ACI 325.10R-95: Reported by ACI Committee 325

325.
10R-1
This report covers the present state of the art for roller-compacted concrete
pavements. It contains information on applications, material properties,
mix proportioning, design, construction, and quality control procedures.
Roller-compacted concrete use for pavements is relatively recent and the
technology is still evolving. The pavement consists of a relatively stiff mix-
ture of aggregate, cementitious materials, and water, that is compacted by
rollers and hardened into concrete.
Keywords: Aggregates; cements; compaction; concrete construction; con-
crete durability; concrete pavements; consolidation; curing; construction
joints; density; mixing; placing; Portland cement; roller compacted con-
crete, strength.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1Introduction, p. 325.10R-2
Chapter 2Background, p. 325.10R-2
Chapter 3Materials, p. 325.10R-3
3.1General
3.2Aggregates
3.3Cementitious materials
3.4Water
3.5Admixtures
Chapter 4Mixture proportioning, p. 325.10R-8
4.1General
4.2Proportioning by evaluation of consistency tests
4.3Proportioning by soil compaction methods
4.4Fabrication of test specimens
Chapter 5Engineering properties, p. 325.10R-10
5.1General
5.2Compressive strength
5.3Flexural strength
5.4Splitting tensile strength
5.5Modulus of elasticity
5.6Fatigue behavior
5.7Bond strength
5.8Durability
5.9Summary
ACI 325.10R-95 became effective Mar. 1, 1995.
Copyright 1995, American Concrete Institute.
All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or
mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-
tion or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in
writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
ACI 325.10R-95
(Reapproved 2001)
Report on Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements
Reported by ACI Committee 325
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Commentaries
are intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and inspect-
ing construction. This document is intended for the use of individuals
who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its
content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for
the application of the material it contains. The American Concrete Insti-
tute disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The In-
stitute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents.
If items found in this document are desired by the Architect/Engineer to
be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory
language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer.
Shiraz D. Tayabji
Chairman
*
Terry W. Sherman
Secretary
*
William L. Arent Starr Kohn
Robert W. Piggott
*
James R. Berry Ronald L. Larsen
Steven A. Ragan
*
Larry Cole Robert W. Lopez John L. Rice
Benjamin Colucci Richard A. McComb Robert J. Risser
Michael I. Darter B.F. McCullough Raymond S. Rollings
Ralph L. Duncan James C. Mikulanec Michael A. Sargious
Howard J. Durham Paul E. Mueller
Jack A. Scott
*
Robert J. Fluhr Jon I. Mullarky Milton R. Sees
Nader Ghafoori
Antonio Nanni
*
Alan Todres
Jimmy D. Gillard Theodore L. Neff Douglas W. Weaver
Amir N. Hanna James E. Oliverson Gerald E. Wixson
Richard L. Harvey Thomas J. Pasko William A. Yrjanson
Oswin Keifer
*
Ronald L. Peltz Dan G. Zollinger
*
Members of Task Force on Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement who prepared the report. In addition, Associate Member David Pittman also participated in the
report preparation.
325.10R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Chapter 6Thickness design, p. 325.10R-12
6.1Basis for design
6.2Design procedures
6.3Multiple-lifts considerations
6.4Pavement design considerations
Chapter 7Construction, p. 325.10R-14
7.1General
7.2Subgrade and base course preparation
7.3Batching, mixing, and transporting
7.4Placing
7.5Compaction
7.6Joint construction
7.7Curing and protection
Chapter 8Inspection and testing, p. 325.10R-19
8.1General
8.2Preconstruction inspection and testing
8.3Inspection and testing during construction
8.4Post construction inspection and testing
Chapter 9Performance, p. 325.10R-20
9.1General
9.2Surface condition
9.3Skid resistance
9.4Surface smoothness
9.5Roughness
9.6Freeze-thaw durability
9.7Load transfer
Chapter 10Research needs, p. 325.10R-26
Chapter 11References, p. 325.10R-28
11.1Recommended references
11.2Cited references
11.3Additional references
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION
This state-of-the-art report contains information on appli-
cations, material properties, mix proportioning, design, con-
struction, and quality control procedures for roller com-
pacted concrete pavements (RCCP). Roller compacted con-
crete (RCC) use for pavements is relatively recent and the
technology is still evolving. Over the last ten years several
major pavement projects have been constructed in North
America using RCC and the performance of these pavements
has generally been favorable. Roller compacted concrete
pavements are also gaining acceptance in several European
countries and Australia.
The advantages of using RCC include cost savings as a re-
sult of the construction method and the increased placement
speed of the pavement. RCC pavements do not use dowels,
steel reinforcement, or forms. This also results in significant
savings when compared to the cost of conventionally con-
structed concrete pavements.
Roller compacted concrete is used in two general areas of
engineered construction: dams and pavements. In this docu-
ment, RCC will be discussed only in the context of its use in
pavements. RCC for mass concrete is discussed in ACI
207.5R.
Roller compacted concrete for pavements can be de-
scribed as follows:
A relatively stiff mixture of aggregate [maximum
size usually not larger than
3
/
4
in. (19 mm)], cementi-
tious materials and water, that is compacted by vibra-
tory rollers and hardened into concrete. When RCC is
used as a surface course, a minimum compressive
strength of 4000 psi (27.6 MPa) is generally specified.
The materials for RCC are blended in a mixing plant into
a heterogeneous mass which has a consistency similar to
damp gravel or zero slump concrete. It is placed in layers
usually not greater than 10 in. (254 mm) compacted thick-
ness, usually by an asphalt concrete paving machine. The
layers are compacted with steel wheel vibratory rollers, with
final compaction sometimes provided by rubber tire rollers.
The pavement is cured with water or other means to provide
a hard, durable surface. RCC pavements are usually de-
signed to carry traffic directly on the finished surface. A
wearing course is not normally used, although a hot mix as-
phalt overlay has been added, in some cases, for smoothness
or rehabilitation. Transverse and longitudinal contraction
joints for crack control are not usually constructed in RCC
pavements.
RCCP has been used for a wide variety of applications.
These include log sorting yards, lumber storage, forestry and
mining haul roads, container intermodal yards, military ve-
hicle roads and parking areas, bulk commodity (coal, wood
chips) storage areas, truck and automobile parking, and to a
lesser extent, municipal streets, secondary highways, and
aircraft parking ramps.
CHAPTER 2BACKGROUND
The first RCC pavement in North America was identified
by the Seattle office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The project was a runway at Yakima, Washington, con-
structed around 1942. A form of roller compacted concrete
paving was reported in Sweden as early as the 1930s.
1
The first RCC pavement in Canada was built in 1976 at a
log sorting yard at Caycuse on Vancouver Island, British Co-
lumbia. The decision to build RCC was the outgrowth of a
pavement design which called for a 14 in. (356 mm) thick ce-
ment stabilized aggregate base and 2 in. (51 mm) asphalt
concrete surface. As an alternative to the asphalt concrete
surface, the owners decided to increase the cement content of
the top 6 in. (152 mm) of cement stabilized material to 13
percent by weight to improve wear and freeze/thaw resis-
tance. Cement content in the 8 in. (203 mm) base layer was
set at 8 percent. The final result was a 4 acre (1.6 hectares)
log sorting yard with an exposed, cement stabilized crushed
gravel operating surface. No bonding grout was used be-
tween the two cement stabilized layers. Special effort was
made by the contractor to complete both layers on the same
day. Some minor delamination occurred after a few years of
log stacker traffic. This observation lead to the requirement
for a limitation on the maximum time between lifts. The
ROLLER-COMPACTED PAVEMENTS 325.10R-3
Caycuse Log Sorting yard has been in continuous use since
1976. The area of RCC pavement was doubled to 9 acres (3.6
hectares) in a 1978 expansion. A thin asphalt overlay was ap-
plied in 1987 as a minimum cost maintenance operation to
improve pavement smoothness.
Following the success of the paving at Caycuse, three
more RCC dry-land log sorting yards were built on Queen
Charlotte Islands off the coast of British Columbia during
1976 to 1978. These pavements continue to perform well
with little maintenance. By 1980 nearly 20 acres (8 hectares)
of log sorting yards constructed with RCC were in operation
in British Columbia. The next milestone in Canadian RCC
pavement history came when a decision was made to build
12 miles (19.3 kilometers) of 7 in. (179 mm) thick RCC
pavement for a coal mine haul road at Tumbler Ridge in Brit-
ish Columbia. A 4 acre (1.6 hectares) coal storage area was
also built with a 9-in.-thick (229 mm) roller compacted con-
crete. The haul road was surfaced with bituminous concrete
while the storage area remains as an exposed RCC pave-
ment. This region of British Columbia undergoes severe
winter conditions, with frost penetration to a depth of 8 ft
(2.4 m). No distress from the severe winter climate is evident
at the coal storage area, although some failures have oc-
curred in the loaded wheel paths of the haul road.
While these developments were going on in Canada, there
was growing interest in RCC by various organizations in the
United States where RCC for dams was being evaluated in
several test projects. During the early 1980s, engineers at the
United States Army Corps of Engineers started studying the
use of RCC for pavement construction at military facilities.
A small test road for tracked vehicles, 9 in. to 13 in. (229 mm
to 330 mm) thick, 470 yd
2
(392 m
2
) was built at Ft. Stewart,
Georgia, in 1983, and a tank test road 10 in. to 13 in. (254
mm to 330 mm), 590 yd
2
(493 m
2
), was constructed at Ft.
Gordon, Georgia, in the same year. RCC test road construc-
tion by the Corps of Engineers continued in 1984 when 1870
yd
2
(1564 m
2
) of 8.5 in. (216 mm) thick pavement was built
for a tank trail at Ft. Lewis, Washington.
In 1984, the question of freeze/thaw durability of RCC re-
mained to be addressed. The Corps of Engineers constructed
a full scale test pavement at the Cold Regions Research En-
gineering Laboratory in Hanover, New Hampshire, where a
complete range of climatic conditions could be simulated.
The test program was successful, and in a memorandum to
all field offices, dated Jan. 25, 1985, the use of RCC paving
for horizontal construction was encouraged, where appro-
priate, for all facilities administered by the Corps of Engi-
neers.
2
The first full scale RCC pavement designed and built by
the Corps of Engineers was a tactical equipment hardstand at
Ft. Hood, Texas, in 1984.
3
The area of the project was 18,150
yd
2
(15,175 m
2
). A 10 in. (254 mm) thick slab was specified
and a flexural strength of 800 psi (5.5 MPa) was achieved.
This project provided the Corps of Engineers with valuable
information about maximum aggregate size, single versus
multiple lift construction methods, compaction procedures,
curing and sampling of RCC material. During 1986, the
Corps of Engineers built a tracked vehicle hardstand at Ft.
Lewis, Washington. The area of the pavement was 26,000
yd
2
(21,753 m
2
) with a thickness of 8.5 in. (216 mm).
The interest in RCC heavy duty pavement began to expand
beyond the logging and mining industries by the mid-1980s.
The Burlington Northern Railroad selected RCC for 53,000
yd
2
(44,313 m
2
) of paving at a new intermodal facility at
Houston, Texas in 1985,
4
and 128,000 yd
2
(107,021 m
2
) of
intermodal yard paving at Denver, Colorado, in 1986. In
1985 the Port of Tacoma, Washington, constructed two areas
of RCC pavement totalling 17 acres (6.9 hectares).
5,6
Also,
large areas of RCC pavement were constructed at the Conley
and Moran Marine Terminals in Boston between 1986 and
1988.
The largest RCC pavement projects undertaken to date in-
clude the more than 650,000 yd
2
(543,464 m
2
) of 8 and 10 in.
-(203 and 254 mm) thick RCC pavement placed at the Gen-
eral Motors Saturn automobile plant near Spring Hill, Ten-
nessee, and 89 acres (36 hectares) of 10 in.- (254 mm) thick
RCC pavement placed at Ft. Drum, NY. Both were con-
structed in 1988-89 and were used as parking areas and
roads.
Apart from the reported use of RCC at Yakima, Washing-
ton, in 1942, the only example of an airport installation is at
the Portland International Airport in 1985.
7,8
The 14-in. (356
mm) RCC pavement with an area of 9 acres (3.6 hectares) is
used for overflow short term aircraft storage.
There has been a growing interest in the use of RCC pav-
ing for low to moderate traffic streets, and secondary high-
ways. Municipal street pavements have been built in
Portland, Oregon; Regina, Saskatchewan; and Mackenzie,
British Columbia.
Fig. 2.1 to 2.4 illustrate typical RCC pavement practices.
Fig. 2.5 illustrates typical RCC pavement surface at Ft.
