greek letters with the accepted British English pronunciation:
alpha/ elf/ nu /nju/
beta / bit/ xi /ksl/
gamma/ gm/ omicron /'mkrn/
delta / delt/ pi /p/
epsilon/ep'sln/ rho /r/
zeta / zit/ sigma / 'sigm/
eta / ' it/ tau /ta/
theta / 'it/ upsilon /jup'slbn/
iota / t / phi /f/
kappa/ kp chi /k/
lambda/lmd/ psi /ps/
mu /mju/ omega / 'mig/

1.9 Exercises
A Read out these numbers.
1 3 8 1.053 15 15387
2 14 9 2,279 16 735
3 40 10 10.874 17 90005
4 93 11 1200 18 1931
5 10212 100.302 19 44829
6 23113 1,000.000 20 8075
7 99514 82 985
B Write down the names of these units: mm, m, cm, km.
......................................................................................................

C Use these patterns to ask and answer questions about objects in your classroom, eg window,
door, table, etc.
How high
wide
long
is . . . ?

What is the height
width
length
of ... ?

The
height
width
length
of . . . is . . .

. . . is . . . in height,
width,
length.
... has a
height
width
length
of . . .
Height, width and length are all nouns High, wide and long are all
adjectives. The verbs are lengthen, weiden and heighten.
148

148
2 Describing objects

A is a solid wooden block 5c m high, 10cm long and 4 cm wide.
A is a solid wooden block. It has a height of 5 cm, a length of 10 cmand a
width of 4 cm.
There are three other ways of writing this description
A is a solid wooden block which has a height of 5 cm, a length of 10 cm and a
width of 4 cm. A is a solid wooden block having a height of 5 cm, a length of
10cm and a width of 4 cm. A is a solid wooden block of height 5 cm, length
1 0 cm and width 4 cm.


2.1 Now make similar statements about the following object:

h=10cm I =8 cm t
=1 cm d = 9 cm
wood




2.2 Here are some shapes which you must learn the names of:









149

149
2.3 Now complete these descriptions of flat three-dimensional
objects.

1 Object A is a _______ plate of side ________
and _________ 001 cm.

2 Object B is a _______ plate of side ________
and ________ 1 2 cm.


2.4 Here are some important 3-dimensional shapes. Describe them.


150

150

2.5 Now describe the objects depicted
above.
For example, cube: solid steel

E is a solid steel cube of side 5cm/having
side of 5 cm/which has a side of 5 cm.

A is a ........................................... ...........................................
B is a .................................................................. .....................
C is a................................................................. ........................
D is a ................................................................ .......................
F is a ........................................................................................
G is a .

3 Right triangle rule
One of the most famous relationships in all geometry concerns right triangles. It is
named after Pythagoras, a famous Greek mathematician. This is the relationship: the
square of the side opposite the right angle (hypotenuse) is equal to the sum of
the squares of the other two sides. If we know any two sides of a right triangle, we
may use the equation to find the third side. Write down this equation.

...............

4 Draw the following shapes:
1 A square with rounded corners, ellipsoid of revolution, a sphere


2 A triangle with one rounded corner.


3 A semi-circle, a semi-sphere


4 A cone with a flat top i.e. truncated cone (frustum of a cone) (krnja
piramida)


5 A cylinder with a point at one end.


6 Draw a curved line from a point A to a point B.
151

151
5 Inclined planes

We can hold a wooden board or two planes upright (plumb, vertical, perpendicular to
the ground).
When we tilt (naginjemo) the top over to the right, left, forward or backward, the
board (the plane) tilts (slants, inclines, slopes).
I can tilt the monitor a little bit forwards.

Two boards or planes can be put in such a way as to look like a roof. Each side of the
roof is an inclined plane. The sides rise to a ridge (apex) and from the ridge or apex
boards or planes slope down, incline or slant.

His handwriting slopes forward and yours backward. Hers slants also from right to
left. Our garden slopes down to the sea. If we tilt the table, the plates will slide off to
the floor!
5.1 Exercise
a) Translate into English the following:
nagnuti se, naginjati se .....................................
nagib, kosina .....................................
nagnut .....................................

6 Exercises

Describe the shapes of the parts of the following objects which are marked with
an arrow. For example, What shape is the end of P? It's pointed.


152

152
7 Exercise

Read the following text:
We can make general descriptions about things in the following way:
A pencil consists of a wooden bar. This bar contains a thin cylindrical rod
of graphite. It is pointed at one end.
A matchbox is a wooden or cardboard box in two parts. The two parts consist
of a hollow inner tray and an outer sleeve. It is used for holding matches.
These descriptions can be changed slightly in the following way:
A pencil consists of a wooden bar which contains a thin cylindrical rod of
graphite. It is pointed at one end.
A matchbox is a wooden or cardboard box in two parts which consist of a
hollow inner tray and an outer sleeve (vanjska omotnica). It is used for holding
matches.
Notice the way which is used to connect pieces of information. Notice also that
we say a pencil or a matchbox when we are making a statement about pencils
and matchboxes in general.
Study the following general descriptions, and then combine two of the sentences
together with which, as above.

Here are also some opposites which can be used in making general
descriptions
Curved flat
hollow solid
long short
heavy light
Ask questions about these things. Give an answer using an
opposite.
For example.
Is this full?
No, it isn't, it's nearly empty.
(rectangular, large, cylindrical, spherical, regular)
1 An eraser is a solid block of rubber. It is used for erasing pencil
marks. It can be either rectangular or round.

2 A ruler is a thin rectangular wooden or plastic strip. It is used for
drawing straight lines and measuring linear dimensions.

3 A standard mass is a solid cylindrical brass block. It is used for comparing
masses on a laboratory beam balance.

153

153
8 Drawing dictation

a) Draw the following shapes:
flat round thin
square oval pointed thick.

b) Draw the following lines:
1 a straight line 2 parallel lines 3 a curved line
4 a dotted line 5 a dashanddot line 6 a broken line
7a horizontal line 8 a vertical line 9 a transverse line
10 a slanting line (kos, nagnut) also called oblique i.e., straight lines neither
horizontal nor vertical 11 two mutually perpendicular lines (okomit)
12 intersecting lines (mark the point of intersection).

c) Study these triangles:

Equilateral Triangle

Equilateral triangles have all angles equal to 60, and all
sides equal length.
All equilateral triangles have 3 lines of symmetry.
Isoscles Triangle

Isosceles triangles have 2 angles equal and 2 sides of
equal length.
All isosceles triangles have a line of symmetry.
Scalene Triangle

Scalene triangles have no angles equal, and no sides of
equal length.
Right Triangle

Right triangles (or right angled triangles) have one right
angle (equal to 90).
Obtuse Triangle

Obtuse triangles have one obtuse angle (an angle greater
than 90). The other two angles are acute (less than 90).
Acute Triangle

Acute triangles have all angles acute.

154

154
d) Draw the following angles:
1 the right angle 2 the obtuse angle (tup)
3 the acute angle (iljat) and 4 adjacent angles.
Adjacent angles are two angles having the same vertex (vrh kuta) and
having a common side between them. Angles are measured with the
protractor.

e) Draw solid figures threedimensional shapes!
Triangles may be classified according to the relative length of their sides.
1 If all three sides are of equal length, it is an equilateral triangle
(istostranian) also called equiangular triangle

2 If two sides (called the arms, legs krak kuta) are equal, it is called an
isosceles triangle (istokraan trokut). It has the base, the perpendicular, an
altitude.
Draw its altitude and mark it with H;

3 Draw a right angled triangle. The side opposite to the right angle is the
hypotenuse;
Draw the interior angles and exterior angles.

