Weldability and Joining of Materials

Job knowledge19:

Carbon Manganese and Low Alloy Steels
In arc welding, as the weld metal needs mechanical properties to match the
parent metal, the welder must avoid forming defects in the weld. Imperfections
are principally caused by:
poor welder technique;
insufficient measures to accommodate the
material or welding process;
high stress in the component.
Techniques to avoid imperfections such as lack of
fusion and slag inclusions, which result from poor
welder techniques, are relatively well known. However,
the welder should be aware that the material itself may
be susceptible to formation of imperfections caused by
the welding process. In the materials section of the Job
Knowledge for Welders, guidelines are given on material weldability and
precautions to be taken to avoid defects.
Material types
In terms of weldability, commonly used materials can be divided into the following
types:
Steels
Stainless steels
Aluminium and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Titanium and its alloys
Cast iron
Fusion welding processes can be used to weld most alloys of these materials, in a
wide range of thickness. When imperfections are formed, they will be located in
either the weld metal or the parent material immediately adjacent to the weld,
called the heat affected zone (HAZ). As chemical composition of the weld metal
determines the risk of imperfections, the choice of filler metal may be crucial not
only in achieving adequate mechanical properties and corrosion resistance but
also in producing a sound weld. However, HAZ imperfections are caused by the
adverse effect of the heat generated during welding and can only be avoided by
strict adherence to the welding procedure.
This part of the materials section of Job Knowledge for Welders considers the
weldability of carbon-manganese (C-Mn) steels and low alloy steels.


Imperfections in welds
Commonly used steels are considered to be readily welded. However, these
materials can be at risk from the following types of imperfection:
porosity;
solidification cracking;
hydrogen cracking;
reheat cracking.
Other fabrication imperfections are lamellar tearing and liquation cracking but
using modern steels and consumables, these types of defects are less likely to
arise.
In discussing the main causes of imperfections, guidance is given on procedure
and welder techniques for reducing the risk in arc welding.
Porosity
Porosity is formed by entrapment of discrete pockets of gas in the solidifying weld
pool. The gas may originate from poor gas shielding, surface contaminants such
as rust or grease, or insufficient deoxidants in the parent metal (autogenous
weld), electrode or filler wire. A particularly severe form of porosity is 'wormholes',
caused by gross surface contamination or welding with damp electrodes.
The presence of manganese and silicon in the parent metal, electrode and filler
wire is beneficial as they act as deoxidants combining with entrapped air in the
weld pool to form slag. Rimming steels with a high oxygen content, can only be
welded satisfactorily with a consumable which adds aluminium to the weld pool.
To obtain sound porosity-free welds, the joint area should be cleaned and
degreased before welding. Primer coatings should be removed unless considered
suitable for welding by that particular process and procedure. When using gas
shielded processes, the material surface demands more rigorous cleaning, such as
by degreasing, grinding or machining, followed by final degreasing, and the arc
must be protected from draughts.
Solidification cracking
Solidification cracks occur longitudinally as a result of the weld bead having
insufficient strength to withstand the contraction stresses within the weld metal.
Sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon pick up from the parent metal at high dilution
increase the risk of weld metal (solidification) cracking especially in thick section
and highly restrained joints. When welding high carbon and sulphur content steels,
thin weld beads will be more susceptible to solidification cracking. However, a
weld with a large depth to width ratio can also be susceptible. In this case, the
centre of the weld, the last part to solidify, will have a high concentration of
impurities increasing the risk of cracking.
Solidification cracking is best avoided by careful attention to the choice of
consumable, welding parameters and welder technique. To minimise the risk,
consumables with low carbon and impurity levels and relatively high manganese
and silicon contents are preferred. High current density processes such as
submerged-arc and CO
2
, are more likely to induce cracking. The welding
parameters must produce an adequate depth to width ratio in butt welds, or

throat thickness in fillet welds. High welding speeds also increase the risk as the
amount of segregation and weld stresses will increase. The welder should ensure
that there is a good joint fit-up so as to avoid bridging wide gaps. Surface
contaminants, such as cutting oils, should be removed before welding.
Hydrogen cracking
A characteristic feature of high carbon and low alloy steels is that the HAZ
immediately adjacent to the weld hardens on welding with an attendant risk of
cold (hydrogen) cracking. Although the risk of cracking is determined by the level
of hydrogen produced by the welding process, susceptibility will also depend upon
several contributory factors:
material composition (carbon equivalent);
section thickness;
arc energy (heat) input;
degree of restraint.
The amount of hydrogen generated is determined by the electrode type and the
process. Basic electrodes generate less hydrogen than rutile electrodes (MMA)
and the gas shielded processes (MIG and TIG) produce only a small amount of
hydrogen in the weld pool. Steel composition and cooling rate determines the HAZ
hardness. Chemical composition determines material hardenability, and the higher
the carbon and alloy content of the material, the greater the HAZ hardness.
Section thickness and arc energy influences the cooling rate and hence, the
hardness of the HAZ.
For a given situation therefore, material composition, thickness, joint type,
electrode composition and arc energy input, HAZ cracking is prevented by heating
the material. Using preheat which reduces the cooling rate, promotes escape of
hydrogen and reduces HAZ hardness so preventing a crack-sensitive structure
being formed; the recommended levels of preheat for various practical situations
are detailed in the appropriate standards e.g. BS EN1011-2:2001. As cracking
only occurs at temperatures slightly above ambient, maintaining the temperature
of the weld area above the recommended level during fabrication is especially
important. If the material is allowed to cool too quickly, cracking can occur up to
several hours after welding, often termed 'delayed hydrogen cracking'. After
welding, therefore, it is beneficial to maintain the heating for a given period (hold
time), depending on the steel thickness, to enable the hydrogen to diffuse from
the weld area.
When welding C-Mn structural and pressure vessel steels, the measures which are
taken to prevent HAZ cracking will also be adequate to avoid hydrogen cracking in
the weld metal. However, with increasing alloying of the weld metal e.g. when
welding alloyed or quenched and tempered steels, more stringent precautions
may be necessary.
The risk of HAZ cracking is reduced by using a low hydrogen process, low
hydrogen electrodes and high arc energy, and by reducing the level of restraint.
Practical precautions to avoid hydrogen cracking include drying the electrodes and
cleaning the joint faces. When using a gas shielded process, a significant amount
of hydrogen can be generated from contaminants on the surface of the
components and filler wire so preheat and arc energy requirements should be
maintained even for tack welds.