Drum, New York, and Fig. 2.6 shows a close-up of the pave-
ment surface adjacent to a sawed longitudinal construction
joint. Fig. 2.7 shows a close-up of an acceptable RCC pave-
ment surface at Ft. Bliss, Texas, and Fig. 2.8 shows a close-
up of an excellent RCC pavement surface.
CHAPTER 3MATERIALS
3.1General
Pavement design strength, durability requirements, and in-
tended application all influence the selection of materials for
use in RCC pavement mixtures. The basic materials used to
produce RCC include water, cementitious materials (cement
and fly ash), and fine and coarse aggregates. Generally, the
cost of materials selected for use in RCC pavements is al-
most the same as the cost of materials used in conventional
portland cement concrete. However, some material savings
may be possible due to the lower cement contents normally
needed in RCC pavement mixtures to achieve strengths
equivalent to those of conventional concrete.
3.2Aggregates
The aggregates comprise approximately 75 to 85 percent
of the volume of an RCC pavement mixture and therefore
significantly affect both the fresh and hardened concrete
properties. Proper selection of suitable aggregates will result
in greater economy in construction and longer serviceability
of RCC pavements. In freshly mixed RCC, aggregate prop-
erties affect the workability of a mixture and its potential to
segregate and the ease with which it will properly consoli-
date under a vibratory roller. The strength, modulus of elas-
ticity, thermal properties, and durability of the hardened
concrete are also affected by the aggregate properties.
Aggregates used in RCC pavement mixtures contain both
fine [finer than the 4.75 mm (No.4) sieve] and coarse frac-
tions, although the fractions may be preblended and stock-
piled as a single aggregate on large projects. The coarse
aggregate usually consists of crushed or uncrushed gravel,
crushed stone, or a combination thereof. The fine aggregate
may consist of natural sand, manufactured sand, or a combi-
nation of the two.
For high quality RCC, both the coarse and fine aggregate
fractions should be composed of hard, durable particles and
the quality of each should be evaluated by standard physical
property tests such as those listed in ASTM C 33. If lower
Fig. 2.1RCC placement using modified asphalt pavers
Fig. 2.2Vibratory roller compaction
quality RCC is acceptable, then aggregates which do not
meet established grading and quality requirements may be
satisfactory as long as design criteria are met. RCC contain-
ing uncrushed gravel generally requires less water to attain a
given consistency than that containing crushed gravel or
stone. RCC containing crushed gravel or stone may require
more effort to compact, and is less likely to segregate. It is
also more stable during compaction and usually provides a
higher flexural strength.
RCC mixtures are typically not as cohesive as convention-
al concrete and therefore, aggregate segregation is an impor-
tant concern. Greater economy may be realized by using the
largest practical nominal maximum size aggregate (NMSA).
Increasing the NMSA reduces the void content of the aggre-
gate and thereby reduces the paste requirement of a mixture.
However, in order to minimize segregation during handling
and placing of RCC and to provide a relatively smooth pave-
ment surface texture, the NMSA should not exceed
3
/
4
in. (19
Fig. 2.3Rubber-tired roller compaction
Fig. 2.4Fog curing of freshly placed RCC pavement
mm). If the coarse and fine aggregate fractions are preblend-
ed and stockpiled as a single size group, segregation may
make grading control difficult. Careful attention must be
given to stockpile formation and subsequent handling of sin-
gle-size group aggregate.
The range of aggregate gradings used in RCC pavement
mixtures has included standard graded concrete aggregates
having normal size separations to pit- or bank-run aggregate
with little or no size separation. If longitudinal and trans-
verse pavement smoothness are of importance, the coarse
and fine aggregates should be combined such that a well-
graded aggregate blend is produced which approaches a
maximum-density grading.
Grading limits that have been used to produce satisfactory
RCC pavement mixtures are shown in Fig. 3.2. The use of
aggregate fractions finer than the 75 micrometers (No. 200)
sieve, if nonplastic, may be a beneficial means to reduce fine
aggregate voids. However, their effect on the fresh and hard-
ened RCC properties should be evaluated in the mixture pro-
portioning study.
Fig. 2.5RCC pavement Ft. Drum, New York
Fig. 2.6RCC pavement surface texture Ft. Drum, New York
3.3Cementitious materials
Cementitious materials used in RCC pavement mixtures
include portland cement or blended hydraulic cement, and
may include pozzolan, or a ground granulated blast furnace
slag. The selection of cement type should be based in part
upon the design strength and the age at which this strength is
required. In addition, applicable limits on chemical compo-
sition required for exposure conditions and alkali reactivity
should follow standard concrete practice. A detailed discus-
sion on the selection and use of hydraulic cements may be
found in ACI 225R. Many of the RCC pavements construct-
ed to date have been constructed using Type I or II Portland
cement and Class F or Class C fly ash.
The use of fly ash in RCC is an effective means of provid-
ing additional fine material needed to assure adequate com-
paction, particularly in those RCC mixtures that contain
standard graded concrete fine aggregate. Fly ash contents
generally range from 15 to 20 percent of the total volume of
cementitious material. The selection of any pozzolan for use
in RCC should be based on its conformance with applicable
Fig. 2.7Acceptable RCC pavement surface Ft. Bliss, Texas
Fig. 2.8Excellent RCC pavement surface Ft. Bliss, Texas
standards or specifications, its performance in concrete, and
its availability at the project location. Guidance on the use of
pozzolans and other finely divided mineral admixtures in
concrete is given in ACI 226R.
3.4Water
Water quality for RCC pavement is governed by the same
requirements as for conventional concrete.
3.5Admixtures
Air-entraining admixtures have had only limited use in
RCC pavement mixtures. However, laboratory research has
conducted at the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Station has indicated that RCC pavement mixtures can
be properly air-entrained using commercially available air-
entraining admixtures at dosage rates 5 to 10 times greater
than conventional concrete. The practicality of producing
air-entrained RCC in the field has not yet been demonstrated.
To date, minimizing frost damage in RCC has been achieved
by proportioning mixtures with sufficiently low water-ce-
mentitious material ratios (w/c) so that the permeability of
the paste is low. Once concrete has dried through self-desic-
cation, it is difficult to again become critically saturated by
outside moisture. The use of proper compaction techniques
which lower the entrapped air-void content, increase
strength, and lower the permeability of the concrete should
also improve the pavements frost resistance. However,
proper air-entrainment of RCC is the best way to assure ad-
equate frost resistance.
Chemical admixtures, including water-reducing admix-
tures and retarding admixtures, have had only limited use in
RCC, primarily in test sections and laboratory investiga-
tions. The ability of a water-reducing admixture to lower the
water requirements or to provide additional compatibility to
an RCC mixture appears to be somewhat dependent on the
amount and type of aggregate finer than the No. 200 (75-m)
sieve. Retarding admixtures may be beneficial in delaying
the setting time of the RCC so that it may be adequately com-
pacted or so that the bond between adjacent lanes or succeed-
ing layers is improved.
CHAPTER 4MIXTURE PROPORTIONING
4.1General
RCC mixture proportioning procedures and properties dif-
fer from those used for conventional concrete due to the rel-
atively stiff consistency of the fresh RCC and the use of
unconventionally graded aggregates. The primary differenc-
es in proportions of RCC pavement mixtures and conven-
tional concrete pavement mixtures are:
1. RCC is generally not air-entrained
2. RCC has a lower water content
3. RCC has a lower paste content
4. RCC generally requires a larger fine aggregate con-
tent in order to produce a combined aggregate that is well-
graded and stable under the action of a vibratory roller
5. RCC usually has a NMSA not greater than
3
/
4
-in.
(19 mm) in order to minimize segregation and produce a rel-
atively smooth surface texture.
The relatively high cementitious material contents and
high quality aggregates used in RCC distinguish it from soil
cement and cement-treated base course. In order for RCC to
be effectively consolidated, it must be dry enough to support
the weight of a vibratory roller, yet wet enough to permit ad-
equate distribution of the paste throughout the mass during
the mixing and compaction operations. Concrete suitable for
Fig. 3.2Typical range of RCC pavement aggregate gradation
compaction with vibratory rollers differs significantly in ap-
pearance, in the unconsolidated state, from that of concrete
having a measurable slump. There is little evidence of any
paste in the mixture until it is consolidated. However, RCC
mixtures should have sufficient paste volume to fill the inter-
nal voids in the aggregate mass. Several methods have been
used to proportion RCC pavement mixtures. These methods
can be placed into one of two broad categories:
1) proportioning by use of concrete consistency tests
2) proportioning by use of soil-compaction tests
4.2Proportioning by evaluation of consistency tests
This method essentially involves proportioning the RCC
mixture for optimum workability at the required level of
strength, using an apparatus such as the Vebe described in
ACI 211.3. The Vebe apparatus has been modified by the
Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation in order
to make it more suitable for use with RCC. It consists of a vi-
brating table of fixed frequency and amplitude, with a metal
container having a volume of approximately 0.33 ft
3
(.0094
m
3
) securely attached to it. A representative sample of RCC
is loosely placed in the container under a surcharge having a
mass of 29.5 or 50 lb (13.3 or 22.7 kg), depending on which
modified apparatus is selected. The measure of consistency
is the time of vibration, in seconds, required to fully consol-
idate the concrete, as evidenced by the formation of a ring of
mortar between the surcharge and the wall of the container.
Although modified Vebe times of 20 to 30 seconds have
been reported as appropriate for RCC containing 1
1
/
2
- to 3-in.
(38 to 76 mm) NMSA and used in mass concrete applica-
tions, these times normally represent concrete that has a con-
sistency too wet to properly place and compact in pavement
applications.
Limited laboratory research indicates that modified Vebe
times, as determined under a 50-lb (22.7 kg) surcharge, of 30
to 40 seconds are more appropriate for RCC pavement mix-
tures.
9
The modified Vebe time should be determined for a
given RCC mixture and compared with the results of on-site
compaction tests conducted on RCC compacted by vibratory
rollers to determine if adjustments in the mixture proportions
are necessary. The optimum modified Vebe time is influ-
enced by the water content, NMSA, fine aggregate content,
and the amount of aggregate finer than the 75 micrometers
(No. 200) sieve. RCC mixtures containing more than ap-
proximately five percent aggregate finer than the No. 200
sieve may be difficult to accurately test using the modified
Vebe apparatus, because the mortar in these mixtures is dif-
ficult to bring to the surface under vibration.
Mixture proportioning methods using consistency tests
usually require fixing specific mixture parameters such as
water content, cementitious materials content, or aggregate
content, and then varying one parameter to obtain the desired
level of consistency. In this way, each mixture parameter can
be optimized to achieve the desired fresh and hardened RCC
properties. One of the primary considerations when using the
methods described in ACI 207.5R which, use consistency
tests, is the proper selection of the ratio (pv) of the air-free
volume of paste to the air-free volume of mortar. RCC pave-
ment mixtures should contain sufficient paste volumes to fill
all internal voids between the aggregate particles. The pv af-
fects both the compatibility of the mixture and the resulting
surface texture of the pavement.
4.3Proportioning by soil compaction methods
Methods that use these tests involve establishing a rela-
tionship between dry or wet unit weight and moisture con-
tent of the RCC by compacting specimens over a range of
moisture contents. It is similar to the method used to deter-
mine the relationship between the moisture content and the
unit weight of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures. The appara-
tus and compactive effort used to fabricate the moisture-den-
sity specimens corresponds to that described in ASTM D
1557, Method D.
The cementitious material content is determined by the
strength and durability requirements of the pavement, and is
often expressed as a percentage of the dry total weight of ma-
terials (cementitious and aggregate). Cementitious material
contents ranging from 10 to 17 percent by dry weight are typ-
ical for RCC pavement mixtures. This range corresponds to
approximately 350 to 600 lb of cementitious material/yd
3
(208 to 356 kg/m
3
) of RCC.
The fine and coarse aggregates, as previously noted, are
combined to create a well-graded blend. The unit volume of
fine and coarse aggregate per unit volume of RCC may be
calculated after the optimum moisture content of the RCC
mixture is determined.
The optimum moisture content of the mixture is defined as
the moisture content corresponding to the peak of the mois-
ture content-density curve, and is dependent on the proper-
ties of the aggregates used and the cementitious material
content. Strength loss will occur in a mixture that has a mois-
ture content significantly below the optimum due to the pres-
ence of additional entrapped air voids. Strength loss will also
occur in a mixture if the moisture content is significantly
above the optimum due to an increase in the water-cementi-
tious material ratio (w/cm). Moisture-density curves are nor-
mally established over a range of cementitious material
contents in order to determine the minimum cementitious
material content which will meet the design requirements.
Moisture-density tests are conducted and a moisture-density
curve is established for each cementitious material content-
desired. Strength test specimens are then compacted at the
optimum moisture content for each particular cementitious
material content. From these tests, a curve of strength versus
cementitious material content (or water-cementitious materi-
al ratio) is established to select the cementitious materials
content.