4 Draw a scalene triangle (raznostranian trokut) , which has all three sides
of different lengths.

f) Draw plane figures!
Plane geometry deals with planes (plohe) which have two dimensions;
There are quadrilaterals which have both pairs of opposite sides parallel to
each other:
1 a parallelogram
2 a rectangle
3 a rhombus and
4 a rhomboid.
A trapezoid has only two sides parallel.
5 Draw an isosceles trapezoid
6 a regular polygon
7 concentric circles
8 circumferential angle
9 angle subtended by the arc at the centre
10 a square
11 a rectangle
12 a rhombus and 13 a rhomboid
14 a polygon
15 a circumcircle (circumscribed circle) and
16 an inscribed circle
17 a curved line and 18 a radius of curvature

g) Draw
1 a middle line plane

2 transverse plane and
155

155

3 water plane of a vessel and a square.




i) Draw a circle and all portions of a circle written in boldface! See page 157

Geometrically, a circle is a closed curved line, every point of which is the same
distance from a point within called the centre. All radii of a circle branch out
from the centre like the spokes of a wheel (bice kotaa).

1. The length of such a curve is called the circumference.
2. Any portion of the circle is called an arc.
3. A straight line which touches a circle at one point is called a tangent.
4. If straight line cuts a circle at two points, it is called a secant (sekanta),
5. if a line segment terminates in the circle, it is a chord (tetiva).
6. The portion of the circle passes through its centre and is called the
diameter;
7. half of the diameter is a radius.
8. The area included by two radii and their subtended arc is called a sector of
the circle (isjeak kruga).
9. Draw an inscribed circle (upisan) and a circumscribed polygon (opisan
mnogokut) pentagon, and
10. 2 foci of the ellipse.










j) Draw solid figures threedimensional shapes!
Solid geometry (stereometry) deals with bodies geometrical bodies:

1 the sphere
2 the cone
3 the cylinder
4 the quadrilateral pyramid
5 the cube
6 the parallelepiped
7 the triangular prism
8 the quadratic prism with an edge and a corner.

Adjectives: spheric, conic, cylindric(al), cubic, octagonal, rectangular,
circular, oval, triangular, parallelogramic, trapezoid, square,
pentagonal
156

156
9 Drills
9.1 Describe

What is A? What is B? What is C?
A is a circle. B is a triangle. C is an oval.

Is F square? Is B cylindric(al)? Is E cylindrical?
No. It isn't square, it's cubic. No.It isnt cylindrical, its Yes. It is.
triangular.


F


9.2 Describe.
What's the depth of M?
Thirty-two point four three centimetres.
What's the radius of O?
Twenty-two point three centimetres.








157

157

10 Geometric figures


158

158
11 DESCRIBING TRENDS IN GRAPHS

What information arises from graphic presentation, a figure, a
graph or a sine wave? The symbolic language can be very operable
in engineering practice. Try to transform information from some figures
into a descriptive text. Here are some of the phrases you will need:

In todays world wide shipping industry, according to the graph there is ...
As you can see from the graph
This portion of the graph shows, reveals, indicates, illustrates
The bulge in profits was due to, caused by, this can be explained by
UP NOUN
a slow gradual, rapid, sharp rise; an increase; a large increase; a great,
considerable, slight increase; a third consecutive year of growth, an
improvement, further substantial improvements are to be expected; a steady,
constant growth; a 12 % increase in orders; further developments can be
awaited; there have been some gains in commerce; we expect a reversal of this
situation; The upward trend is obvious; the rate of growth reflects; a long
awaited recovery

UP VERBS
The pointrises, improves, grows, shoots up, goes up, takes off; increases
(slowly, gradually, rapidly, sharply, dramatically, substantially); it reached a
peak; it peaked; It rose steadily. It was on the rise. It exceeded 130,000. It
reflects an annual increase of 5%; to rise from 5$ to 6$; to increase by 50%. It
rose on average by a whopping 22% per year; to double, triple, quadruple;
Imports hit a peak of ; to upgrade the very old fleet of commercial marine
vessels; they will be near the top of the list for income growth

DOWN NOUNS
A fall, a drop, a decline, this overall trend reveals that it has reached a low point.
It has been in distress for most of this decade. Prices showed a downward
tendency. It has been in a free fall, dropping to ...

DOWN VERBS
It almost halved. It plummeted. It was at its lowest. It was downward. It falls,
drops, declines, It is falling steeply. It went down rapidly, it fall off; to fall from
5$ to 2$, to drop by 10%. It bottomed at 1.3 billion. Prices tumbled further.
They slowed, edged down.

NO CHANGE
It remains roughly at the same level. Sustained prices demonstrate It levels
off, it remained stable, It stayed high. We continued to do well. In comparison
with In contrast to (as opposed to, unlike, as contrasted to) it remained
stable. Similarity can be seen between business has averaged 2.4 billion.
159

159
12 Defining Strength Terms and Describing a Graph.

Yield strength is the lowest stress that gives permanent deformation in a material. In
some materials, like aluminum alloys, the point of yielding is hard to define, thus it is
usually given as the required stress causing 0.2% plastic strain. If you look at a stress-
strain diagram, the difference becomes
clearer.The initial slope is where stress
is directly proportional to strain (like a
spring) and the material behaves like
this up to its elastic limit where it
reaches its yield strength. Beyond this
the material deforms permanently (like
an overstretched spring that won't
return to its original shape). The
material then becomes strain hardened
until you reach the ultimate strength
and necking starts to occur and the
material becomes weaker again until it
breaks apart.


Study the graph carefully and then answer the questions.

1 Which is the correct statement?
a) The wire continued to extend uniformly throughout the experiment.
b) The wire extended uniformly up to a certain point.
c) The wire did not extend uniformly at all during the experiment.

2 Which is the correct statement?
a) The upper yield point occurred at a higher load than the lower yield point.
b) The upper yield point occurred at a lower load than the lower yield point.
c) The lower yield point occurred before the upper yield point.

3 During the plastic behaviour,
a) a very large load produced a very small extension.
b) a fairly small load produced quite a large extension
c) a fairly small load produced a very small extension.

4 After the maximum load was applied,
a) the material continued to extend.
b) the material ceased to extend.
c) the material began to contract.

5 The necking region occurs
a) before the maximum load is applied.
b) after the plastic behaviour.
c) at the point of fracture.

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Section 3
Additional reading
Seminar Work


New Scientific Ideas Can Never Be
Readily Accepted by Those Who Cling
to Old Beliefs









Two's a company, but three's a crowd.

Curiosity killed the cat.

Better to light the candle, than to curse
the darkness.
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A successful scientist is full of curiosity he wants to
find out how and why the universe works. He is a good
observer, accurate, patient and objective and applies
persistent and logical thought to the observations he
makes. He utilizes the facts he observes to the fullest
extent. He is sceptical and he always checks
statements and makes experiments carefully and
objectively to verify them. He is also highly imaginative
since he often has to look for relationships in data.
Furthermore, he needs imagination to make
hypotheses of how processes work and how events
take place. Sure, there are strange scientific facts
gleaned from the natural world. So, we all know what
the Greek mathematician Archimedes was doing with a
bath full of dirty water and a gold crown. But very few
people know which scientific principles link the 19
th

century engineer Brunel with a bear who adores
marmalade sandwiches.
Recent developments in science seem to be governed
by two complementary processes: a steady increase in
disciplinary specialisation on the on hand and growing
transdisciplinary integration on the other. New
research approaches often emerge at the interface of
overlapping disciplines. They frequently call for
research efforts exceeding the scope of individual
projects and hence can be only realised through
cooperation of several research groups as joint
undertakings for example.