Reheat cracking
Reheat or stress relaxation cracking may occur in the HAZ of thick section
components, usually of greater than 50mm thickness, Fig. 4. The more likely
cause of cracking is embrittlement of the HAZ during high temperature service or
stress relief heat treatment.
As a coarse grained HAZ is more susceptible to cracking, low arc energy input
welding procedures reduce the risk. Although reheat cracking occurs in sensitive
materials, avoidance of high stresses during welding and elimination of local
points of stress concentration, e.g. by dressing the weld toes, can reduce the risk.
Weldability of steel groups
PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 identifies a number of steels groups which have
similar metallurgical and welding characteristics. The main risks in welding these
groups are:
Group 1. Low carbon unalloyed steels, no specific processing
requirements, specified minimum yield strength R
eH
460N/mm
2
.
For thin section, unalloyed materials, these are normally readily weldable.
However, when welding thicker sections with a flux process, there is a risk of HAZ
hydrogen cracking, which will need increased hydrogen control of the
consumables or the use of preheat.
Group 2. Thermomechanically treated fine grain steels and cast steels
with a specified miniumum yield strength R
eH
> 360N/mm
2
.
For a given strength level, a thermomechanically processed ( TMCP) steel will
have a lower alloy content than a normalised steel, and thus will be more readily
weldable with regard to avoidance of HAZ hydrogen cracking and the achievement
of maximum hardness limits. However, there is always some degree of softening
in the HAZ after welding TMCP steels, and a restriction on the heat input used, so
as not to degrade the properties of the joint zone (e.g. 2.5kJ/mm limits for
15mm plate).
Group 3. Quenched and tempered steels and precipitation hardened
steels (except stainless steels), R
eH
> 360N/mm
2

These are weldable, but care must be taken to adhere to established procedures,
as these often have high carbon contents, and thus high hardenability, leading to
a hard HAZ susceptibility to cracking. As with TMCP steels, there may be a
restriction on heat input or preheat to avoid degradation of the steel properties.
Groups 4, 5 and 6. Chromium-molybdenum and chromium-molybdenum-
vanadium creep resisting steels.
These are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, but with appropriate preheat and low
hydrogen consumables, with temper bead techniques to minimise cracking, the
steels are fairly weldable. Postweld heat treatment is used to improve HAZ
toughness in these steels.
Group 7. Ferritic, martensitic or precipitation hardened stainless steels.
When using a filler to produce matching weld metal strength, preheat is needed to
avoid HAZ cracking. Postweld heat treatment is essential to restore HAZ
toughness.
Group 8. Austenitic stainless steels.
These steels do not generally need preheat, but in order to avoid problems with
solidification or liquation cracking upon welding, the consumables should be
selected to give weld metal with a low impurity content, or if appropriate, residual
ferrite in the weld metal.

Group 9. Nickel alloy steels, Ni 10%.
These have a similar weldability to Groups 4, 5 & 6.
Group 10. Austenitic ferritic stainless steels (duplex).
In welding these steels, maintaining phase balance in the weld metal and in the
HAZ requires careful selection of consumables, the absence of preheat and control
of maximum interpass temperature, along with minimum heat input levels, as
slow cooling encourages austenite formation in the HAZ.
Group 11. High carbon steels.
These steels will be less weldable owing to their increased carbon content with
respect to Group 1. It is likely that care over the choice of consumables and the
use of high preheat levels would be needed.
It is important to obtain advice before welding any steels that you do not have
experience in.
References
1. BS EN 1011-2:2001 'Welding - receommendations for welding of metallic
materials - part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels' British Standards Institution,
March 2001.
2. PD CEN ISO/TR 15608:2005 'Welding - guidelines for a metallic material
grouping system' British Standards Institution, October 2005.









This Job Knowledge article was originally published in Connect, July/August 1996. It
has been updated so the web page no longer reflects exactly the printed version.
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