4.4Fabrication of test specimens
Conventional concrete specimen fabrication procedures,
such as those currently standardized by ASTM, cannot be
used to fabricate RCC test specimens due to the stiff consis-
tency of the concrete. Although a number of procedures have
been used, none have yet been standardized. The procedures
frequently used involve vibrating the fresh RCC sample on a
vibrating table under a surcharge, or compacting the sample
with some type of compaction hammer following the proce-
dures of ASTM D 1557.
For specimens compacted by vibration, the number of lifts
used by various agencies has varied from one to three de-
pending on the type of specimen. The surcharge has varied
from 25 to 200 lb (11.3 to 90.7 kgs), or approximately 1 to 7
psi (0.0069 to 0.0483 MPa), again depending on the type of
specimen. Complete compaction of RCC specimens may be
difficult when using a vibrating table as evidenced by the
fact that samples sawed or cored from RCC pavements
sometimes have unit weights greater than those of fabricated
specimens of similar age and moisture content. This incom-
plete specimen compaction in the laboratory may be partic-
ularly prevalent when a vibrating table is used that has a low
amplitude when a surcharge is used. Vibrating tables used to
date have included the Vebe table, those meeting the require-
ments of the relative density test for cohesionless soils
(ASTM D 4253 and D 4254), and those meeting the require-
ments of ASTM C 192. Depending on the mixture propor-
tions and the vibrating table available for use, it may be
beneficial to produce trial batches at moisture contents
slightly higher than optimum to facilitate compaction of the
concrete.
Specimens compacted by means of a compaction hammer
may have unit weights approximating those of samples taken
from RCC pavements, however a significant number of
blows may be required for adequate compaction. The num-
ber and height of the blows are normally maintained constant
between specimens to achieve uniformity of results. Al-
though compaction of cylinders may be feasible using a
compaction hammer, uniform compaction of beam test spec-
imens for flexural strength with this method may be imprac-
tical.
ASTM Subcommittee C09.45 on Roller Compacted Con-
crete is developing procedures for fabricating laboratory test
specimens for determination of unit weight and strength of
concrete having consistency similar to that of roller com-
pacted concrete.
CHAPTER 5ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
5.1General
A review of the reported engineering properties of RCC
indicates that they are similar to those of conventional pav-
ing concrete. Strength properties of RCC pavements are pri-
marily dependent on the cementitious material content,
aggregate quality and degree of compaction. Although RCC
has been in use for paving for several years, only a limited
number of investigations has been carried out to evaluate its
engineering properties. Currently, no standard procedure ex-
ists for fabricating and testing RCC specimens in the labora-
tory. Therefore, it is not possible to directly compare
properties of laboratory prepared RCC specimens without
considering the procedures used to fabricate test specimens.
As a result, the data base on engineering properties of RCC
is based primarily on tests of specimens (cores and beams)
obtained from actual paving projects or from a few full-scale
test sections.
5.2Compressive strength
Table 5.2.1 shows compressive strengths of cores obtained
from Canadian projects after several years of service. This
data is based on only a limited number of cores obtained
from each project. Table 5.2.2 shows compressive strength
of cores obtained from several U.S. projects. It is seen from
Tables 5.2.1 that high compressive strengths can be achieved
and that the strength levels are comparable to strength levels
obtained for conventional concrete using similar cement
contents.
5.3Flexural strength
Because of the difficulty of obtaining sawed beam speci-
mens from actual pavement sites, there is not much informa-
tion available on flexural strength of RCC. Typical results
from tests of sawed beams from selected RCC pavement
projects are given in Table 5.3. These data are also based on
a limited number of specimens obtained from each project.
Table 5.2.1RCC core compressive strengths for
British Columbia projects
10
Project
Age of
core, years
Cement content,
percent
Compressive
strength, psi
(MPa)
Caycuse log sort yard 4
13, 8
1
4210 (29.0)
Caycuse log sort yard 8 13 5880 (40.5)
Lynterm container port 3 8 4690 (32.3)
Fraser Mills log sort yard 1 13 4700 (32.4)
Bullmoose coal mine 1
14
2
2200 (15.2)
Fraser surrey dock 1 12 4570 (31.5)
Notes:
1. Two lift constructiontop 6 in. (152 mm) lift with 13 percent cement con-
tent, bottom 8 in. (203 mm) lift with 8 percent content.
2. 50 percent cementitious content was natural pozzolan.
Table 5.2.2RCC core compressive strength results for several U.S. projects
Project
Age,
months
Nominal lift thickness
tested, in. (MPa)
Specified compressive
strength, psi (MPa) at
28 days
Average compressive strength, psi (MPa)
Top half of core
Bottom half
of core Uncut core
A 09 7 (178) 4500 (31.0) 8120 (56.0) 6350 (43.8) 6760 (46.6)
B 19 6.5 (165) 5000 (34.5) 4740 (32.7)
C 19 8.5 (216) 5000 (34.5) 4330 (29.9) 2450 (16.9) 4560 (31.4)
D 18 8.5 (216) 3670 (25.3) 7030 (48.5)
E 12 10 (254) 2000 (13.8) 2290 (15.8) 4630 (31.9)
F 28 7 (178) 4500 (31.0) 5260 (32.3) 4230 (29.2)
G 32 8.5 (216) 5000 (34.5) 6890 (47.5) 4910 (33.9)
Source: Unpublished data, S. Tayabji.
The Table also contains corresponding splitting tensile
strengths of companion cores.
Based on beams and cores obtained from a test section, it
was determined that the relationship between compressive
and flexural strengths of RCC was similar to that for conven-
tional concrete, the relationship being of the form:
12
fr = C (5.1)
where
fr = flexural strength (third-point loading), psi (MPa)
fc = compressive strength, psi (MPa)
C = a constant between 9 and 11 depending on actual
RCC mix
More actual data may be needed to define the range of C
with sufficient confidence.
5.4Splitting tensile strength
Splitting tensile strength of cores obtained from actual
RCC pavement projects range from about 400 to over 600
psi (2.8 to over 4.1 MPa) at 28 days depending on the cemen-
titious content of the mix. The tensile strength characteristics
of RCC are more easily and reliably measured by performing
split tensile strength tests on cores than by performing flex-
ural strength tests on sawed beams. Typical splitting tensile
strength data from selected projects are listed in Table 5.3.
5.5Modulus of elasticity
Modulus of elasticity has generally not been measured on
specimens from actual RCC projects. Limited tests on cores
obtained from a full-scale test section indicate that the RCC
modulus of elasticity values may be similar to or slightly
higher than those for conventional concrete with similar ce-
ment contents.
12
5.6Fatigue behavior
Only limited testing has been conducted to evaluate the fa-
tigue behavior of RCC. Like conventional concrete and other
construction materials, RCC is subject to the effects of fa-
tigue. Fatigue failure is defined as material rupture after con-
tinued repetitions of loads that cause stresses less than the
strength of the material. Results of fatigue tests on beams ob-
tained from a full-scale test section incorporating four differ-
ent RCC mixtures indicate that the fatigue behavior of RCC
is similar to that of conventional concrete.
12
5.7Bond strength
Bond strength at the interface of RCC lifts is a critical en-
gineering property. Bond strength determines whether RCC
pavement constructed in multiple lifts will behave as a
monolithic layer or as partially bonded or unbonded lifts.
The load carrying capacity of partially bonded or unbonded
lifts is significantly lower than that of bonded lifts of equal
total thickness.
Bond strength development is low for untreated cold
joints. Ideally, interface bond strength should be at least 50
percent of the strength of the parent RCC material based on
good engineering practice. Data on interface bond strength is
fc
given in Table 5.7.1. This data was developed by testing
cores obtained from RCC test pads constructed at Tooele
Army Depot in Utah.
13
The data in Table 5.7.1 indicates that
sufficient interface bond strength can be achieved for prop-
erly constructed RCC pavements. However, data from limit-
ed testing at Conley Terminal given in Table 5.7.2 show that
bond strength development along edges of longitudinal con-
struction joints may not be as good as in interior locations.
5.8Durability
Because of the manner in which RCC is mixed and placed,
it has not been practical to entrain air in RCC mixtures on
field projects. Many of the projects constructed in the past
which are performing well are located in coastal areas
(northwestern U.S. and western Canada) where numerous
freeze-thaw cycles occur. Recently, large scale RCC pave-
ments were constructed in severe freeze-thaw areas such as
Denver, Boston, and the State of New York (Ft. Drum).
However, these projects have not been in service long
enough to enable any conclusion to be drawn regarding
freeze-thaw durability of RCC.
RCC samples obtained from pavement field projects have
not shown good freeze-thaw durability when tested and eval-
uated in the laboratory according to the procedures of ASTM
C 666. However, this does not necessarily mean that RCC
will not be durable in the field. Although ASTM C 666 is a
useful test for evaluating durability of conventional concrete,
its direct applicability to RCC is not clear. The best indicator
of RCC durability is its performance in the field. The recent-
ly constructed RCC pavements in Denver, Boston, and at Ft.
Drum will help resolve the question of RCC durability.
5.9Summary
Evaluation of test data from RCC paving projects shows
that the structural behavior of RCC is similar to that of con-
ventional normal weight concrete. Thus, RCC can be treated
much like conventional concrete when designing thickness
of a pavement.
It is clear that only a limited data base exists on engineer-
ing properties of RCC mixtures. No definitive studies have
been performed to determine influences of various parame-
ters on the engineering properties of RCC.
The properties of RCC discussed above are not applicable
to RCC material within 12 to 18 in. (305 to 457 mm) to edges
Table 5.3Flexural and splitting tensile strength data
from U.S. RCC projects
11
Project
Age,
days
Sawed beam and core test results
Average flexural
strength, psi
Average splitting
tensile strength, psi
Ft. Stewart 90 1010
Ft. Hood 7 661
28 830
Harvey Barracks 7 338
28 783 402
Ft. Campbell 7 647 398
28
Aberdeen Proving Ground 7 553 379
28 627 452
that are unsupported during compaction. Because of inade-
quate compaction along these areas, strengths of RCC at
these locations may be less than at interior locations.
CHAPTER 6THICKNESS DESIGN
6.1Basis for design
Because the structural behavior of RCC is similar to that
of conventional paving concrete, the design procedures used
for RCC pavements follow very closely the procedures used
for design of conventional concrete pavements. The thick-
ness design of conventional concrete and RCC pavements is
based on keeping the flexural stresses and fatigue damage in
the pavement caused by wheel loads within allowable limits.
Stresses and fatigue damage are greatly influenced by wheel
load placement there is a greater effect for loads placed
along edges and joints and less at the interior location of the
pavement.
6.2Design procedures
Thickness design procedures for RCC pavements have
been developed by the Portland Cement Association
Table 5.7.1Direct tensile strength at lift interface at Tooele Army Depot, Utah
13
Sample No. Pad Lane Sta
Direct tensile strength, psi
T
LJ
*
, percent
Lift exposure
time (min)
Interface Parent
1 1 1 100 260 334 078 50
2 1 1 052 420 295 142 50
4 1 3 200 332 338 098 75
5 1 4 215 290 362 080 85
6 2 1 200 015 305 005 80
7 2 2 045 198 328 060 60
8 2 10 040 365 285 128 35
1 1 208 234 272 086 70
1 2 230 061 393 016 60
1 3 100 249 261 095 075
1 4 060 162 287 056 85
1 5 200 137 301 046 115
2 8 060 246 381 065 30
2 14 055 215 284 076 35
2 15 060 011 305 004 35

Average 213 315 69 63
Range 11-420 261-393 4-142 30-115
Standard deviation 116 38
Coefficient of variation, percent 55 12
Average excluding 3 low values 259 311 84 64
* Coefficient of lift bond T
LJ
".
Direct tensile strength at interface (psi) X 100
Direct tensile strength of parent RCC (psi)
Thickness cores taken at early age. Other cores taken with sawn beams. All tested at 5 months of age.
(SI conversion; 1 MPa = 145 psi)
Table 5.7.2Core test results Conley Terminal, Boston
Site Location Core No. Layer
Thickness, in.
(mm)
Shear strength, psi (MPa) Splitting tensile
strength, psi
(MPa) Parent Interface
A
Interior 1 Top 6.25 (159) 295 (2.0) 680 (4.7)
5.50 (140) 565 (3.9)
Edge 2 Middle 6.25 (159) 185 (1.3) 320 (2.2)
6.00 (152) 320 (2.2)
B
Interior 3 Top 6.00 (152) 520 (3.6)
None
Edge 4 Middle 6.25 (159) 315 (2.2)
None
C
Interior 5 Top 6.25 (159) 340 (2.3) 565 (3.9)
6.00 (152) 495 (3.4)
Edge 6 Middle 6.00 (152) 255 (1.8)
None
D
Interior 7 Top 5.75 (146) 545 (3.8)
None
Edge 8 Middle 6.00 (152) Separated 340 (2.3)
6.25 (159) 350 (2.4)
Average Interior 495 (3.4) 320 (2.2) 575 (4.0)
Edge 255 (1.8) 185 (1.3) 329 (2.3)
Source: Tayabji, S. D., 1987, Unpublished data on core testing at Conley Terminal, Boston.