Read one of the following texts and afterwards watch
the film Visions of the Future

Write a SHORT composition on the following subject:

'New ideas can never be readily accepted by those who cling to
old beliefs.' Argue in favour of this statement.

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PRESENTATION 1


1 Galileo Galilee, born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy, was the first modern
scientist to pioneer experimental scientific method and the first to use a refracting telescope
to make important astronomical discoveries. Galileo made a series of profound discoveries
using a new telescope, including the moons of the planet Jupiter and the phases of the planet
Venus (similar to those of Earth's moon). As a professor of astronomy at University of Pisa,
Galileo was required to teach the accepted theory of his time that the sun and all the planets
revolved around the Earth. Later at University of Padua he was exposed to a new theory,
proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, that the Earth and all the other planets revolved around the
sun. Galileo's observations with his new telescope convinced him of the truth of Copernicus's
sun-centred or heliocentric theory.

2 Galileo's support for the heliocentric theory got him into trouble with the Roman
Catholic Church. In 1633 the Inquisition convicted him of heresy and forced him to recant
(publicly withdraw) his support of Copernicus. They sentenced him to life imprisonment, but
because of his advanced age allowed him serve his term under house arrest. In his own lifetime
Galileo was
the centre of violent controversy; but the scientific dust has long since settled, and today we
can see even his famous clash with the Inquisition in something like its proper perspective.
Galileo's originality as a scientist lay in his method of inquiry. First he reduced problems to a
simple set of terms on the basis of everyday experience and common-sense logic. Then he
analyzed and resolved them according to simple mathematical descriptions. The success with
which he applied this technique to the analysis of motion opened the way for modern
mathematical and experimental physics.

3 Galileo was the first to crystallise the ideas into a single theory. His theory of
kinematics was based upon four operational definitions, time, distance, velocity and
acceleration. From this beginning he developed the concepts of average or uniform velocity,
average acceleration and instantaneous velocity.
It is of vital importance that there is a frame of reference in order to define motion. The old
view of Galileo was delightfully uncomplicated. He was, above all, a man who experimented:
who despised the prejudices and book learning of the Aristotelians, who put his questions to
nature instead of to the ancients, and who drew his conclusions fearlessly.
As a professor of astronomy at University of Pisa, Galileo was required to teach the accepted
theory of his time that the sun and all the planets revolved around the Earth. Later at University
of Padua he was exposed to a new theory, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, that the Earth and
all the other planets revolved around the sun. Galileo's observations with his new telescope
convinced him of the truth of Copernicus's sun-centred or heliocentric theory.

4 He had been the first to turn a telescope to the sky, and he had seen there evidence
enough to overthrow Aristotle and Ptolemy together. He was the man who climbed the Leaning
Tower of Pisa and dropped various weights from the top, he was the man who rolled balls
down inclined planes, and then generalized the results of his many experiments into the famous
law of free fall. He abstracted from a moving body those qualities which he considered to be
secondary such as colour and odour and he thought of such a body as a moving mathematical
point. He thought of this motion as occurring in an idealized world, free from air friction. His
theory of kinematics was based on four operational definitions, time, distance, velocity and
acceleration.
His telescopic observations are justly immortal; they aroused great interest at the time, they had
important theoretical consequences, and they provided a striking demonstration of the
potentialities hidden in instruments and apparatus. But can we blame those who looked and
failed to see what Galileo saw, if we remember that to use a telescope at the limit of its powers
calls for long experience and intimate familiarity with one's instrument?
Galileo died at Arcetri in 1642the year Isaac Newton was born.
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PRESENTATION 2


5 While Galileo was concerned with an abstract system which he analysed in an
abstract world using algebra, Sir Isaac Newton studied a more concrete world and was
interested in kinetics, as he took mass and force into consideration as well as velocity and
acceleration. Newton's laws are applied to physical objects on or around the earth. Newton
formulated three laws of motion which describe the relationship between force and motion.
Isaac Newton used one of Galileo's mathematical descriptions, "The Law of Inertia," as the
foundation for his "First Law of Motion." Newton's Laws are applied to physical objects on
or around the earth. Newton formulated three laws of motion which describe the relationship
between force and motion.

The first law states that:
In the absence of a net force, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
continue in motion in a straight line at constant speed.

The second law of motion states that:
When a net force acts on a body it will be accelerated in the direction of the force with
acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the force.

The third law of motion states that:
When a body exerts a force on another body the second body exerts a force on the first body
of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction.

6 If most of us were asked what we knew about Isaac Newton, we should probably
reply that he discovered the laws of gravity through watching an apple fall from a tree in his
garden. So far as it goes the answer would be true; for years after that charming story had
gone into circulation his niece, who was also his housekeeper, confirmed the truth of that
incident in the garden of the old house at Woolsthorpe in Lincolnshire. His mind was one of
the most remarkable in the history of human thought; His discoveries marked the end of one
period of mankind and the beginning of another; and his genius in mathematics laid the
foundation for the scientific discoveries of the ages of mechanical triumph which followed.

7 Isaac Newton seems to have had no friends, no emotional life at all. He had a power
of concentrating his mind on any abstract problem with such intensity that he might almost
have been in a trance. In that state the answers to the most difficult problems of mathematics
were arrived at or at least the sure method of arriving at them was found. Newton reluctantly
published the results of his discoveries, and then as though by accident. The book which gave
to the world his great findings about gravitation was held up for twenty years after he had in
fact made those discoveries, and its appearance even then depended upon a chance visit of the
astronomer Halley. Strangest of all, for the last forty years of his life he took no further
interest in any of these subjects.

8 He was born on Christmas Day, 1642, the same year that Galileo died. Galileo had
himself been concerned with precisely the problems which were to occupy the mind of this
yeoman farmer's son in Lincolnshire. Galileo had been studying the force which caused balls
to run down sloped wooden planks, and calculating how far they would go up a plank
inclined the other way. Why do things move? What force is at work in each instance: the
wind moving the sails of a mill, the balls rolling down the boards, the stars swirling round the
sun? For Galileo knew that the stars did move through the heavens. Why do things move?

9 Young Isaac Newton seems to have taken up the quest. As a schoolboy there are
stories of his mechanical creations, kites and a little mill whose motive power was a mouse
on a treadmill inside. Record has it that he was not a particularly bright boy at school; and
just when his mind sprang into activity his mother took him away from school to run the
farm, for his father had died just before Isaac was born. He was a poor farmer, his mind never
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on the farm work but invariably on some new "gadget" which intrigued him. After four years,
at the advice of friends, Mrs. Newton sent him to Cambridge. Isaac Newton was then
nineteen.

