CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

UNIT I - 2D PRIMITIVES

Output primitives – Line, Circle and Ellipse drawing algorithms - Attributes of

output primitives – Two dimensional Geometric transformation - Two dimensional
viewing – Line, Polygon, Curve and Text clipping algorithms

Introduction

A picture is completely specified by the set of intensities for the pixel positions in the
display. Shapes and colors of the objects can be described internally with pixel arrays
into the frame buffer or with the set of the basic geometric – structure such as straight
line segments and polygon color areas. To describe structure of basic object is referred to
as output primitives.

Each output primitive is specified with input co-ordinate data and other information about
the way that objects is to be displayed. Additional output primitives that can be used to
constant a picture include circles and other conic sections, quadric surfaces, Spline curves
and surfaces, polygon floor areas and character string.

Points and Lines

Point plotting is accomplished by converting a single coordinate position furnished by

an application program into appropriate operations for the output device. With a CRT
monitor, for example, the electron beam is turned on to illuminate the screen phosphor at
the selected location

Line drawing is accomplished by calculating intermediate positions along the line path
between two specified end points positions. An output device is then directed to fill in
these positions between the end points

Digital devices display a straight line segment by plotting discrete points between the two
end points. Discrete coordinate positions along the line path are calculated from the
equation of the line. For a raster video display, the line color (intensity) is then loaded
into the frame buffer at the corresponding pixel coordinates. Reading from the frame
buffer, the video controller then plots “the screen pixels”.

Pixel positions are referenced according to scan-line number and column number (pixel
position across a scan line). Scan lines are numbered consecutively from 0, starting at the
bottom of the screen; and pixel columns are numbered from 0, left to right across each
scan line

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Figure : Pixel Postions reference by scan line number and column number

To load an intensity value into the frame buffer at a position corresponding to column x
along scan line y,

setpixel (x, y)

To retrieve the current frame buffer intensity setting for a specified location we use a low
level function

getpixel (x, y)

Line Drawing Algorithms

Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algorithm

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm
Parallel Line Algorithm

The Cartesian slope-intercept equation for a straight line is

y=m.x+b (1)

Where m as slope of the line and b as the y intercept

Given that the two endpoints of a line segment are specified at positions (x1,y1) and
(x2,y2) as in figure we can determine the values for the slope m and y intercept b with the
following calculations

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Figure : Line Path between endpoint positions (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)

m = ∆y / ∆x = y2-y1 / x2 - x1 (2)

b= y1 - m . x1 (3)

For any given x interval ∆x along a line, we can compute the corresponding y interval
∆y
∆y= m ∆x (4)

We can obtain the x interval ∆x corresponding to a specified ∆y as

∆ x = ∆ y/m (5)
For lines with slope magnitudes |m| < 1, ∆x can be set proportional to a small
horizontal deflection voltage and the corresponding vertical deflection is then set
proportional to ∆y as calculated from Eq (4).

For lines whose slopes have magnitudes |m | >1 , ∆y can be set proportional to a small
vertical deflection voltage with the corresponding horizontal deflection voltage set
proportional to ∆x, calculated from Eq (5)

For lines with m = 1, ∆x = ∆y and the horizontal and vertical deflections voltage
are equal.

Figure : Straight line Segment with five sampling positions along the x axis between x1 and x2

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Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Algortihm

The digital differential analyzer (DDA) is a scan-conversion line algorithm based on

calculation either ∆y or ∆x

The line at unit intervals in one coordinate and determine corresponding integer values
nearest the line path for the other coordinate.

A line with positive slop, if the slope is less than or equal to 1, at unit x intervals (∆x=1)
and compute each successive y values as

yk+1 = yk + m (6)

Subscript k takes integer values starting from 1 for the first point and increases by 1 until
the final endpoint is reached. m can be any real number between 0 and 1 and, the
calculated y values must be rounded to the nearest integer

For lines with a positive slope greater than 1 we reverse the roles of x and y, (∆y=1) and
calculate each succeeding x value as

xk+1 = xk + (1/m) (7)

Equation (6) and (7) are based on the assumption that lines are to be processed from the
left endpoint to the right endpoint.