(PCA)
14
and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
15
The PCA
procedure is applicable primarily to industrial pavements but
can be used for similar paving applications. The procedure is
based on interior load condition and uses a unique design fa-
tigue relationship for RCC paving material. This procedure
is very similar to the PCA procedure for the design of con-
crete industrial pavements. To use the PCA procedure, the
following information is needed:
1. Supporting strength of subgrade or subbase/sub-
grade combination
2. Vehicle characteristics
a) Wheel loads
b) Wheel spacing
c) Tire characteristics
d) Number of load repetitions during the design life
e) Flexural strength of RCC
f) Modulus of elasticity of RCC
A typical design chart for single wheel loading is shown in
Fig. 6.2.1.
The Corps of Engineers thickness design procedure for
RCC pavement is also similar to the Corps procedure for
conventional concrete pavements. It assumes no load trans-
fer at joints for airfield applications but uses interior loading
condition for other types of pavement applications. A typical
thickness design chart for roads, streets, open storage areas
and parking areas is given in Fig. 6.2.2. Fig. 6.2.2 requires
use of a Design Index for traffic. The determination of the
design index is given in Table 6.2.
6.3Multiple-lifts considerations
RCC pavements thicker than about 10 in. (254 mm) are
generally constructed in multiple lifts to ensure adequate
compaction of each lift. Testing of core samples obtained
from RCC paving projects indicates that properly construct-
ed multiple-lift PCC pavements develop sufficient bond at
Fig. 6.2.1PCA design chart for single wheel loads
the interface of the multiple lifts to be considered monolithic,
except along edges that were unsupported during compac-
tion. As a result, this assumption is used in most RCC pave-
ment thickness design procedures. However, it is
emphasized that the proper procedures need to be followed
in multi-lift construction to assure that adequate bond be-
tween lifts is achieved. The surface of the lower lift is kept
moist and clean until the upper lift is placed, which should be
done within the time limits (generally 1 hr) stated in the
project specifications. When these recommendations cannot
be met due to unforeseen delays or other factors, a cement
slurry or a sand-cement grout is used to assure bonding of the
multiple lifts. When a slurry or grout is used to assure bond-
ing because of delays, sufficient time should be allowed for
the lower lift to gain adequate strength prior to placing and
compacting the upper lift. If final set of the lower lift has oc-
curred, placement and compaction of the upper lift may re-
sult in cracking of the lower lift if an adequate strength has
not been achieved.
6.4Pavement design considerations
Geometric design of RCC pavements follows standard
practice for conventional pavements. Irregularly shaped ar-
eas of limited size and access may require placement of con-
ventional concrete pavement. Transverse joints, when used,
have typically been spaced between 30 ft and 70 ft (9.1 and
21.3 m) apart. Longitudinal contraction joints are not used
with RCC pavements. The direction of paving, and conse-
quently the direction of the longitudinal construction joints,
has usually been in the long dimension of the pavement. Oc-
casionally, in order to minimize the number of cold longitu-
dinal construction joints, the direction of paving has been in
the short direction of the pavement. This practice has been
successful in reducing cracking and providing better durabil-
ity of the RCC along the longitudinal construction joints.
CHAPTER 7CONSTRUCTION
7.1General
RCC pavement construction involves the laydown and
compaction of a very stiff concrete mixture using equipment
and techniques similar to those for asphalt pavement construc-
tion. Consequently, relatively large quantities of concrete
pavement may be placed rapidly with minimal labor and
equipment. RCC pavements do not use dowels, steel rein-
forcement, or forms. This typically results in significant sav-
ings when compared to the cost of conventionally constructed
concrete pavements. Construction of RCC pavement typically
involves the preparation of subgrade and base course(s);
batching, mixing, and transportation; placing, compaction,
and joint construction; and curing and protection.
7.2Subgrade and base course preparation
The subgrade and base course (where used) for RCC pave-
Fig. 6.2.2Corps of Engineers design chart for RCC pavements
ments must meet the same requirements as those for conven-
tional concrete pavements. The subgrade and base courses
are prepared to provide sufficient support to permit full com-
paction of the RCC throughout the entire thickness of the
pavement. The base course is often used to drain water from
the underside of the pavement to prevent saturation of the
concrete in areas where the bottom of the pavement is sub-
jected to freeze-thaw cycling. Adequate smoothness of the
base course is a requirement for pavements which have rela-
tively tight smoothness tolerances. The surface of the base
course is typically wetted immediately before the concrete is
placed to help prevent moisture being absorbed from the
concrete. This is especially important for these very dry mix-
es. String lines are generally set up on the base course to
guide the paver screed to the proper grade and height above
the base course, and to properly align the paver in the longi-
tudinal direction.
7.3Batching, mixing, and transporting
RCC requires a vigorous mixing action to disperse the rel-
atively small amount of mixing water evenly throughout the
matrix. Batching of the concrete has been accomplished suc-
cessfully using either a continuous-mixing pugmill or batch
rotary-drum plant. A continuous-mixing pugmill plant is
commonly used because it may be easily transported and set
up at the site, has a relatively large output capacity, and pro-
vides excellent mixing efficiency (Fig. 7.3). Weigh-batch
systems generally allow more accurate control of the propor-
tions of material in each batch than a continuous-mixing
plant, but the output capacity of the plants may not be suffi-
cient to allow smooth, continuous operation of the paver on
larger paving projects [greater than 5000 yd
2
(4180 m
2
)]. For
larger projects, plant capacities of 250 tons (254,000 kg) per
hour or larger have been used successfully. On smaller
projects, where the cost of a large capacity on-site plant may
not be justified, a modified local asphalt concrete weigh-batch
plant and a truck-mounted, mobile concrete mixing plant [60
yd
3
(46 m
3
) per hour capacity], has been used successfully.
In continuously mixing pugmills, a gobb hopper attached
to the end of the final discharge belt has been used to reduce
the free-fall height of the concrete (and thereby reduce seg-
regation), and to temporarily hold the concrete discharge be-
tween subsequent dump trucks. The use of the gobb hopper
allows the plant to operate more or less continuously, there-
by improving mix uniformity. The plant is generally located
as close as possible to the paving site to minimize the haul
time of the concrete to the paver(s). Rear dump trucks are
used to transport the concrete to the paver, and are some-
times equipped with covers when necessary to protect the
concrete against adverse environmental effects, such as rain,
wind, cold or heat. The dump trucks back up to the paver and
discharge the concrete directly into the paver hopper, as the
paver pushes the dump truck ahead of it.
7.4Placing
RCC is typically placed with an asphalt paver, modified as
Table 6.2U.S. Army Corps of Engineers rigid pavement design index values
Rigid pavement design index for road or street
Classification
Traffic category A B C D E F
I 2 2 2 1 1 1
II 3 2 2 2 2 1
III 4 4 4 3 3 2
IV 5 5 5 4 4 3
V [60-kilopound (kip) track-laying vehicles, 15-kip
forklift trucks]:
500/day 7 7 7 7 7 a
200/day 6 6 6 6 6 a
100/day 6 6 6 6 6 6
40/day 6 6 6 5 5 5
10/day 5 5 5 5 5 5
4/day 5 5 5 5 4 4
1/day 5 5 5 4 4 4
VI (90-kip track-laying vehicles, 20-kip forklift trucks):
200/day 9 9 9 9 9 a
100/day 8 8 8 8 8 8
40/day 7 7 7 7 7 7
10/day 6 6 6 6 6 6
4/day 6 6 6 6 6 6
1/day 5 5 5 5 5 5
1/week 5 5 5 4 4 4
VII (120-kip track-laying vehicles, 35-kip forklift
trucks):
100/day 10 10 10 10 10 10
40/day 9 9 9 9 9 9
10/day 8 8 8 8 8 8
4/day 7 7 7 7 7 7
1/day 6 6 6 6 6 6
1/week 5 5 5 5 5 5
necessary to accommodate the relatively large amount of
material (a function of layer thickness) moving through the
paver. These modifications may include enlarging the gates
between the feed hopper and screed. Adjusting the spreading
screws in front of the screed to insure that the concrete is
spread uniformly across the width of the paving lane is sim-
ilar to usual hot mix asphalt paving practices. The paver is
usually equipped with automatic grade-control devices, such
as a traveling ski or electronic stringline grade control de-
vice. For best finished smoothness, a stringline is used on
both sides of the screed for the first lane, and on the outside
edge of the screed on subsequent lanes using the finished
edge as the guide on the other side. Maintaining continuous
forward motion with the paver helps prevent the formation
of bumps or depressions on the final pavement surface. This
is achieved by balancing paver speed with maintainable con-
crete delivery rate. The pavers are typically equipped with
vibratory screeds to provide some initial external compac-
tion.
Recent paver models have included one or more tamping
bars in addition to the vibration to increase the compactive
effort and therefore the initial density behind the screed, with
beneficial effects on final smoothness and density. However,
the increased compactive effort, especially at the surface of
the pavement, has been suggested as the cause of a network
of interconnected superficial cracks and fissures sometimes
observed in the pavement surface directly behind the heavy-
duty screeds. These cracks may be removed partially or to-
tally during the rolling process. The formation of these
cracks seems to be related to the moisture content of the RCC
mixture and the amount of pressure applied by the screed to
the surface.
The timing of the placement and compaction of the paving
lanes is critical to obtaining adequate density and smooth-
ness in the finished RCC pavement. The concrete is usually
placed and compacted while it is still fresh and workable,
usually within 45 to 90 minutes after the addition of water at
the plant, depending on environmental conditions. This time
limitation for compaction of the concrete governs the time
between placement of adjacent lanes, since the joint area is
generally the last portion of the lane to be compacted (see
Joint Construction). One method of accommodating the
time limitation between placement of adjacent lanes is to
limit the length of the paving lanes. Two or more pavers
moving in echelon will also help reduce the time between ad-
jacent lanes.
Curbs, gutters, and recessed drains have been often in-
stalled before and after the RCC placement. When installed
before the RCC is placed, they provide confinement to aid
compaction of the edge of the pavement. When installed af-
ter the RCC is placed, their height may be more easily
matched to the surface of the RCC pavement. Manholes are
more easily installed after the RCC is placed and compacted,
by building the manhole level with the grade of the base
course, covering it with a steel plate, and paving over the
manhole. The next day, a block of RCC is sawn full depth
and removed from over the manhole, the manhole built up to
the pavement surface, and conventional concrete used to fill
the remaining void.
7.5Compaction
RCC is usually compacted with a 10-ton dual-drum vibra-
tory roller, immediately after the concrete is placed. A com-
mon roller pattern involves making two static passes (one
back-and-forth motion equals two passes) on the fresh con-
crete surface to set the surface before the vibratory rolling
begins. The static passes are followed by several vibratory
passes until the specified density is achieved, usually after
four or more passes. The vibratory compaction may then be
usually followed by several passes of a 10 to 20 ton rubber-
tire roller to tighten any surface voids or fissures. Finally, a
static roller may be used to remove any roller marks left by
Fig. 7.3Schematic of continuous mixing pugmill plant
the vibratory or rubber-tire rollers. Variations in this roller
pattern have included; a) not using the vibratory mode of the
roller, and increasing the number of static passes; and b) not
using a rubber-tire roller to tighten the surface texture. Vi-
bratory rollers with rubber-covered steel drums have also
been used.
Since there is no standardized means of determining the
consistency of RCC, a good indication that the RCC is ready
for compaction is by observation of the behavior of the fresh
RCC under the static roller passes. RCC which is of the prop-
er consistency for compaction will deflect uniformly under
the roller passes. If the RCC is too wet for proper compac-
tion, the surface will appear shiny and pasty, and the RCC
will exhibit pumping behavior under the roller and even
under foot traffic. If the RCC is too dry, the surface will ap-
pear dusty or grainy and may even shear horizontally; the
roller will not make a deep impression in the surface; and the
specified density will be difficult to obtain, especially in the
lower portion of the lift. Only minor adjustments in the water
content, for workability, should be made or a new mix design
may be needed.
Provided the RCC is placed on a uniform graded and com-
pacted base, the rolling operation is the most critical element
of the construction process in obtaining a desirable density,
smoothness, and surface texture. The skill of the roller oper-
ator plays a key role in obtaining these desirable qualities.