10 By the time he had just turned twenty, that astonishing mind was already set on its
task of the discovery of natural laws. In 1664, he made his famous experiment with a prism
which revealed to him the nature of light.* This had long puzzled the scientists. He used to
spend months in a darkened room doing experiments. Newton made a small hole in the
shutter of his room, allowed one beam of sunlight to strike through it on to a prism, and saw
that the rays of the different colours were bent at different angles, thus splitting up the pure
white light into the seven colours of the rainbow. So, something that appears green, such as
grass, looks green because it reflects the green light in the sun and absorbs most of the other
colors. Through another prism he was able to rejoin them into white light again. Some of his
experimenting was dangerous because he would look at the sun, (something his mother had
told him never to do), and stare at the reflection of the sun in a mirror until he lost his sight.
Then he shut himself up in a dark room for several days until his vision finally returned.

11 Dissatisfied with the type of telescope which had served Galileo, and using his new
knowledge of the nature of light and the laws of the bending of light rays through lenses,
Newton invented a telescope, the system of which governs its construction today. Out of
Newton's studies in the analysis of the spectrum has come the whole technique of modern
spectrum analysis which is the basis of research in present-day astronomy. One result of the
invention was that the young man was invited to become a Fellow of the recently formed
Royal Society. Another was his book on Optics.*

12 The next year Cambridge suffered from an epidemic and the twenty-three-year old
Newton went home to Woolsthorpe for nearly two years. It was during that period that he
made his greatest discoveries, his marvellous mind seeming to blossom into the utmost
brilliance. It was then that he established the mathematical laws of gravitation which
governed our knowledge until Einstein built upon them his superstructure of relativity.

*The Law of Reflection. Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of
light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror, then the behaviour of
the light as it reflects would follow a predictable law known as the law of reflection. The
diagram below illustrates the law of reflection.




In the diagram, the ray of light approaching the mirror is known as the incident ray (labeled I
in the diagram). The ray of light which leaves the mirror is known as the reflected ray
(labeled R in the diagram). At the point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror, a line
can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror; this line is known as a normal line
(labeled N in the diagram). The normal line divides the angle between the incident ray and
the reflected ray into two equal angles. The angle between the incident ray and the normal is
known as the angle of incidence. The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is
known as the angle of reflection. (These two angles are labeled with the Greek letter "theta"
accompanied by a subscript; read as "theta-i" for angle of incidence and "theta-r" for angle of
reflection.) The law of reflection states that when a ray of light reflects off a surface, the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

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PRESENTATION 3


13 The rough fact of gravitation had already become a subject of investigation, as we
have seen, to such minds as that of Galileo. Newton reduced it to mathematical law. Indeed,
the particular contribution which Newton made to human progress was that he used
mathematics in every situation to solve every problem he found. Everything, he believed, had
a mathematically measurable cause which would give a mathematically predictable effect. It
was not, therefore, that he was- only concerned with an apple falling from the tree in his
sunlit Lincolnshire garden, but that he worked out exactly how quickly it fell; and from the
measurement of time and space deduced the whole law of measuring the movement between
bodies, which governs the movement of the earth, the moon, and the stars.

14 And also he showed us the fundamental fact of mechanics, in his passion for exact
measurement. For two hundred and fifty years since, the whole of science has accepted that
basis for its method. Newton stood at a parting of the ways: behind him was guesswork, the
acceptance of all manner of mystical explanations or evasions of problems; after him, along
the way he pointed, was the belief that Nature's laws were measurable and calculable. With
Newton, "the greatest genius that ever lived," we move into the age of mechanics.

15 It was during those years at Woolsthorpe, too, that he invented that complicated piece
of mathematics, the differential calculus, to give him power to make measurements of things
which could not have been measured before. He invented it, as he had invented his telescope,
because he wanted an instrument.

16 During those years in his early twenties Newton thus made three revolutionary
discoveries: the laws of optics and of the composition of light; the laws of dynamics and of
gravity; and the mathematical method of the differential calculus which enabled later
scientists to continue his vast work of exact measurement of speed and acceleration. It is part
of the strangeness of this man that he made no effort to exploit these discoveries or to gather
fame or reward by publishing them. None of them was revealed until many years afterwards.
He went back to Cambridge, continued his investigations and calculations, and put aside the
results for years.

17 In respect to gravitation, he was first put off by the false idea which existed about the
dimensions of the earth, for it was the essential basis of his theory that the size of one body in
relation to another governed its power of attraction. Many years later the correct diameter of
the earth was made known, and forthwith Newton's observed measurements of its pull upon
the moon were correct. Still he made no effort to publish his discovery.

18 In 1687, twenty years after Newton had made his calculation, Halley the astronomer
visited him to question him about the path of the planets round the sun. Newton assured him
that this path was an ellipse and not a circle. He had calculated it but had lost the papers, so
he worked it all out again for Halley's benefit. In that conversation he revealed his
manuscript, the Principia, which embodied his laws of gravity, and Halley determined that it
must be published.*

19 As the Royal Society had used all their available funds to issue a book on fish, Halley
himself paid the costs, for Newton had so often given large sums to assist the publication of
the work of other scientists that he had no money of his own. So, almost by chance, this
enormous discovery was made known to the world in 1687.

20 Newton, although he was still only forty-four years old, had almost lost interest in
this whole subject. In the quiet of Cambridge he pursued curious studies in biblical affairs.
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For the second half of his long life he carried on his duties as Master of the Mint to which he
had been appointed, and wrote dull (and completely erroneous) studies of biblical chronology
based on the idea that the world was created in the year 4004 B.C. So this greatest genius in
the vast field of mathematics, this man whose concentrated thought as a youth of twenty-three
had altered the whole of our conceptions of the universe, turned his back on his own noble
speculations.

21 Though familiar as a falling apple, gravity remains the least understood force in
nature. Dropping through a vacuum, a feather and an apple fulfil Galileo's bold prediction of
1638: All objects fall at the same rate of acceleration. Or do they? Gravity, in a sense
discovered by Newton is a cornerstone of modern science. Newton's Principia, often called
the greatest scientific book of all time, laid out the mechanics of gravity and, consequently, of
the entire known universe.

22 Of the four known natural forces, gravity was the first seen but is the least
understood. The others are electromagnetism, which we know as electricity, magnetism, and
light, the strong force binding atomic nuclei; and the weak force causing radioactive decay.

23 Though gravity rules the universe, the other forces are trillions of times stronger.
Earth's gravity field is so weak that when you pick up a rock, your muscles are easily
overcoming the pull of the planet's entire 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms (6.6
sextillion tons). Gravity, too, is the only force man cannot control. We can increase, decrease,
and sometimes even reverse the others. But not gravity. It cannot be reflected, stopped, or
slowed. It always attracts, never repels.

24 Gravity has always occupied the best minds, including Galileo Galilee, the extraordinary
17th-century Italian who was the first modern scientist. Before Galileo, it had been assumed
largely from a dictate of Aristotle that gravity causes a heavy object to fall faster than a
light one. Aristotle had confused the effects of gravity's pull with the distance something
could be propelled. You can throw a small rock farther than a big one, so the big one must
fall faster. Galileo decided to see what actually happens, but he probably never dropped
cannon balls or anything else from the tower of Pisa. Instead, he rolled balls of different
weights down and up inclined planes. Galileo found that all objects, no matter what they are
made of, fall at the same ever increasing rate. Thus, if air resistance is ignored, a cannonball
and a wooden ball dropped simultaneously will strike the ground at the same time.