If this processing is reversed, ∆x=-1 that the starting endpoint is at the right

yk+1 = yk – m (8)

When the slope is greater than 1 and ∆y = -1 with

xk+1 = xk-1(1/m) (9)

If the absolute value of the slope is less than 1 and the start endpoint is at the left, we set
∆x = 1 and calculate y values with Eq. (6)

When the start endpoint is at the right (for the same slope), we set ∆x = -1 and obtain y
positions from Eq. (8). Similarly, when the absolute value of a negative slope is greater
than 1, we use ∆y = -1 and Eq. (9) or we use ∆y = 1 and Eq. (7).

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Algorithm

#define ROUND(a) ((int)(a+0.5))

void lineDDA (int xa, int ya, int xb, int yb)
{
int dx = xb - xa, dy = yb - ya, steps, k;
float xIncrement, yIncrement, x = xa, y = ya;
if (abs (dx) > abs (dy) steps = abs (dx) ;
else steps = abs dy);
xIncrement = dx / (float) steps;
yIncrement = dy / (float) steps
setpixel (ROUND(x), ROUND(y) ) :
for (k=0; k<steps; k++)
{
x += xIncrement;
y += yIncrement;
setpixel (ROUND(x), ROUND(y));
}
}

Algorithm Description:

Step 1 : Accept Input as two endpoint pixel positions

Step 2: Horizontal and vertical differences between the endpoint positions are assigned to
parameters dx and dy (Calculate dx=xb-xa and dy=yb-ya).
Step 3: The difference with the greater magnitude determines the value of parameter
steps.
Step 4 : Starting with pixel position (xa, ya), determine the offset needed at each step to
generate the next pixel position along the line path.
Step 5: loop the following process for steps number of times

a. Use a unit of increment or decrement in the x and y direction

b. if xa is less than xb the values of increment in the x and y directions are 1 and m
c. if xa is greater than xb then the decrements -1 and – m are used.

Example : Consider the line from (0,0) to (4,6)

1. xa=0, ya =0 and xb=4 yb=6

2. dx=xb-xa = 4-0 = 4 and dy=yb-ya=6-0= 6
3. x=0 and y=0
4. 4 > 6 (false) so, steps=6
5. Calculate xIncrement = dx/steps = 4 / 6 = 0.66 and yIncrement = dy/steps =6/6=1
6. Setpixel(x,y) = Setpixel(0,0) (Starting Pixel Position)
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7. Iterate the calculation for xIncrement and yIncrement for steps(6) number of times
8. Tabulation of the each iteration

Plotting points
k x Y
(Rounded to Integer)
0 0+0.66=0.66 0+1=1 (1,1)
1 0.66+0.66=1.32 1+1=2 (1,2)
2 1.32+0.66=1.98 2+1=3 (2,3)
3 1.98+0.66=2.64 3+1=4 (3,4)
4 2.64+0.66=3.3 4+1=5 (3,5)
5 3.3+0.66=3.96 5+1=6 (4,6)

Result :

Advantages of DDA Algorithm

1. It is the simplest algorithm

2. It is a is a faster method for calculating pixel positions

Disadvantages of DDA Algorithm

1. Floating point arithmetic in DDA algorithm is still time-consuming

2. End point accuracy is poor

Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

An accurate and efficient raster line generating algorithm developed by Bresenham, that
uses only incremental integer calculations.

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In addition, Bresenham’s line algorithm can be adapted to display circles and other
curves.

To illustrate Bresenham's approach, we- first consider the scan-conversion process for
lines with positive slope less than 1.

Pixel positions along a line path are then determined by sampling at unit x intervals.
Starting from the left endpoint (x0,y0) of a given line, we step to each successive column
(x position) and plot the pixel whose scan-line y value is closest to the line path.