During the course of vibratory compaction, the roller opera-
tor should not stop on the pavement in the vibratory mode,
and successive roller passes have been staggered to avoid
creating a depression across the pavement surface. At the
end of the paving lane, the rollers roll off the unconfined end
of the lane, creating a rounded ramp of concrete which is re-
moved before the next lanes are placed.
7.6Joint construction
The joints in an RCC pavement are the most critical areas
for obtaining adequate smoothness and density. Longitudi-
nal joints are formed between adjacent paving lanes in the di-
rection of paving, and transverse joints are formed at the
ends of paving lanes perpendicular to the direction of paving.
A fresh joint is formed between successive paving lanes
when the time interval between placing and compacting the
lanes is short enough to allow the lanes to be compacted to-
gether to form a monolithic juncture of the lanes. This time
interval is usually one hour, more or less, depending on
wind, temperature, and humidity.
Fresh longitudinal joints are constructed by leaving the
outer 12 to 18 in. (305 to 457 mm) of the paving lane uncom-
pacted during the rolling operation. This uncompacted edge
is then used to set the height of the paver screed for paving
the adjacent lane. After the adjacent lane is placed, the joint
is compacted by centering the roller drum over the joint and
compacting the adjacent lane edges simultaneously as illus-
trated in Fig. 7.6.1. More passes may be needed at the joint
Fig. 7.6.1Roller pattern for fresh construction joint
16
than the interior portion of the lane to obtain the specified
density and adequate smoothness across the joint. Construc-
tion joints (often referred to as cold joints in RCC pave-
ments) are formed between adjacent lanes when the concrete
in the older lane has hardened to the extent that it cannot be
compacted with the fresher lane. This usually occurs after
the concrete in the older lane has been in place, without be-
ing compacted, for over an hour (more or less depending on
environmental conditions). Construction joints are usually
constructed by trimming away the outer uncompacted edge
of the paving lane with a concrete saw, and paving against
the resulting clean vertical edge as illustrated in Fig. 7.6.2.
Transverse construction joints are usually formed by trim-
ming away the rounded end ramps with a concrete saw, and
paving the successive lanes against the remaining vertical
edge. Fresh overlapping material which is left on top of the
older hardened lane at construction joints very frequently re-
sults in undesirable raveling and spalling at the construction
joint at later ages. The overlapping material is usually re-
moved before the joint is compacted.
Sawed contraction joints (used to control cracking) were
typically not used in earlier RCC pavements, with the pave-
ments being allowed to crack naturally. This practice con-
tributed to the economy of constructing RCC pavements.
However, the resultant natural cracks may ravel. In general,
it is not clear whether the cracks significantly affect the ser-
viceability of the pavements, but the desire for a more aes-
thetically pleasing surface has led to the use of sawed
contraction joints in few recent RCC pavements. These
joints are usually sawed within 48 hours after compaction of
the RCC, with the least raveling during the sawing operation
occurring at the latter part of this interval.
The transverse joint spacings have typically ranged from
30 to 70 feet (9.1 to 21.3 m), depending on natural crack pat-
terns noticed in RCC pavements of similar geometry or in
test sections. The depth of the sawcuts has ranged from
1
/
4
to
1
/
3
the pavement depth. Longitudinal contraction joints are
typically not sawed, since the width of the longitudinal pass
is limited by paver screed width, and has usually been suffi-
cient to prevent avoid random longitudinal cracking. Natu-
rally occurring cracks are usually not sealed, again in the
interest of economy; however, sawed joints usually are
sealed. Isolation joints have been used in RCC pavements to
isolate fixed structures occurring within or along the pave-
ment boundaries, such as building foundation slabs, gutters,
and manholes. The isolation joint material is usually tacked
to the cold joint face, gutter, or building before the adjacent
lane is placed.
7.7Curing and protection
Because RCC has a relatively low water content, moist
curing has been used for most projects. Moist curing benefits
the pavement by allowing the concrete to develop the design
strength and to help prevent scaling and raveling of the hard-
ened surface. RCC is typically moist cured for a minimum of
seven days. A water truck equipped with a spray bar is com-
monly used to keep the surface moist on the first day, after
which an irrigation sprinkler system, wetted burlap, or con-
tinued use of the water truck is used to keep the surface moist
for the remainder of the curing period. Depending on envi-
ronmental conditions, water spray trucks have sometimes
been unable to provide water at a fast enough rate to avoid
some surface drying.
A membrane-forming compound was used to cure an ear-
lier RCC pavement, but this resulted in wide-spread scaling
and raveling of the hardened pavement surface. An asphalt
emulsion has been used in Canada and Europe with some
success in curing RCC, but is often then covered with an as-
phalt concrete overlay. All vehicular traffic except for water
spray trucks is usually kept from the pavement surface for a
minimum of 14 days. A common practice in Europe is to al-
low the opening of an RCC pavement after 24 hrs, usually af-
ter the application of an asphalt concrete or chip seal wearing
course to protect the surface from traffic abrasion. This prac-
Fig. 7.6.2Roller pattern for cold construction
16
tice takes advantage of the stability of the new RCC pave-
ment, but the effects of early loading on the long-term
durability and fatigue characteristics of the concrete are un-
known.
RCC pavements have been placed under misty conditions
with very little effect on the final surface texture. However,
a steady rain during compaction can result in a high water/
cement ratio slurry or paste forming on the surface, or the
erosion of surface fines from the fresh surface leaving an ex-
posed-aggregate condition. Protective practices similar to
those for conventional concrete have been suggested for
placing RCC when the ambient temperature is hot (85 F or
greater) or cold [40 F (4.4 C) or less]. Particular attention is
given to keeping the surface moist at all times in hot, dry, or
windy weather.
CHAPTER 8INSPECTION AND TESTING
8.1General
Inspection and testing procedure for RCC pavements are
similar to those for conventional concrete pavements, with a
few exceptions. To ensure that a quality pavement is con-
structed, inspection and testing are typically the joint respon-
sibility of the contractor and the owner/engineer. The extent
of the inspection and testing will depend on the nature and
the size of the project and will be specified in the contract
documents. Generally, a minimum of two inspectors is re-
quired to ensure that a quality RCC pavement is being con-
structed; one inspector should be stationed at the mixing
plant and one at the job site.
17
8.2Preconstruction inspection and testing
Preconstruction inspection and testing typically include
quality testing of materials, inspection of mixing plant, plant
calibration, inspection of equipment, and the construction,
inspection and testing of a test section.
8.2.1 Materials testingSampling and testing of materi-
als for RCC paving are typically the same as for convention-
al concrete. Prior to construction, materials are sampled and
tested in accordance with specified standards and are accept-
ed or rejected in accordance with contract specifications.
Materials to be tested include aggregates, cementitious ma-
terials, water, and admixtures.
As with conventional concrete materials, materials for
RCC paving should be transported, handled and stored in
strict compliance with contract specifications. Because of
the great importance of aggregate segregation, special atten-
tion should be given to handling and storage of aggregates to
avoid breakage, segregation and contamination.
8.2.2 Mixture proportioningFollowing materials test-
ing, mixture proportioning studies are conducted, as de-
scribed in Section 4, to assure that design requirements for
strength, durability and other properties can be met.
8.2.3 Mixing plantPrior to beginning paving operations,
the mixing plant is thoroughly inspected for compliance with
contract specifications. Two items of particular importance
to the construction of RCC pavements are plant capacity and
mixer type. A mixing plant is selected to provide the mini-
mum capacity needed to feed adequately mixed RCC to the
paver without delays and starting and thus minimize cold
joints. The mixer type is selected to assure that the stated
plant capacity can be attained while ensuring adequate mix-
ing of the RCC materials. The mixing plant is typically a sta-
tionary twin-pugmill mixer. Tilt drum mixers and truck
mounted mobile mixing plants with a screw auger mixing
chamber have produced satisfactory RCC for smaller jobs.
Plant capacities of 200 to 500 tons/hr have typically been
used on medium to large size projects.
8.2.4 EquipmentIt is essential that all the equipment
meet the requirements of the contract specifications an be
maintained in satisfactory working condition. Equipment
typically used for RCC pavement construction include RCC
pavers, rear dump trucks, vibratory steel-wheeled rollers,
rubber-tired rollers, and finish steel-wheeled rollers.
8.2.5 Test sectionA significant deviation from conven-
tional concrete pavement is the requirement for a test section
prior to construction. The purpose of the test section is to allow
the contractor to develop and demonstrate the proposed tech-
niques of mixing, hauling, placing, compacting, finishing
(smoothness and surface texture), curing, and the preparation
of the construction joints. Additionally, the test section pro-
vides the contractor the opportunity to demonstrate laydown
method and rate, rolling pattern, rolling method for both fresh
and cold construction joints, start-up and finishing procedures,
curing, testing methods and plant operations.
The test section should be constructed on an approved
compacted base course using the same equipment, materials
and construction techniques to be used on subsequent work.
Sampling and testing of the RCC pavement test section are
to be completed prior to the start of paving operation. The
test section generally includes constructing both longitudinal
and transverse cold joints and a fresh joint. This usually re-
quires three 12 to 14 ft (3.7 to 4.3 m) wide lanes, each 150 ft
(45.7 m) long with 1
1
/
2
lanes placed the first day and the rest
placed the next day. Special attention is given to construction
of fresh and cold joints, rolling pattern of rollers, correlation
between laboratory and nuclear gauge densities, and correla-
tion between density and number of passes of rollers and
achieving full density through full depth of each lift. Upon
completion of the test section, the surface is checked for
smoothness, tears, and surface smoothness.
8.3Inspection and testing during construction
During construction, the mixing plant is routinely checked
and calibrated as necessary to ensure that it is producing an
RCC mixture within the tolerances specified in the contract
specification.
Gradation tests, aggregate moisture tests, moisture-density
tests, field density and moisture tests, surface smoothness
determinations, fabrication and testing beams or cylinders,
and plant calibration are performed at the frequencies speci-
fied in the contract specifications. Generally, gradation tests
have been run 3 times a day, or every 500 yd
3
(382 m
3
). Ag-
gregate moisture tests have been run daily, or as often as re-
quired. Moisture content of RCC has been checked, as
required, using a microwave oven. Density tests have been
performed every 100 ft (30 m) by nuclear density gages. Nu-
clear density gage readings have been checked against a
specified density, such as a standardized block of RCC pave-
ment.
18
Prior to paving operations, the base course is checked for
grade and density. The base course is generally moistened
prior to paving. During paving operations, the paver is con-
tinuously monitored to ensure that it is adjusted and its speed
is regulated so that the RCC pavement surface is smooth and
continuous without tears, that the RCC pavement is the re-
quired depth, and that it conforms to the required grade and
smoothness after compaction. Surface smoothness is gener-
ally checked using a straightedge or profilometer. Accept-
able tolerances have generally ranged from
1
/
4
to
3
/
8
in. (6.4 to
9.5 mm) deviation from a 10 or 12-ft (3 or 3.7 m) straight-
edge; however, the end use of the pavement is an important
factor in setting these requirements. Placement procedures
are checked to ensure that all RCC mixture is placed and
compacted within the time limit specified, generally 45 to 60
min, and in a pattern whereby cure water from previous
placements does not affect the placement and compaction of
fresh RCC.
Compaction of the RCC is closely monitored to ensure
compaction begins and is completed within the specified
time limits, and that compaction is accomplished using the
rolling pattern and procedure developed during construction
of the test section. After initial vibratory rolling, preliminary
inspection and testing for density, smoothness and surface
texture are completed and deficiencies are noted and correct-
ed before final rolling is continued. After deficiencies, if any,
are corrected, rolling is continued until the required density
is obtained. Density testing is performed according to speci-
fied standards and at the specified frequencies. Measurement
of density using the sand cone method has not been success-
ful due to the difficulty of performing the test around con-
struction operations and to possible damage of the hole by
compacting equipment. Nuclear density readings have been
performed with backscatter, single-probe and double-probe
gages. Experience with backscatter and single-probe gages
indicates that they may not accurately indicate the density in
the lower portion of RCC pavements. Double-probe gages
have been used to measure density changes with depth in the
pavement.
Construction of joints is routinely inspected to ensure that
all completed joints have the same texture, density and
smoothness as the other sections of pavement. Particular at-
tention is given to ensure that all joints, cold or fresh, are pre-
pared and compacted as specified in the contract documents.
After rolling is completed in each area, the surface of the
RCC pavement is inspected to verify that it is kept continu-
ously wet for the minimum time specified. After initial cur-
ing, the pavement is inspected to assure that it is cured for the
duration and by the methods specified.
8.4Post construction inspection and testing
For projects requiring sawed joints, the initial sawcut op-
erations are monitored to ensure that sawing of joints is be-
ing performed to the required alignment and without
chipping, spalling, tearing and cracking of the concrete. Af-
ter final curing has been completed, the joint widening oper-
ation is inspected to ensure that the joint reservoir is sawed
to the depth and width required and that the sawed joint faces
are free from undercutting and washing caused by early saw-
ing. Joints can be cleaned and sealed.