Newton's law of gravitation, universally accepted by scientists showed that any two objects
attract each other at a rate directly proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the
square of their distance apart. An object ten times closer feels a pull not ten times but a
hundred times greater. And his mathematical invention, calculus, explained why the apple
falls straight down instead of, say, sideways toward a nearby mountain or building: All the
gravitational mass of the earth pulls toward a single point at the planet's centre,
overwhelming the minuscule pull of other objects.

25 The Etvs tests actually showed that objects fall at slightly different rates according
to their atomic makeup the more tightly packed the atomic nucleus, the slower the fall.


PRESENTATION 4


26 Every list of the 20th century's most outstanding figures must include Albert Einstein
because that eraand our ownis unimaginable without him and his influence. Even today,
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a century after his earth-shaking 1905 papers on relativity, quantum theory and molecular
theory, the questions that preoccupied Einstein remain at the forefront of science. Albert
Einstein baffled people with his claims that both time and space are not absolute but relative.
He argued that space-time is curved: and that matter and energy are the same thing.

27 In 1905 Albert Einstein was developing his special relativity theory equating energy
and mass. That was also the year when he proposed that light was itself quantized, or particle-
like to explain how electrons were emitted when light hit certain metals. According to
Einsteins equation, E=mc
2
, where E is energy, m is mass, and c is the unvarying speed of
light, we have come closer to the inner world of an atom, to a world where matter and energy
are interchangeable, because this equation states that mass and energy are merely different
versions of the same thing. Energy is matter and matter is energy. Thus, our reality, material
life is relative or that relativity of the matter is reality. Gravity is overwhelmed by far stronger
forces that bind together matter.

28 In 1916 Einstein modified Newtons Principia with general relativity. While
Newton's universe was clocklike and stately, Einsteins was strange and unsettling. Gravity
was not a simple pull, but the very architecture of the universe itself.
According to Einstein, in a perfectly uniform universe one containing no matter
there would exist only time and a vast sheet of space, representing the possibility of gravity.
Gravity would not yet exist. But if you put matter, say a star, into this universe, you would
distort the sheet of space-time, like setting a cannonball on a taut sheet of canvas. This
dimpling effect is gravity.

29 From the point of Einsteins general relativity, it is easy to say that gravity is not a
force at all. It is simply the normal behaviour of matter in space-time. In terms of general
relativity, then, gravity is simply a curvature caused by material objects in space-time. The
universe itself, fuelled by gravity, is a consortium of the curvatures caused by all celestial
objects pushing against the canvas of space and time. It is a difficult mental image. According
to Einstein, gravity, when strong, slows time and bends space. In 1919 astronomers found
that the tremendous mass of the sun curves space just enough to slow light travelling through
it, thus accounting for the apparent displacement of a star on the far side of the sun as an oar
seems to bend in water.
Some physicists think gravity ultimately could cause the end of the universe, too, if
its current expansion eventually reverses itself in a massive gravitational contraction.

30 A black hole is a creation of gravity, says Stephen W. Hawking, a general
relativist who holds Newtons old chair at Cambridge University.
Newton first posited the idea of escape velocity, and a black hole is an object so
dense that the speed required to escape its gravity is greater than that of light. This was said
by Stephen W. Hawking, the Cambridge astrophysicist and author of A Brief History of Time
and also the author of "cosmic inflation," a theory that modifies the Big Bang explanation of
the creation of the universe. Hawking has Lou Gehrig's disease, a degenerative neurological
condition that has left him nearly paralyzed. He can speak only with the help of a computer
that he operates with minute finger motions. He doesn't claim to know the absolute truth.
Like other scientists, he collaborates with his peers to try to answer questions that seem to
defy human intelligence. He is living proof of the power of the human mind.

31 According to Einstein, during a cataclysmic event in space like the birth pangs of a
black hole, waves of gravity should swarm back and forth across the field of space-time as
an earthquake sends shock waves through the earth.
Because of Newton and Einstein, scientists today can measure gravitys effect with
precision. Still, nobody knows exactly what drives gravity what makes it happen, do they?
Einstein never accepted quantum mechanics because he felt that randomness could
not be the ultimate reality saying that God does not play dice and so he debated the
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point with Danish physicist Niels Bohr. Although on this point Einstein has been
proved wrong today his special relativity theory is put to work in accelerators (CERN, and
others), where energy is transformed into short-lived subatomic particles that fly wildly in all
directions.

32 Western scientific viewpoints try to identify subatomic particles. Nearly all the
several hundred known subatomic particles are made of qurks, bound together by the torn
nuclear force.
Electrons can only show clouds od probability, where electrons are statistically
most likely to be. An electron could be anywhere in or near the cloud. Electrons do not orbit
the nucleus in a two-dimensional plane as planets orbit about the sun. Orbit is a term left over
from what has become an outdated view of atoms.


PRESENTATION 5


33 Niels Bohr stated that electrons behaved in quantum fashion. They remained in fixed
orbits and moved from one orbit to another in quantum leaps, jumps when they emitted or
absorbed energy. Niels Bohr was the first scientist to highlight the fact that the quantum
theory discovered the wholeness of nature and thereby its integrity, inseparability or
indivisibility.

34 In 1925 Heisenberg created the new quantum mechanics, and in 1927 he formulated
the uncertainty principle: it is impossible and technically difficult to measure simultaneously
both the precise momentum and position of a subatomic particle. As described by the
Heisenberg unsertainty principle and the whole of quantum theory, the kind of objects they
seem to be depends on how we observe them. By our observation we alter their states. The
strangest of quantum reality has led us to speculate that reality is a meaningless idea.

35 In the exclusion principle that no two like electrons could occupy the same orbit,
Wolfgang Pauli proposed a theory necessary to understand the chemical bonds between
atoms. Erwin Scgrdinger suggested that electrons were actually waves. Pauli confirmed the
correctness of quantum mechanics by employing the theory of hydrogen atom. Taken
together, these aspects of quantum theory postulated that observation not only affects reality
but in a way creates it we can choose to measure light as particles or as waves. Learning
about the ultimate nature of matter is of utmost importance to the human race. The answer to
the question what the matter and energy is, gives us a vision of ourselves, the vision of the
universe, and man. It is a vision of who we are, where we are going to, and where we come
from. The understanding of the universes deepest secrets leads us to a new concept of reality,
a new period of human history.
Matter is bound energy, particles and waves are one, and reality is a kind of
unscertainty. Everything in the cosmos has been composed of these particles.

36 James Maxwell discovered that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the
same force. The weak force, the strong force, the electromagnetic force and gravitational
force are just aspects or entities of a single underlying interaction, one grand unified theory,
all four forces may be unified as one. This unifying unity is obscured but however there is
one that can be felt in other fields such as philosophy, communications, physics, linguistics,
natural sciences and that is the inner force of communication, the inner law of
communication, the inner force called also spirit, Geist, dah, duh, the whole that exists in
everything. The visible world is the invisible organization of energy said physicist Heinz
Pagels .
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37 Quantum mechanics merely makes statistical predictions for the behaviour of
subatomic matter. Einstein could not abide the randomness of quantum mechanics. God does
not play dice with the world, he declared. So, he spent his last 30 years trying to find a single
theoretical statement that would explain the behaviour of both subatomic particles and the
curved geometry of gravity.