To determine the pixel (xk,yk) is to be displayed, next to decide which pixel to plot the
column xk+1=xk+1.(xk+1,yk) and .(xk+1,yk+1). At sampling position xk+1, we label vertical
pixel separations from the mathematical line path as d1 and d2. The y coordinate on the
mathematical line at pixel column position xk+1 is calculated as

y =m(xk+1)+b (1)

Then
d1 = y-yk
= m(xk+1)+b-yk
d2 = (yk+1)-y
= yk+1-m(xk+1)-b

To determine which of the two pixel is closest to the line path, efficient test that is based
on the difference between the two pixel separations

d1- d2 = 2m(xk+1)-2yk+2b-1 (2)

A decision parameter Pk for the kth step in the line algorithm can be obtained by
rearranging equation (2). By substituting m=∆y/∆x where ∆x and ∆y are the vertical and
horizontal separations of the endpoint positions and defining the decision parameter as

pk = ∆x (d1- d2)
= 2∆y xk.-2∆x. yk + c (3)

The sign of pk is the same as the sign of d1- d2,since ∆x>0

Parameter C is constant and has the value 2∆y + ∆x(2b-1) which is independent of the
pixel position and will be eliminated in the recursive calculations for Pk.

If the pixel at yk is “closer” to the line path than the pixel at yk+1 (d1< d2) than decision
parameter Pk is negative. In this case, plot the lower pixel, otherwise plot the upper pixel.
Coordinate changes along the line occur in unit steps in either the x or y directions.

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To obtain the values of successive decision parameters using incremental integer

calculations. At steps k+1, the decision parameter is evaluated from equation (3) as

Pk+1 = 2∆y xk+1-2∆x. yk+1 +c

Subtracting the equation (3) from the preceding equation

Pk+1 - Pk = 2∆y (xk+1 - xk) -2∆x(yk+1 - yk)

But xk+1= xk+1 so that

Pk+1 = Pk+ 2∆y-2∆x(yk+1 - yk) (4)

Where the term yk+1-yk is either 0 or 1 depending on the sign of parameter Pk

This recursive calculation of decision parameter is performed at each integer x position,

starting at the left coordinate endpoint of the line.

The first parameter P0 is evaluated from equation at the starting pixel position
(x0,y0) and with m evaluated as ∆y/∆x

P0 = 2∆y-∆x (5)

Bresenham’s line drawing for a line with a positive slope less than 1 in the following
outline of the algorithm.

The constants 2∆y and 2∆y-2∆x are calculated once for each line to be scan
converted.

Bresenham’s line Drawing Algorithm for |m| < 1

1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left end point in (x0,y0)
2. load (x0,y0) into frame buffer, ie. Plot the first point.
3. Calculate the constants ∆x, ∆y, 2∆y and obtain the starting value for the decision
parameter as P0 = 2∆y-∆x
4. At each xk along the line, starting at k=0 perform the following test
If Pk < 0, the next point to plot is(xk+1,yk) and
Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y
otherwise, the next point to plot is (xk+1,yk+1) and
Pk+1 = Pk + 2∆y - 2∆x

5. Perform step4 ∆x times.

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Implementation of Bresenham Line drawing Algorithm

void lineBres (int xa,int ya,int xb, int yb)

{
int dx = abs( xa – xb) , dy = abs (ya - yb);
int p = 2 * dy – dx;
int twoDy = 2 * dy, twoDyDx = 2 *(dy - dx);
int x , y, xEnd;

/* Determine which point to use as start, which as end * /

if (xa > x b )
{
x = xb;
y = yb;
xEnd = xa;
}
else
{
x = xa;
y = ya;
xEnd = xb;
}
setPixel(x,y);
while(x<xEnd)
{
x++;
if (p<0)
p+=twoDy;
else
{
y++;
p+=twoDyDx;
}
setPixel(x,y);
}
}