Following construction, coring of the RCC pavement is
often used to check thickness. Some projects have required
sawing of beams or coring of the pavement to determine
flexural strength and compressive strength, respectively.
Coring and sawing are inspected to insure that they are ac-
complished in the manner and quantity specified and that ar-
eas are refilled. The date and location are recorded for each
sample taken. Test ages are as specified and generally in-
clude one or more of the following ages: 7, 14, 28, and 90
days.
CHAPTER 9PERFORMANCE
9.1General
Performance of pavements may be described in qualitative
or quantitative terms as the ability to perform its intended
function. Qualitative descriptions, being subjective, are eas-
ier to apply and may be the truest indicator of performance;
that is if the owner or user of a pavement describes it as per-
forming well, then for all practical purposes, it is. However,
qualitative descriptions are by nature not directly translat-
able from one user to another, or one pavement to another,
and therefore their use as an engineering tool is very limited.
Quantitative descriptions, based on some type of objective
criteria, are perhaps more complex but should allow some
translation between users and different pavement types. This
chapter will present quantitative descriptions of various as-
pects of RCC pavements, such as surface condition, skid re-
sistance, surface smoothness, rideability, durability in
freezing and thawing conditions, and load transfer.
9.2Surface condition
The surface condition of RCC pavements has been quanti-
tatively expressed in a research study conducted by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers
9
to evaluate the performance of
RCC pavements in freezing and thawing conditions. Eleven
RCC pavement sites, located in the United States, West Ger-
many, Norway, and Sweden, were visually surveyed using a
procedure similar to the pavement condition index (PCI) rat-
ing system developed by the Corps of Engineers.
19
The RCC
condition survey procedure identified five distress catego-
ries: 1) fresh and cold joints, sawed joints, and cracks; 2)
weathering and raveling; 3) joint sealant damage; 4) patch-
ing and utility cuts;
*
and 5) shattered area. Three severity
levels low, medium, and high were identified for each
distress category, and a deduct value assigned to each
combination of category, severity level, and density, or the
extent of the distress and severity within a survey area. The
PCI is then calculated by subtracting the deduct values from
* It should be noted that utility cuts are not a measure of inherent performance of
RCC or any other material their presence is happenstance, as opposed to patching
required due to material distress, load-induced local failures, etc.
100, yielding a number between 0 and 100, with 0 being
failed and 100 being excellent.
The results of the survey are presented in Fig. 9.2.1. The
ratings ranged from 44 (fair) to 82 (very good). The causes
of the distresses were not specifically identified; however,
since the objective of the research was to investigate the ef-
fects of freezing and thawing on the surface of nonair-en-
trained RCC pavements, the number of cumulative ambient
freezing and thawing cycles experienced by the pavement at
the time of the survey was compared to the PCI. This illus-
trated a possible trend of deteriorating surface condition with
an increasing number of cumulative freezing and thawing
cycles. However, the PCI would be expected to decrease
with time and with increased repetitions of traffic, as illus-
trated in Fig. 9.2.2, even without freezing conditions. In this
study, the effect of freezing and thawing by itself on the sur-
face condition could not be quantified.
9.3Skid resistance
The skid resistance of RCC pavements was not of great
concern to the earlier users, chiefly because the primary ap-
plications of the pavement were for heavy-duty industrial,
low-speed vehicles, such as log loaders and container han-
dlers. However, as the use of RCC pavement for high-speed
vehicular or aircraft traffic was contemplated, the necessity
of determining the skid properties of an RCC pavement sur-
face became apparent.
Skid resistance tests have been conducted on RCC pave-
ments in several locations in the United States and Australia.
Greene
20
reported that skid resistance tests were conducted
in accordance with ASTM Standard Test Method E-670-87
on Tuscany Way, a 2500 ft-long (762 m) RCC access road in
Austin, Texas. Due to the curvature of the road, only 40 mph
tests were conducted with the Mu Meter (a rolling-wheel
friction measurement devise); however, both wet and dry
Fig. 9.2.1PCI rating and estimated cumulative freeze-thaw cycles at time of survey
Fig. 9.2.2Variation in PCI with cumulative passes of traffic
skid resistance values were obtained. The test results (MU
values) of 0.72 average (0.63 to 0.77 range) in the dry condi-
tion, and 0.40 (0.31 to 0.47 range) and 0.34 (0.25 to 0.53
range) in the wet condition, indicated that the friction char-
acteristics of the RCC road were poor to marginal, based on
Air Force skid resistance criteria (AFWL-TR-73-165
21
and
AFCEC-TR-75-3
22
). Greene attributed the low friction char-
acteristics of the 9 month-old RCC pavement to the macro-
texture and microtexture of the surface. The macrotexture is
created in conventional concrete pavements by brooming,
burlap drag, wire comb, or saw-cut grooving to remove wa-
ter from under the tire during braking. The RCC pavement
did have discontinuous, superficial surface tears created by
the paver screed and/or rolling process during construction
which were deep enough to remove water from under the
tire. However, the discontinuous nature of the tears did not
allow the water to escape from under the tire during braking,
resulting in some hydroplaning. The microtexture, usually
provided by the fine, gritty texture of the surface between the
tears did not assist in providing good skid resistance, as it
was virtually nonexistent on the RCC pavement surface. The
macrotexture and microtexture of any particular RCC pave-
ment are most likely a function of the mixture proportions,
exertion of a shearing force by the paver screed on the pave-
ment surface, and the action of the steel-wheel and rubber-
tire roller on the pavement surface; they are therefore likely
to be different from one RCC pavement to another.
Jameson et al.
23
reported that skid resistance tests were
conducted on a test section installed in Wells Road, Seaford,
Australia, using the VIC ROADS SCRIM machine (an Aus-
tralian friction testing devise). The tests were conducted at
average speeds of 32 to 50 mph (51 to 80 km/h), resulting in
sideways force coefficient values ranging from 45 to 62 for
the lower speed, and 38 to 51 for the higher speed, which are
substantially lower than those for new asphalt or chip seal
surfaces.
Brett
24
reported that skid resistance tests conducted on Tea
Tree Road in Tasmania, Australia, using the British Portable
Tester (Method T105) indicated results ranging from 42 to
76 percent, with a mean of 58.5 percent. These values were
considered by the user to be satisfactory for the road location
and usage. All of these results are considered to be poor to
marginal base of U.S. Air Force skid criteria.
9.4Surface smoothness
Surface smoothness refers to the deviation of the RCC
pavement surface from a plane; the smoother a pavement,
the less deviation. The smoothness of RCC pavement surfac-
es (or lack thereof) has been one of the primary factors lim-
iting the use of RCC to applications where relatively low-
speed traffic is the primary user of the pavement, such as log
sorting yards, port facilities, intermodal shipping yards, and
tank parking areas.
25
The surface smoothness of RCC pave-
ments is greatly influenced by the construction procedure it-
self, primarily the variation in the degree of compaction and
smoothness achieved with the paver screed, and the opera-
tion of the vibratory roller during final compaction. The ad-
vent, around 1985, of heavy-duty paver screeds equipped
with tamper bars, used to place RCC resulted in better
smoothness tolerances being obtained, due to the greater and
more uniform densities achieved directly behind the paver.
26
Cortez et al.
27
has suggested that not using the steel-wheel
roller to compact the RCC pavement (thereby relying solely
upon the paver screed for compaction) might result in a
smoothness suitable for high-speed traffic; however, the
probable effect of reduced density in the RCC layer could re-
sult in an unacceptably low strength or durability. This may
or may not be compensated for with an increased cement fac-
tor, air-entraining agent, etc. Munn
28
has reported that the
RCC pavement at the Saturn automobile plant near Spring
Hill, Tennessee, was rolled with a steel-wheel roller in the
static (nonvibratory) mode only, presumably to improve the
smoothness of the surface.
The degree of smoothness typically achieved for RCC
pavements was recognized by the U. S. Army Corps of En-
gineers in preparation of their guide specifications for con-
struction. The current version
29
allows a
3
/
8
in. (9.5 mm)
deviation from a 12 ft.-long (3.7 m) straightedge for tank
hardstands, open storage areas, and parking areas. By com-
parison, the Corps guide specification for conventional con-
crete pavements
30
allows a
1
/
4
in. (6 mm) deviation [using a
10-ft (3 m) straightedge] for the same applications, and only
a
1
/
8
in. (3 mm) deviation from a 12-ft (3.7 m) straightedge in
the longitudinal direction of runways and taxiways. Pitt-
man
31
reported that the Corps
3
/8 in. (9.5 mm) in 12 ft (3.7
m) specification criteria was met during the construction of
an RCC tank hardstand at Harvey Barracks in Kitzingen,
Germany (formerly West Germany), with an average of
3
/
16
,
1
/
4
, and
5
/
16
in. (5, 6, and 7 mm) deviation for tests conducted
in the longitudinal and transverse directions, and transverse
across the longitudinal joints, respectively. Hess
32
reported
that a
1
/
4
in. (6 mm) in 12 ft (3.7 m) specification criteria was
met in 82 percent of longitudinal and 76 percent of trans-
verse surface smoothness measurements of an RCC ammu-
nition storage pad at Tooele Army Depot, Utah. Keifer
26
reported that an average
3
/
16
in. (5 mm) deviation was
achieved when using a 10-ft (3 m) straightedge to measure
transverse smoothness during construction of an RCC test
road at Ft. Lewis, Washington. A tactical equipment shop
pavement constructed at Ft. Lewis achieved average smooth-
ness results of
1
/
4
in. (6 mm) in the transverse direction, and
3
/16 in. (5 mm) in the longitudinal direction, using a 10-ft (3
m) straightedge.
*
9.5Roughness
Pavement roughness may be referred to as the ride sensa-
tion experienced by a vehicle passenger as the vehicle passes
over a pavement surface. It is a function of road profile, ve-
hicle characteristics, and speed of the vehicle.
33
Studies have
shown that roughness is most influenced by the longitudinal
profile of the pavement surface in the wheel path, particular-
ly the amplitude and frequency of longitudinal surface pro-
file wavelengths.
34
The surface smoothness measurements
* Unpublished data, Quality Control Results of RCC Pavement at Ft. Lewis,
Washington.
discussed previously are simply indications of the maximum
amplitude within a limited range of wavelengths. Therefore,
measurements of this type are of limited use in determina-
tions of roughness. Roughness measurements may be made
with several types of devices, including profilometers, road
meters, and roughometers. The units depend upon the type of
device used.
Roughness measurements have been reported by Brett
24
and Jameson et al.
23
on several RCC roads placed in the
states of Tasmania and Victoria, Australia, respectively (Ta-
ble 9.5). The roughness measurements were made using sev-
eral different devices, but the results were all correlated to or
reported in terms of counts/kilometer (counts/kilometer re-
fers to 15.2 mm relative movements between the rear axle
and body of a modified meter, measured over a 1-km dis-
tance). The Department of Main Roads of New South Wales
recommends that the roughness measurements of the class
Main Roads not exceed 70 counts/kilometer for new con-
struction, and suggests rehabilitation for readings above 150
counts/kilometer. As can be seen from the results, none of
the pavements met the roughness requirements for new con-
struction, but were also less than that recommended for reha-
bilitations. Brett
24
suggested that the roughness results
would improve with further experience, and Jameson et al.
23
report roughness measurements in one short stretch of the
Wells Road of 54 to 58 counts/kilometer, suggesting the po-
tential of RCC as a high-speed wearing surface
9.6Freeze-thaw durability
The durability of RCC pavements in freezing and thawing
conditions has been of some concern to engineers since its
first use in Canada in 1976.
25
Although the RCC pavements
in British Columbia were reported to have no visual signs of
freeze-thaw deterioration, the primary concern was derived
from the fact that most RCC pavement placed in North
America has been nonair-entrained.
25
This concern led to the
development of several research studies at the U. S. Army
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station (WES)
to determine the frost resistance of cores taken from existing
pavements, test sections, and laboratory fabricated speci-
mens.
35,9
The results of these studies are presented in Table
9.6. The references 1 and 2 in Table 9.6 pertain to the
WES research studies conducted to evaluate the frost resis-
tance of RCC pavements
35
and the frost resistance of air-en-
trained and nonair-entrained RCC pavement mixtures,
9
respectively.
The results in Table 9.6 indicate that air-entraining admix-
tures (AEAs) had not been used in most of the samples tak-
en from in-place pavements; most of the samples containing
AEAs were laboratory fabricated samples, or samples taken
from test sections. For most of the samples, the air-void con-
tent was determined from microscopical examination of
hardened cores according to ASTM C 457, Modified Point-
Count Method.