38 The secret of this theory of everything, as physicists only half-jokingly call it, may
lie at the beginning of the universe. When it was just a point of infinite heat, density, and pure
energy, all four forces may have existed as one in a state of symmetry.
As the universe exploded outward, symmetry was broken and the forces split off
from one another. Three of the forces went to work inside atoms, employing tiny force
carriers known as bosons. These short-lived subatomic particles zip back and forth between
protons, neutrons, and electrons, binding them together or pushing them apart. Could
gravitons do the same job for gravity?
Albert Einstein baffled people with his claims that time and space are not absolute
but relative. He argued that space-time is curved: and that matter and energy are the same
thing.

39 Would you like to investigate the work of the scientists and inventors who helped to
establish the modern world?

Scientists claim they have broken the ultimate speed barrier: the
speed of light.

40 In research carried out in the United States, particle physicists have shown that light
pulses can be accelerated to up to 300 times their normal velocity of 186,000 miles per
second.
Exact details of the findings remain confidential because they have been submitted
to Nature, the international scientific journal, for review prior to possible publication. The
work was carried out by Dr. Lijun Wang, of the NEC research institute in Princeton, who
transmitted a pulse of light towards a chamber filled with specially treated cesium gas.
Wang said he could not give details but confirmed: "Our light pulses did indeed travel faster
than the accepted speed of light. I hope it will give us a much better understanding of the
nature of light and how it behaves."

41 Dr. Raymond Chiao, professor of physics at the University of California at
Berkeley, who is familiar with Wang's work, said he was impressed by the findings. "This is
a fascinating experiment," he said.
"The most likely application for this is not in time travel but in speeding up the way
signals move through computer circuits," he said.
Wang's experiment is the latest and possibly the most important evidence that the
physical world may not operate according to any of the accepted conventions.
In the new world that modern science is beginning to perceive, sub-atomic particles can
apparently exist in two places at the same time making no distinction between space and
time.
Wang emphasizes that his experiments are relevant only to light and may not apply
to other physical entities. But scientists are beginning to accept that man may eventually
exploit some of these characteristics for interstellar space travel.

42 David Bohm called the Implicate order: indivisible and mirror image of our reality.
This is the domain of the delta level: less than 4 Hz (vibrations per second) of the cortical
region.
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The spiritual aspect and the comprehension of what is happening is within every
human being. Each and everyone have access to it. Quantum physics has only brushed
experimentally the big question: has matter created mind or mind created matter? Even
though the later is strongly hinted at, the real proof is within the laboratory of one's own
mind. Not within an external technological laboratory apparatus. Although time and space
have been experimentally bridged within major research physics labs recently, the
implications have yet to seep through mankind's psyche.

43 Undoubtedly, the most important realization about the nature of reality in the
history of mankind was made and proven through a series of experiments conducted at the
University of Paris-south in 1982 by a team of optical physicists led by Alain Aspect. These
experiments, using high speed switching mechanisms and photons (particles of light)
produced by mercury vapour, proved without the shadow of a doubt that the famous
mathematical inequality of the theorem of John Bell published in 1964 had indeed been
violated. This expressed for the average person, not versed in the highly complex world of
quantum mechanics which gave us the transistor, computers , superconductivity etc...., that
space is "non-local" which means that it is illusory and the world is not composed of objects
that added together form the Universe. Rather, the "subject" viewing the "object" form an
indivisible whole where everything is related, and everyone influence everyone and
everything else. In other words, there exists a realm outside of space/time where all events of
the fundamental processes of nature and life per se operate outside of space/time but generate
perceived realities within space/time. Non-locality means that this domain is everywhere and
nowhere in particular, everywhen and nowhen. It is nowhere and now&here.

ASSIGNMENTS 6

Who else is behind the new wind of change, where is it blowing,
who is standing against it? Watch the film Visions of the future
and research new scientific ideas! Watch these documentaries by
clicking the related links:
Episode 1 -The Intelligence Revolution: http://www.streaming-
madness.net/watch-online/documentary/michio-kakus-vision...
Episode 2 -The Biotech Revolution: http://www.streaming-
madness.net/watch-online/documentary/michio-kakus-vision...
Episode 3 -The Quantum Revolution: http://www.streaming-
madness.net/watch-online/documentary/michio-kakus-vision...

This 2007 series by Michio Kaku is dedicated to the power that science will have into
molding the world around us conforming it to our expectations in different branches of
science and technology, and help the viewer understand Clarke's third law, realizing
that science fiction has a much higher probability of becoming science fact than the
majority of people think.
The quantum revolution could turn many ideas of science fiction into science fact - from
metamaterials with mind-boggling properties like invisibility through limitless quantum
energy and room temperature superconductors to Arthur C Clarke's space elevator.
Some scientists even forecast that in the latter half of the century everybody will have a
personal fabricator that re-arranges molecules to produce everything from almost
anything. Yet how will we ultimately use our mastery of matter? Like Samson, will we
use our strength to bring down the temple? Or, like Solomon, will we have the wisdom
to match our technology? Everything you see is strictly for the purpose of teaching
and/or enlightenment.
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6.1 WRITE AN ABSTRACT AND DISCUSS THE FILM

Episode 3 -The Quantum Revolution: http://www.streaming-
madness.net/watch-online/documentary/michio-kakus-vision...

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6.2 Quantum field theory
Is a body of physical principles designed to account for subatomic phenomena? The theory also
has found applications in other branches of physics. The theory arises from the attempt to
combine the principles of quantum mechanics with those of relativity in an effort to describe
processes such as high-energy collisions in which particles may be created or destroyed.
The prototype of quantum field theories is quantum electrodynamics (QED), which describes
the interaction of electrically charged particles via electromagnetic fields. Here, electric and
magnetic forces are regarded as arising from the emission and absorption of exchange particles
or photons. These can be represented as disturbances of electromagnetic fields, much as ripples
on a lake are disturbances of the water. Under suitable conditions, photons may become
entirely free of charged particles; they are then detectable as light and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. Similarly, particles such as electrons are themselves regarded as
disturbances of their own quantized fields. Numerical predictions based on QED agree with
experimental data to within one part in 10,000,000 in some cases.
There is a widespread conviction among physicists that other forces in naturethe weak
force responsible for radioactive beta-decay; the strong force, which binds together the
constituents of atomic nuclei; and perhaps also gravitational forcescan be described by
theories similar to QED. These theories are known collectively as gauge theories. Each of
the forces is mediated by its own set of exchange particles, and differences between the
forces are reflected in the properties of these particles. For example, electromagnetic and
gravitational forces operate over long distances, and their exchange particles (the photon and
the graviton) have no mass. The weak and strong forces operate only over distances shorter
than the size of an atomic nucleus. They are mediated by massive particles, which can travel
only short distances during the exchange process.
It is also hoped that all the forces can be encompassed in a single gauge field theory. In such
a unified theory, all the forces would have a common origin and would be related by
mathematical symmetries. The simplest result would be that all the forces had identical
properties. A mechanism called spontaneous symmetry breaking is used to account for the
observed differences.
A unified theory of electromagnetic and weak forces already has considerable experimental
support; it is likely that this theory can be extended to include the strong force. There also
exist theories that include the gravitational force, but these are more speculative.
How about this one? Well, right now Scientists at Los Alamos have developed a new
unbreakable cryptography code that uses the "quantum entanglement " ( non-locality, i.e.
outside of space) property of twin photons to always follow instantly each other's polarization
direction, no matter how far they are separated from one another. This means that they
transcend any notion of space/time as they communicate with each other across infinite space
using the fabric of the Matrixwhich is thought. Remote Viewing par excellence! This is
what Alain Aspect proved experimentally in Paris in 1982. And this realization is being
applied in the year 2000 to cryptography. We are really now exploring and decoding the
world of the fabric of the Universe or the invisible "Matrix of Life."
(http://www.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/20/physics.unhack.idg/index.html)
Baff means puzzle, confuse so as to keep from understanding
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6.3 Some points for discussion:

Why are new ideas resisted when they first make their appearance?