Example : Consider the line with endpoints (20,10) to (30,18)

The line has the slope m= (18-10)/(30-20)=8/10=0.8

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∆x = 10 ∆y=8

The initial decision parameter has the value

p0 = 2Δy- Δx = 6

and the increments for calculating successive decision parameters are

2Δy=16 2Δy-2 Δx= -4

We plot the initial point (x0,y0) = (20,10) and determine successive pixel positions along
the line path from the decision parameter as

Tabulation

k pk (xk+1, yK+1)
0 6 (21,11)
1 2 (22,12)
2 -2 (23,12)
3 14 (24,13)
4 10 (25,14)
5 6 (26,15)
6 2 (27,16)
7 -2 (28,16)
8 14 (29,17)
9 10 (30,18)

Result

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Advantages

Algorithm is Fast
Uses only integer calculations

Disadvantages

It is meant only for basic line drawing.

Line Function

The two dimension line function is Polyline(n,wcPoints) where n is assigned an integer

value equal to the number of coordinate positions to be input and wcPoints is the array of
input world-coordinate values for line segment endpoints.

polyline function is used to define a set of n – 1 connected straight line segments

To display a single straight-line segment we have to set n=2 and list the x and y values of
the two endpoint coordinates in wcPoints.

Example : following statements generate 2 connected line segments with endpoints at

(50, 100), (150, 250), and (250, 100)

typedef struct myPt{int x, y;};

myPt wcPoints[3];
wcPoints[0] .x = 50; wcPoints[0] .y = 100;
wcPoints[1] .x = 150; wcPoints[1].y = 50;
wcPoints[2].x = 250; wcPoints[2] .y = 100;
polyline ( 3 , wcpoints);

Circle-Generating Algorithms

General function is available in a graphics library for displaying various kinds of curves,
including circles and ellipses.

Properties of a circle

A circle is defined as a set of points that are all the given distance (xc,yc).

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This distance relationship is expressed by the pythagorean theorem in Cartesian

coordinates as

(x – xc)2 + (y – yc) 2 = r2 (1)

Use above equation to calculate the position of points on a circle circumference by

stepping along the x axis in unit steps from xc-r to xc+r and calculating the corresponding
y values at each position as

y = yc +(- ) (r2 – (xc –x )2)1/2 (2)

This is not the best method for generating a circle for the following reason

Considerable amount of computation

Spacing between plotted pixels is not uniform

To eliminate the unequal spacing is to calculate points along the circle boundary using
polar coordinates r and θ. Expressing the circle equation in parametric polar from yields
the pair of equations

x = xc + rcos θ y = yc + rsin θ

When a display is generated with these equations using a fixed angular step size, a circle
is plotted with equally spaced points along the circumference. To reduce calculations use
a large angular separation between points along the circumference and connect the points
with straight line segments to approximate the circular path.

Set the angular step size at 1/r. This plots pixel positions that are approximately
one unit apart. The shape of the circle is similar in each quadrant. To determine the curve
positions in the first quadrant, to generate he circle section in the second quadrant of the
xy plane by nothing that the two circle sections are symmetric with respect to the y axis

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and circle section in the third and fourth quadrants can be obtained from sections in the
first and second quadrants by considering symmetry between octants.

Circle sections in adjacent octants within one quadrant are symmetric with respect to the
450 line dividing the two octants. Where a point at position (x, y) on a one-eight circle
sector is mapped into the seven circle points in the other octants of the xy plane.

To generate all pixel positions around a circle by calculating only the points within the
sector from x=0 to y=0. the slope of the curve in this octant has an magnitude less than of
equal to 1.0. at x=0, the circle slope is 0 and at x=y, the slope is -1.0.

Bresenham’s line algorithm for raster displays is adapted to circle generation by setting
up decision parameters for finding the closest pixel to the circumference at each sampling
step. Square root evaluations would be required to computer pixel siatances from a
circular path.