36
Voids with a chord length (C.L.) less than
0.04 in. (1 mm) were considered entrained air voids (even if
AEAs were not used in the RCC); these entrained air voids
and the total air void content are expressed in the table. Al-
though most of the voids were irregularly shaped rather than
spherical, they were counted in the air void content determi-
nations. Rapid freezing and thawing tests (ASTM C 666,
Procedure A
37
) were conducted on most of the samples, and
the results reported as the percentage of the dynamic fre-
quency modulus (DFE) remaining at the end of the test (rel-
ative DFE). The spacing factor was also determined from the
microscopical void examination.
The determination of frost susceptibility presented in Ta-
ble 9.6 was based upon the average relative DFE value and
the spacing factor for each sample. According to Neville,
38
a
relative DFE of 60 or greater means that the concrete is prob-
ably satisfactory with respect to frost resistance; a relative
DFE of 40 or less indicates probable unsatisfactory frost re-
sistance; and a relative DFE between 40 and 60 indicates
doubtful performance. A spacing factor of less than 0.008 in.
(0.2 mm) is typically associated with concrete having good
resistance. These dual criteria were applied to all the sam-
ples, and the frost susceptibility question was answered
No if the relative DFE was 60 or greater and the spacing
factor was less than 0.008 in. (0.2 mm), Yes if the relative
DFE was 40 or less and the spacing factor was 0.008 (0.2
mm) or greater, and Mixed for all the other combinations
of relative DFE and spacing factor. The answers in parenthe-
ses indicate determinations based upon one criterion only.
Generally, the results of these two studies showed that those
mixtures not containing AEAs were susceptible to frost dam-
age, and those containing AEAs were not susceptible to frost
damage. There were exceptions to both cases. Ragan
35
postu-
lated that the non-AEA mixtures having air-void systems with
low spacing factors and resulting good frost resistance might
Table 9.5Summary of roughness measurements from Australia
Roughness measurements (counts/kilometer)
Location Measuring device Mean Range
Standard
deviation
Coefficient of
variation,
percent
Duncan Road, Tasmania NAASRA roughness
meter
143 77-253 37 26
Tea Tree Road, Tasmania NAASRA roughness
meter
119 86-153 19 16
Wells Road, Victoria
Lane 1
ARRB 81 54-112 20 24
Lane 2 Profilometer 87 61-110 18 21
Lane 1 Profile beam 87 74-97 7 8
Lane 2 Profile beam 87 74-109 10 12
Table 9.6Results of WES freeze-thaw studies
Refer-
ence
Location
Specimen No.
Compressive strength
AEA
used?
Air content, percent
Average
DFE
Spacing factor
Frost
susceptible?
psi kPa C.L. < 0.04 in. Total in. mm
1 Ft. Stewart, GA 2T1 5220 35,991 No 1.9 5.3 8 0.020 0.508 Yes
1 Ft. Hood, TX 5 4780 32,957 No 10 0.012 0.305 Yes
1 Ft. Lewis, WA 5A 5790 39,921 No 2.5 5.1 44 0.012 0.305 Mixed
9B 5790 39,921 No 1.9 2.1 71 0.005 0.127 No
10B 5790 39,921 No 9.6 10.4 20 0.011 0.279 Yes
17A 8920 61,501 No 1.6 4.7 59 0.015 0.381 Mixed
17B 8920 61,501 No 1.8 4.0 44 0.018 0.457 Mixed
1 USA CRREL 1B 2930 20,202 No 2.3 6.1 89 0.008 0.203 No
3B 6500 44,816 No 3.6 8.6 75 0.010 0.254 Mixed
2T 4370 30,130 Yes 2.9 5.2 81 0.010 0.254 Mixed
1 Port of Tacoma 2A-T 5220 35,991 No 5.5 7.1 84 0.010 0.254 Mixed
1DT No 3.0 4.5 75 0.013 0.330 Mixed
2HB No 6.1 10.6 82 0.010 0.254 No
1 Caycuse 2A No 3 0.026 0.660 Yes
1 WES fabricated beams 1 (Mix A) 6250 43,092 No 1.1 3.1 10 0.030 0.762 Yes
1 (Mix B) 5740 39,576 Yes 2.5 4.6 48 0.013 0.330 Mixed
1 NPDL fabricated beams 2 6900 47,574 No 0.6 1.7 10 0.018 0.457 Yes
8 No 0.9 1.7 0.019 0.483 (Yes)
9 1.1 3.9 11 0.022 0.559 Yes
2 WES fabricated beams,
FT study
AHLSCS 4485 30,923 Yes 9.9 11.1 90 0.003 0.076 No
ALLSCS 5145 35,474 Yes 6.4 7.2 94 0.003 0.076 No
ALLSFS 4915 33,888 Yes 6.1 6.9 98 0.004 0.102 No
ALNSCS 5420 37,370 Yes 5.3 5.5 98 0.004 0.102 No
ALNSFS 4840 33,371 Yes 9.6 10.7 98 0.003 0.076 No
AULSFS 5450 37,576 Yes 5.6 6.8 87 0.006 0.152 No
BHLSFS 4745 32,716 Yes 7.1 8.4 93 0.003 0.076 No
BLNSCS 5880 40,541 Yes 3.2 3.8 95 0.006 0.152 No
BLNSFS 5335 36,784 Yes 3.5 3.6 92 0.005 0.127 No
BUNSCS 6020 41,506 Yes 3.3 7.8 54 0.006 0.152 Mixed
BUNSFS 5395 37,197 Yes 2.9 3.1 77 0.005 0.127 No
CZLSCS 7410 51,090 No 1.6 3.6 4 0.016 0.406 Yes
CZLSFS 6545 45,126 No 2.9 4.3 13 0.013 0.330 Yes
CZNSCS 7135 49,194 No 1.6 2.8 15 0.015 0.381 Yes
CZNSFS 6645 45,816 No 5.8 7.1 85 0.008 0.203 No
DHNSCS 5525 38,094 Yes 1.9 2.5 88 0.005 0.127 No
DHNSFS 4900 33,784 Yes 3.6 4.4 92 0.004 0.102 No
DLLSCS 5950 41,024 Yes 2.7 4.9 91 0.006 0.152 No
DLLSFS 5355 36,921 Yes 92 0.007 0.178 No
DLNSCS 5750 39,645 Yes 4.5 5.3 92 0.008 0.203 No
DLNSFS 5310 36,611 Yes 4.9 5.7 90 0.006 0.152 No
2 WES test slab sawed
beams
1 4995 34,439 No 4.3 5.3 39 0.009 0.229 Mixed
2 3450 23,787 Yes 5.4 5.8 76 0.005 0.127 No
3 3482 24,008 Yes 6.6 7.6 52 0.004 0.102 Mixed
4 2925 20,167 Yes 4.1 5.6 65 0.004 0.102 No
2 Ft. Drum cores Control 4120 28,406 No 0.9 7.8 0.013 0.330 (Yes)
Mix 1, Lo 4030 27,786 Yes 1.7 8.4 0.009 0.229 (Yes)
Mix 2, Hi 4090 28,200 Yes 3.0 9.0 0.006 0.152 (No)
2 Field core samples Nenseth 6305 43,471 Yes 3.1 43 0.011 0.279 Mixed
Elstrom 9830 67,775 Yes 5.9 0.008 0.203 (No)
Bodo 8857 61,067 No 5.2 87 0.007 0.178 No
Otterbacken 6258 43,147 No 7.7 7 0.010 0.254 Yes
Malmo 6910 47,643 No 5.8 57 0.007 0.178 Mixed
Ljungby 9260 63,845 No 3.8 93 0.008 0.203 No
Ft. Campbell 3980 27,441 No 3.6 10 0.012 0.305 Yes
Boston 4987 34,384 No 3.0 25 0.011 0.279 Yes
Note: 145 psi = 1 MPa; 1 in. = 25.4 mm.
be related to pugmill mixing, the cohesiveness of the mixture,
and the method of compaction. An important result of the lat-
ter WES study
9
was that RCC mixtures could be successfully
air-entrained in the laboratory for a variety of AEA types, dos-
age rates, and aggregate gradings. Air-entrained RCC mix-
tures were also placed and compacted in small test sections at
WES, and a small section of air-entrained RCC was placed
and compacted during the construction of a tank hardstand at
Ft. Drum, New York; thus, the feasibility of obtaining air-en-
trained RCC mixtures in field applications was demonstrated.
9.7Load transfer
Load transfers refers to the amount of load (in percent)
which is carried by an unloaded concrete slab due to a load
applied to an adjacent slab. Stresses due to the applied load
are transferred to the unloaded slab through a shearing action
at the vertical interface of the joint between the slabs (Fig.
9.7.1). Load transfer is important to the performance of con-
crete pavements because it reduces the amount of stress ex-
perienced in a concrete slab at the joint due to an applied
load. Load transfer may even be an inherent part of the thick-
ness design procedure. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
39
and the Federal Aviation Administration
4o
rigid pavement
design procedures assume 25 percent load transfer at most
concrete pavement joint types.
Load transfer is typically achieved in conventional con-
crete pavements through aggregate interlock, dowels, tie-
bars, or keyways formed into the sides of the concrete slabs.
Since no dowels, tiebars, or keyways are typically used in
RCC pavements, load transfer across joints or cracks de-
pends upon the degree of aggregate interlock obtained at the
joint. Load transfer due to aggregate interlock is largely de-
pendent upon the joint opening or crack width;
41
the narrow-
er the crack width, the greater the degree of load transfer
achieved. Similarly, the crack width is largely dependent
upon the crack spacing; the larger the crack spacing, the larg-
er the average crack width, and subsequently the lower the
load transfer typically achieved. For a given crack spacing,
the crack width will also vary as the concrete expands and
contracts with changes in the average slab temperature;
hence, the load transfer obtained at an RCC crack would be
expected to vary between summer and winter seasons, and
possibly between day and night conditions. Since RCC pave-
ments are typically allowed to crack naturally, the crack
spacing over a large area may vary considerably, and there-
fore, the degree of load transfer obtained at RCC pavement
cracks may be expected to vary considerably. Crack spac-
ings ranging between 40 to 70 (12 to 21.3 m) feet for one job
are typical values reported.
26,42
Fig. 9.7.1Mechanism of load transfer and efficiency due to aggregate interlock
Load transfer is difficult to measure directly because
stresses (or strains) in slabs on grade are difficult to measure.
However, load transfer can be estimated from deflection
measurements of slabs on either side of a joint as one of the
slabs is loaded. The ratio of the deflection of the unloaded
slab to the deflection of the loaded slab, or the joint efficien-
cy, has been related to the load transfer obtained for that
loading condition by finite-element analysis (Fig. 9.7.2).
While the joint efficiency may range from 0 to 100 percent,
the load transfer may range from 0 to 50 percent, when one
half of the load or stress is carried by the adjacent slab.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has conducted joint ef-
ficiency tests at several RCC pavement sites around the
United States. These joint efficiencies were used to calculate
the load transfer at the joints; some of the results are present-
ed in Table 9.7. The tests at Ft. Hood were conducted with
the WES 16-kip vibrator, while the tests in Austin were con-
ducted using a falling-weight deflectometer. The average
load transfer values ranged from about 12 to 20 percent, with
coefficient of variations ranging from 36 to 48 percent. The
effect of summer versus winter conditions are also apparent;
although the average temperature of the RCC pavement in
Austin was only 11 F lower in the winter tests than in the
summer tests (60 versus 71 F), the average load transfer de-
creased from 20 percent to 16 percent, for the exact same
cracks. The average crack width increased from 0.05 in. to
0.06 in. (1.5 to 1.5 mm) from the summer tests to the winter
tests, respectively. Fig. 9.7.3 shows the relationship between
joint efficiency and average crack spacing for Ft. Drum,
New York, for both the summer and winter conditions for the
exact same joints; Fig. 9.7.4 shows the relationship between
joint efficiency and crack width for the summer and winter
condition.
CHAPTER 10RESEARCH NEEDS
Even though considerable progress has been made in RCC
pavements, it is evident that more work is needed in the de-
velopment of many areas. These include:
a) Improved surface quality and smoothness of RCC
pavements, particularly when high-speed traffic
applications are considered
Fig. 9.7.2Corps of Engineers relationship between joint efficiency and load transfer
Table 9.7Results of Corps of Engineers load transfer tests on RCC pavements
Location Type of joint
Number of
tests
Load transfer, percent
Average crack
width
Average crack
spacing
Mean Range
Coefficient
of variation in. mm ft m
Ft. Hood, TX Transverse
crack
168 18.6 36 48.9 14.9
Longitudinal
cold joints
8 12.3 45.5 13.5 4.1
Austin, TX
(Tuscany
Way)
Transverse
crack (Sept.
1991)
25 20.2 6.4 to 33.2 42.1 0.05 1.27 30.5 9.3
Transverse
crack (Jan.