Why did the views of Aristotle and Ptolemy persist for such a long (Examples: The
observation of Copernicus that the earth goes round the sun; the views of Galileo: the
scientific method; Kepler's ideas on planetary motions; Freud's ideas on psychology ;)

There are, however, exceptions and some ideas have been accepted almost without
question: Newton's ideas on gravitation were acclaimed in the eighteenth century just
as Einstein's ideas on relativity were acclaimed in the twentieth.

And also you may investigate other issues, the invention of the jet engine, for example,
the greatest engineering achievement of the century. And yet its inventor, Frank Whittle
was initially met with hostility, indifference and dramatic struggle to get the first jet engine
built. No one would help him at first, and he had to found his own company and build test
engines himself. So dangerous was this that his team often had to flee for cover.

Investigate the work of the scientists and inventors who helped to establish the modern
world and research new scientific ideas!
Who else is behind the new wind of change, where is it blowing, who is standing against it?
Some of the names should be mentioned like:
Bakelite, the first totally synthetic plastic, was named after its inventor Leo Baekelend.
Mathematician Alan Turings ideas on thinking and logic helped to create some of the first
computers. They remain relevant to work on artificial intelligence today.
We could reveal how Ernest Rutherford discovered what atoms are alike inside and how
one element can change into another.

What do we know about Leonardo da Vinci?

What is the golden number? Why is our time too short even to say what Grahams
number is? It would be interesting to probe the nature of numbers whether they are old or
new, named or unnamed.

Have you known that every year thousands of researchers gather at the American
Association for the Advancement of Science meeting in Atlanta to compare notes on the
most exciting discoveries of the previous 12 month? With almost 100 talks covering
everything from sub-atomic particles to life-threatening superbugs, there is bound to be
plenty interesting issues to discover. Every year a similar meeting is also organized in
Rijeka.

There is a new field that is transforming material technology, in chemistry labs, architects
offices, hospitals and fashion houses across the world, the science of smart materials is
emerging. A smart material transforms its properties in response to changes in its
environment. Drawing on nature for inspiration, the smart technologists talk of aircraft
wings inspired by the flight patterns of the locust, energy-saving architecture based on the
properties of a sea cucumber and even of plans to make a biological brain by replacing
inanimate printed circuit boards of conventional computers with soft neural networks that
can think. Interesting?

Can you provide the science answers to some interesting questions that perplex you as for
example how cicadas make so much noise, and when we see the rainbow colours, and if
sneezing damage our heart?


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LECTURE 10 B


Section 1
Biomechanics

Section 2
Group Work/Presentation the Science
behind the Games

Section 3
Ing- Forms


Everything has its beauty, but not
everyone sees it.

A man is known by the company he keeps.

No friend at all is better than a cold one.
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Core Text 1
BIOMECHANICS
FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS AS AN APPROACH TO THE MECHANICS OF
HUMAN POSTURE AND MOTION
Biomechanics is a blend of various areas of science. Applied mechanics, most notably
thermodynamics, continuum mechanics, and mechanical engineering. Disciplines such as fluid
mechanics and solid mechanics, play prominent roles in the study of biomechanics. By
applying the laws and concepts of physics, biomechanical mechanisms and structures can be
simulated and studied.
Graphical approaches in general mechanics can be applied to many problems of biomechanics.
These problems include features relating to postures, motions and force
relationships of the body and its parts. While it might seem that a system of solid-body mechanics
cannot be as rigorously applied in the biological world as it can be to machined parts and
structural materials, still there is no reason to suppose that the principles of mechanics developed
by Newton, Lagrange and others are not involved in both systems. Specialists in biomechanics
should not be able to apply instrumental techniques to biological materials, but should be able to
adopt the rigorous definitions and the analytical mode of thinking that students of practical
mechanics have developed over many years. One of the developments of prime importance is
the concept of the free-body diagram. This is a highly sophisticated way of viewing a body or
part of a body as an isolated entity in space. Since the free-body diagram has proven to be a
powerful analytical tool in the hands of engineers and physicists, it should have comparable
importance also in biomechanics.
Generally similar mathematical diagrams have proven their value as aids in mechanical thinking
from the middle ages to the present. Leonardo da Vincis mechanical and
engineering sketches are less mathematical in emphasis, and they show both pictorialized
constructions and the use of models. These approaches at times even carried into his
anatomical studies.
A body, to the physicist, is anything that occupies space and has inertia. A free body, as viewed in
relation to the mechanics of solids, is really an abstraction; it is a rigid unit, or collection of
interconnected parts regarded as a single rigid system, which is isolated except for force vectors
acting on it. The force vectors represent the sense, direction and magnitude of all applied
environmental forces such as those due to contacts with other bodies including support
forces, pulls, pushes, wind resistance, buoyancy effects, gravitational force or magnetism.
A free-body diagram is thus a special example of the vector diagrams. The size of the arrow in a
free-body diagram is reflective of the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow reveals
the direction in which the force is acting. Each force arrow in the diagram is labeled to indicate
the exact type of force. To construct free-body diagrams, it is extremely important to know
various types of forces. It is generally customary in a free-body diagram to represent the object
by a box and to draw the force arrow from the center of the box outward in the direction in which
the force is acting. The only rule for drawing free-body diagrams is to depeict all the forces
which exist for that object in the given situation.
The various vertical forces associated with the body masses have a resultant through the whole
body center of gravity; the center of gravity (quartered circle) is the weighted midpoint of the
whole system of parallel vertical weight-forces.The whole-body weight acts through the center of
support between the feet. The downward acting weight-force (heavy black arrow) is exactly
balanced by the upward force. The simplest free-body sketch for the two postures would be the
same as for a ball resting on a horizontal support.
(From BIOMECHANICAL STUDIES OF THE MUSCULO SKELETAL SYSTEM, Edited by F. Gaynor Evans, Charles
C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield Illinois, 1961
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Fig. 1 Free-body diagrams of the standing posture. The parallel vertical vectors at the several segmental centers of
gravity (black dots) have a resultant through the center of gravity of the body (heavy black arrow) which is opposed by
a colinear support vector at the feet (also heavy black arrow); the upper insert figure showing a ball resting on a
support is a comparable free-body diagram.

1 CODE TRANSFER (English - Croatian)

1.1 Find the appropriate expressions in Croatian for the
following compounds:

machined parts ...................................................................
structural materials ...................................................................
free-body diagram ..................................................................
highly sophisticated way .....................................................................
powerful analytical tool ............................................................
engineering sketches ...............................................................
pictorialized approach ............................................................
lower limb muscles .................................................................
interconnected parts ................................................................
applied environmental forces .........................................................
wind resistance ...................................................................
upward support force ..................................................................
reliable objective data ..................................................................