1992)
25 15.9 6.1 to 33.0 48.4 0.06 1.52 30.5 9.3
b) Defining the desirable degree of consolidation to be
attained by the paver, and optimizing roller se-
quence and number of passes
c) Improved methods for construction and perfor-
mance assessment of vertical joints and horizontal
joints in multilayer pavements
d) Satisfactory field and laboratory methods to deter-
mine mix compatibility, optimum water content,
density and strength
e) Standardized test procedures so that quality control
can be achieved and independent investigators can
reproduce test results and correlate their findings
Standards for mixture proportioning and sample fabrica-
tion are particularly needed. Current work in these areas by
ASTM Subcommittee 09.45 - Roller Compacted Concrete,
is addressing many of the above concerns.
Fundamental research is needed for the purpose of provid-
ing more data on physical properties so that design proce-
dures can be established on a more rational basis. RCC
paving involves both construction technology and a material,
therefore research must address both material and construc-
tion aspects. Investigations should be directed towards the
study of the following issues:
Effect of mix constituents and grain size distribution
Fatigue
Strength gain with age
Volume changes due to water migration and temper-
ature differential
Abrasion and skid resistance
Durability. Effect of air-entrainment, fines and deic-
ing salts on freeze-thaw resistance
Effect of curing time and technique
Mechanical properties variability as a function of
continuous mixing as opposed to batching
Addition of fibrous reinforcement
Bond strength of multiple-lift construction
Load transfer at cracks and joints
Surface quality
Smoothness
Fig. 9.7.3Relationship between joint efficiency, load transfer, and average crack spacing,
Ft. Drum, New York
Fig. 9.7.4Relationship between joint efficiency, load transfer, and crack width, Ft. Drum,
New York
Jointing
Consolidation/compaction
Quality control procedures and standard test meth-
ods for density and strength
CHAPTER 11REFERENCES
11.1Recommended references
The documents of the various standards producing organi-
zations referred to in this document are listed below with
their serial designations.
American Concrete Institute
207.5R Roller Compacted Mass Concrete
211.3 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
No-Slump Concrete
225R Guide to the Selection and use of Hydraulic Ce-
ments
ASTM
C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregate
C 192 Test Method of Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory
C 457 Practice for Microscopical Determination of Air-
Void Content and Parameters of the Air-Void Sys-
tem in Hardened Concrete
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid
Freezing and Thawing
D 425 Maximum Index Density and unit Weight of Soil
Using a Vibratory Table
D 1557 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Charac-
teristics of Soil Using Modified Effort 56,000 (ft-
lb/ft
3
) (2700 kN-m/m
3
)
D 4253 Test Method for Maximum Index Density and
Unit Weight of Soils Using a Vibratory Table
D 4254 Test Method for Minimum Index Density and
Unit Weight of Soils and Calculation of Relative
Density
E 670 Test Method for Sede Force Friction on Paved
Surfaces Using the Mu-Meter
The above publications may be obtained from the follow-
ing organizations:
American Concrete Institute
P.O Box 9094
Farmington Hills, Mich. 48333-9094
American Society for Testing and Materials
100 Barr Harbor Dr.
West Conshohocken, Pa. 19428
11.2Cited references
1. Anderson, R., Roller-Compacted Concrete Pave-
mentsPhysical Properties (Belaggningar av valtbetong-
fysikaliskaengenskaper), CBI Report No. Ra 3:86, Swedish
Cement and Concrete Research Institute, Stockholm, 1986
(in Swedish).
2. McCormick, W. N., Jr., Engineer Technical Letter
1110-1-126, Chief, Engineering Division, Directorate of En-
gineering and Construction, Department of the Army, U. S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 1985.
3. Holder, R., Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement
Tactical Equipment Hardstand, Line Item 434, Contract
No. DACA83-C-0188, Fort Hood, Tex., 1984, Fort Worth
District, Corps. of Engineers.
4. Logie, C.V. and J.E. Oliverson, Burlington Northern
Railroad Intermodal Hub Facility, Concrete International:
Design & Construction, V. 9, No. 2, 1987, pp. 37-41.
5. Larsen, J. L., Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement
Design Practices for Intermodal Freight Terminals at the
Port of Tacoma, Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
Bellevue, Washington. TRB State-of-the-Art Report No. 4-
Facing The Challenge, 1987.
6. Larsen, J.L., Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement for
Marine Terminals, Ports 86, Proceedings of a Specialty
Conference on Innovations in Port Engineering and Devel-
opment in the 1990s, ASCE, Waterway, Port, Coastal and
Ocean Division, Committee on Ports & Harbors, New York,
NY., 1986, pp. 144-158.
7. Abrams, J M., et al., Roller-Compacted Concrete Pave-
ment at Portland International Airport, Transportation Re-
search Record 1062, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., 1986, pp. 20-24.
8. Abrams, J.M. and J.L. Jacksha, An Airport Apron and
a County Road, Concrete International: Design & Con-
struction, V. 9, No. 2, Feb. 1987, pp. 30-36.
9. Ragan, Steven A.; Pittman, David W.; and Grogan, Wil-
liam P., An Investigation of the Frost Resistance of Air-En-
trained and Nonair-Entrained Roller-Compacted Concrete
(RCC) Mixtures for Pavement Applications, US Army
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station Techni-
cal Report GL-90-18, Vicksburg, Miss., Sept. 1990.
10. Tayabji, S.D. et al., Evaluation of Heavily Loaded
Stabilized Roadways, Transportation Research Record
839, Transportation Research Board, 1982.
11. Rollings, R.S., Design of Roller Compacted Concrete
Pavements, Proceedings, Roller Compacted Concrete II,
San Diego, Calif, 1988, pp. 454-466.
12. Tayabji, S.D., and P.A. Okamoto, Engineering Prop-
erties of Roller Compacted Concrete, Transportation Re-
search Record No. 1136, Transportation Research Board,
13. Hess, J.R., RCC Storage Pads at Tooele Army Depot,
Utah, Proceedings, Roller Compacted Concrete II, San Di-
ego, Calif., 1988, pp. 394-409.
14. Structural Design of Roller-Compacted Concrete for
Industrial Pavements, IS233.01P, Portland Cement Associ-
ation, Skokie, Ill., 1987, pp. 8.
15. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Thickness Design of
Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements for Airfields, Roads,
Streets and Parking Areas, ETL 1110-1-141, Washington,
D.C., 1988, pp. 3.
16. Pittman, D.W., RCC Pavement Construction and
Quality Control, Proceedings, Roller Compacted Concrete
II, San Diego, Calif., 1988, pp. 438-453.
17. Pittman, D., and S.A. Ragan, A Guide for Design and
Construction of Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements,
GL86, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experi-
ment Station, Vicksburg, Miss., 1986, 26 pp.
18. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering and De-
sign, Roller Compacted Concrete, Engineer Manual No.
1110-2-2006, 1985, Department of the Army, Washington,
D.C.
19. Shahin, M.Y., and Kohn, S.D., Pavement Mainte-
nance Management for Roads and Parking Lots, US Army
Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Lab-
oratory Technical Report M-294, Champaign, Ill., 1981.
20. Greene, James L. Friction Characteristics Evaluation
of Roller Compacted Concrete, letter from Department of
the Air Force (DEMP) to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wa-
terways Experiment Station, June 16, l988.
21. AFWL-TR-73-165, Procedures for Conducting the
Air Force Weapons Laboratory Standard Skid Resistance
Test, Sept. 1973, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Air Force
Systems Command, Kirtland Air Force Base, N. Mex.
22. AFCEC TR-75-3, Analysis of the USAF Runway
Skid Resistance Tests, May 1975, Air Force Civil Engi-
neering Center, (Air Force Systems Command), Tyndall Air
Force Base, Fla.
23. Jameson, G.W.; Sharp, K.G.; Bailey, D.P.; and War-
wick, R.A., An investigation of the Suitability of Roller
Compacted Concrete for High-Speed Traffic Pavements,
Australian Road Research Board Research Report No.181,
Victoria, Australia, June 1990.
24. Brett, David M., RCC Pavements in Tasmania, Aus-
tralia, Roller Compacted Concrete II, Proceedings of the
Conference sponsored by the Construction, Geotechnical
Engineering, and Materials Engineering Divisions of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, San Diego, California,
Feb. 29-Mar. 2, 1988.
25. Pittman, David W., Construction of Roller-Compact-
ed Concrete Pavements, Roller-Compacted Concrete Pave-
ments and Concrete Construction, Transportation Research
Record 1062, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C., 1986.
26. Keifer, Oswin Jr. Paving with Roller Compacted
Concrete, Concrete Construction, Concrete Construction
Publications, Inc., Addison, Ill., March 1986.
27. Cortez, E.R.; Korhonen, C.J.; Young, B.L.; and Eaton,
R.A., Laboratory and Field Evaluation of the Freeze-Thaw
Resistance of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement, Ft.
Drum, New York, presented to the American Concrete In-
stitute Committee 325 Session, Washington, D.C., March
1992.
28. Munn, W.D. Roller-Compacted Concrete Paves Fac-
tory Roads, Highway and Heavy Construction, Cahners
Publishing Company, New York, New York, Sept. 1989.
29. Department of the Army, Office of the Chief of Engi-
neers, Guide Specification for Military Construction: Roll-
er Compacted Concrete (RCC) Pavements, CEGS 02520,
Washington, D.C., June 1991.
30. Department of the Army, Office of the Chief of Engi-
neers, Corps of Engineers Guide Specification, Military
Construction: Concrete Pavement for Roads and Airfields,
CEGS 02611, Washington, D.C., Oct. 1983.
31. Pittman, David W., The Effects of the Construction
Process on Selected Fresh and Hardened Properties of Roll-
er-Compacted Concrete Pavements, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station Technical Report
GL-89-22, Vicksburg, Miss., Sept. 1989.
32. Hess, John R., Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement
for Tooele Army Depot, Utah, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers Sacramento District, Masters Thesis, California
State University, Sacramento, Calif., Spring 1987.
33. Haas, Ralph and Hudson, Ronald W., Pavement Man-
agement Systems, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Mala-
bar, Fla., 1978.
34. Yoder, E.J. and Witczak, M.W., Principles of Pave-
ment Design, Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1975.
35. Ragan, Steven A., Evaluation of the Frost Resistance
of Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements, Roller-Com-
pacted Concrete Pavements and Concrete Construction,
Transportation Research Record 1062, Transportation Re-
search Board, Washington, D.C., 1986.
36. Microscopical Determination of Air-Void Content
and Parameters of the Air-Void System in Hardened Con-
crete, Designation C457-82a, 1987 Annual Book of Stan-
dards, American Society of Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, 1987.
37. Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thaw-
ing, Designation C 666, 1987 Annual Book of Standards,
American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
1987.
38. Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J., Concrete Technolo-
gy, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1987.
39. Rigid Pavements for Airfields, TM 5-825-3, AFM
88-6, Chapter 3, Departments of the Air Force and the Army,
Washington, D.C., Aug. 1988.
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Evaluation, AC 150/5320-6C, Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration, Department of transportation, Washington, D.C.,
Dec. 1978.
41. Colley, B.E. and Humphrey, H.A., Aggregate Inter-
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Record No. 189, Highway Research Board, Washington,
D.C., 1967.
42. Piggott, Robert W., Roller-Compacted Concrete for
Heavy-Duty Pavements: Past Performance, Recent Projects,
and Recommended Construction Methods, Roller-Com-
pacted Concrete Pavements and Concrete Construction,
Transportation Research Record 1062, Transportation Re-
search Board, Washington, D.C., 1986.
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International Conference on Rolled Concrete for Dams,
Proceedings, Construction Industry Research and Informa-
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Rolled Concrete Defies Tanks, Engineering News-
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Intermodal Terminal Paved with Roller Compacted
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Aircraft Parking Apron Paved with Roller Compacted
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SI Metric conversions
1 yd
2
= 0.8361 m
2
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 psi = 0.0069 MPa
1 acre = 0.4047 hectare
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 ton = 1016 kg
1 ft
3
= 0.03832 m
3
1 lb/ft = 16.02 kg/m
3
1 yd
3
= 0.7646 m
3
(deg F 32)*5/9 = deg C
miles per hour x 1.609 = kilometer per hour
ACI 325.10R-95 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and processed in
accordance with ACI balloting procedures.

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What are the main components of roller-compacted concrete?

What are the key steps in the construction of roller-compacted concrete pavements?

325.

1 1 208 234 272 086 70

1 2 230 061 393 016 60

1 3 100 249 261 095 075

1 4 060 162 287 056 85

1 5 200 137 301 046 115

2 8 060 246 381 065 30

2 14 055 215 284 076 35

2 15 060 011 305 004 35

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