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2 COHERENCE
2.1 Match the terms below with their definitions:
a) biomechanics 1. A diagram in which are shown an
isolat ed (t r ee) body and al l t he f orces
exer ted on it by other bodies
b) center of gravity .
c) free body diagram 2. The r esul t ant of a f or ce syst em ( any
d) resul t ant number of forces t reat ed as a group) i s
the si mpl est equival ent syst em t o whi ch
the force syst em can be reduced.
3. The sci ence deal i ng wi t h t he ef f ect of
f or ces upon t he f or m or mot i on of
or ganic bodies.
4. The poi nt or cent er of mas s t hr ough
whi ch passes t he resul t ant of t he
gravi t ati onal forces acti ng upon t he
part i cl es
of t he body f or al l or i ent at i ons of t he
body.
2.2 The following sentences are written at random. Arrange them
according to the logical order of the text development.
a) The whole body weight acts through the center of support between
the feet.
b) One of the developments of prime importance is the concept of the
free-body diagram.
c) The various vertical forces associated with the body masses have a
resultant through the whole body center of gravity.
d) This is a highly sophisticated way of viewing a body or part of a
body as an isolated entity in space.
e) Graphical approaches in general mechanics can be applied to many
problems of biomechanics.
f) Similar mathematical diagrams have proven their value as aids in
mechanical thinking from the middle ages to the present.


3 VITRUVIAN MAN

The image of Vitruvian Man exemplifies the blend of art and science during the
Renaissance and provides the perfect example of Leonardos keen interest in
proportion. In addition, this picture represents a cornerstone of Leonardos attempts to
relate man to nature. Encyclopaedia Britannica online states, Leonardo envisaged the
great picture chart of the human body he had produced through his anatomical
drawings and Vitruvian Man as a cosmografia del minor mondo (cosmography of the
microcosm). He believed the workings of the human body to be an analogy for the
workings of the universe. It is also believed by some that Leonardo symbolized the
material existence by the square and spiritual existence by the circle. Thus he
attempted to depict the correlation between these two aspects of human existence.
[4]

According to Leonardos notes in the accompanying text, written in mirror writing, it
was made as a study of the proportions of the (male) human body as described in
Vitruvius.


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There is no such thing as a universal set of proportions for the human body. The field of
anthropometry was created in order to describe these individual variations. Vitruvius
statements may be interpreted as statements about average proportions. Vitruvius goes
through some trouble to give a precise mathematical definition of what he means by saying
that the navel is the center of the body, but other definitions lead to different results; for
example, the center of mass of the human body depends on the position of the limbs, and in a
standing posture is typically about 10 cm lower than the navel, near the top of the hip bones.
Note that Leonardos drawing combines a careful reading of the ancient text with his own
observation of actual human bodies. In drawing the circle and square he correctly observes
that the square cannot have the same center as the circle, the navel, but is somewhat lower in
the anatomy. This adjustment is the innovative part of Leonardos drawing and what
distinguishes it from earlier illustrations. He also departs from Vitruvius by drawing the arms
raised to a position in which the fingertips are level with the top of the head, rather than
Vitruviuss much lower angle, in which the arms form lines passing through the navel.The
drawing itself is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human
body, and by extension, to the universe as a whole.

Is the Vitruvian Man the first free body diagram?

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Section 2 Presentations/Group
Works


The Science behind the Games

When the speed skater whips through the turn, and the grand-
slalom skier attacks the mountain, and the ice ballerina nails the
triple axel, they are not just competing against extraordinary human
opponents. The athletes of the Winter Olympic Games are also
competing against the every laws of nature. Gravity, friction and air
resistance all inspire against grace, agility and strength. Physicists
like Peter Brancazio of Brooklyn College and Richard Brandt of New
York University have analyzed the forces that operate during athletic
events, deriving equations of motions for ski jumpers and force
vectors for speed skaters. Now the athletes are not powerless
against the equations of physics. At Albertville, sports science
means more than loading up on carbohydrates.
Science has proved to be a swimmers best training partner. For
years Australian and Russian coaches have been analyzing
computer data on turn rate, stroke efficiency and underwater
velocity. During the Olympics in Sydney, seven video cameras
trained on the pool produced computer readouts available to
competitors. Another study is analyzing whether the new bodysuit,
which has water-repellent fabric, really reduces drag or just
increases hype. One of the few sportsmen who wore the ankle-to-
wrist model swore by it. Speed in sport is contagious. Once
barriers are broken, it opens up peoples mind.
Newsweek, February 10, 1992

Soccer players can kick a ball that moves in one direction, then
bends in another. Scientists are looking at how they do it.
The research team specifically studied Bekham's legendary goal against Greece
that put england into the 2002 World Cup tournament.
High-speed cameras showed that Beckham accelerated the ball to 80 miles per
hour, after hitting it about 8 centimeters to the right of its center with the instep of
his right foot. The ball spun counterclockwise at about eight revolutions per second
and started swerving to the left. The ball rose into the air as if it would soar over
the goal's crossbar. Then, it slowed to 40mph, curved further to the left, and
dropped into the top left corner for the goal. The scientists discovered that when
airflow around Beckham's free kick changed from turbulent to laminar, the drag
on the ball increased 150 percent in about one second. That caused the ball to slow
down suddenly and to drop into the net. The imbalance of pressures produces the
magnus side force, which is quite pronounced at the ends of tha ball's flight.
Mechanical Engineering 2004



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1 WHAT IS THE AMERICAS CUP?

1.1 Write subtitles for each paragraph of the
text

The Americas Cup is the worlds oldest and most famous international sailing competition, the
longest and most expensive yachting regatta. It all began in 1851, at Cowes, England, when a
United States schooner named America first won the cup from Britain. Since then there had
been about 30 challenges usually one every three or four years-but no challenger had been
able to win the cup away from the United States. For 132 years it remained proudly displayed
at the New York Yacht Club. Then in 1983, by winning the elimination races in which boats
from many nations competed, the yacht Australia II earned the right to challenge the United
States yacht Liberty.

.
Although getting off to a slow start, and being behind 3-1 at one point (so that Liberty had to
win but one of the next three races, while Australia II had to win all three while losing none in
order to gain the victory), the Australian boat managed to win the next two races, so that the
yachts were tied at 3-3. The suspense and drama of the competition had been building to a
climax, and were further heightened when shifty winds postponed the final contest for several
days. At last, the race of the century, its start delayed an hour because of uncertain winds,
was under way. Liberty got off to a 29-second lead, and increased that lead to 57 seconds by
the end of the fourth leg of the six-leg race.

..
The outcome seemed certain. But then Australia IIs captain and crew skilfully and, as it
seemed, almost miraculously picked up some shifts of friendly wind, surged into the lead, and
accompanied by cheers from their compatriots and other well-wishers, crossed the invisible
finish line a full 41 seconds ahead of the American boat. At that moment Australia II, the yacht
with the mysterious winged keel, had accomplished what no other challenger had been able to
do throughout the 132 years of competition. That night the cup was unbolted from its pedestal
at the New York Yacht Club in Manhattan and taken to Newport, to be presented to its new owners.

.....
Over the years, competition for the Americas Cup has meant people spending fes and has
brought about the creation of some of the most beautiful yachts ever to race the mighty J
class, 40 metres long. Today, in fact since 1958, the Americas Cup has competed for first
place in 12 metre class yachts and modern synthetics have replaced canvas for sails.

..................
Until the early 1970s the yachts were made of wood. At that time the first of the aluminium
boats appeared. This was regarded as a breakthrough and soon all of the Americas Cup
contenders were built of aluminium. The next great breakthrough came with Australias
seventh challenge for the cup, its successful one. The Australians developed a keel with wings,
a new concept in yacht-design that even now is still experimental.