Bresenham’s circle algorithm avoids these square root calculations by comparing

the squares of the pixel separation distances. It is possible to perform a direct distance
comparison without a squaring operation.

In this approach is to test the halfway position between two pixels to determine if
this midpoint is inside or outside the circle boundary. This method is more easily applied
to other conics and for an integer circle radius the midpoint approach generates the same
pixel positions as the Bresenham circle algorithm.

For a straight line segment the midpoint method is equivalent to the bresenham line
algorithm. The error involved in locating pixel positions along any conic section using
the midpoint test is limited to one half the pixel separations.

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Midpoint circle Algorithm:

In the raster line algorithm at unit intervals and determine the closest pixel
position to the specified circle path at each step for a given radius r and screen center
position (xc,yc) set up our algorithm to calculate pixel positions around a circle path
centered at the coordinate position by adding xc to x and yc to y.
To apply the midpoint method we define a circle function as
fcircle(x,y) = x2+y2-r2
Any point (x,y) on the boundary of the circle with radius r satisfies the equation fcircle
(x,y)=0. If the point is in the interior of the circle, the circle function is negative. And if
the point is outside the circle the, circle function is positive

fcircle (x,y) <0, if (x,y) is inside the circle boundary

=0, if (x,y) is on the circle boundary
>0, if (x,y) is outside the circle boundary

The tests in the above eqn are performed for the midposition sbteween pixels near the
circle path at each sampling step. The circle function is the decision parameter in the
midpoint algorithm.

Midpoint between candidate pixels at sampling position xk+1 along a circular path.
Fig -1 shows the midpoint between the two candidate pixels at sampling position xk+1. To
plot the pixel at (xk,yk) next need to determine whether the pixel at position (xk+1,yk) or
the one at position (xk+1,yk-1) is circular to the circle.

Our decision parameter is the circle function evaluated at the midpoint between
these two pixels
Pk= fcircle (xk+1,yk-1/2)
=(xk+1)2+(yk-1/2)2-r2
If Pk <0, this midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on scan line yk is closer to the
circle boundary. Otherwise the mid position is outside or on the circle boundary and
select the pixel on scan line yk -1.

Successive decision parameters are obtained using incremental calculations. To

obtain a recursive expression for the next decision parameter by evaluating the circle
function at sampling position xk+1+1= xk+2

Pk= fcircle (xk+1+1,yk+1-1/2)

=[(xk+1)+1]2+(yk+1-1/2)2-r2
or
Pk+1=Pk+2(xk+1)+(y2k+1-y2 k )-(yk+1-yk)+1

Where yk+1 is either yk or yk-1 depending on the sign of Pk .

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Increments for obtaining Pk+1 are either 2xk+1+1 (if Pk is negative) or

2xk+1+1-2 yk+1.

Evaluation of the terms 2xk+1 and 2 yk+1 can also be done incrementally as
2xk+1=2xk+2
2 yk+1=2 yk-2

At the Start position (0,r) these two terms have the values 0 and 2r respectively. Each
successive value for the 2xk+1 term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous value and each
successive value for the 2yk+1 term is obtained by subtracting 2 from the previous value.

The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at the
start position (x0,y0)=(0,r)

P0= fcircle (1,r-1/2)

=1+(r-1/2)2-r2
or
P0=(5/4)-r

If the radius r is specified as an integer

P0=1-r(for r an integer)

Midpoint circle Algorithm

1. Input radius r and circle center (xc,yc) and obtain the first point on the circumference
of the circle centered on the origin as
(x0,y0) = (0,r)
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter as P0=(5/4)-r
3. At each xk position, starting at k=0, perform the following test. If Pk <0 the next point
along the circle centered on (0,0) is (xk+1,yk) and Pk+1=Pk+2xk+1+1
Otherwise the next point along the circle is (xk+1,yk-1) and Pk+1=Pk+2xk+1+1-2 yk+1
Where 2xk+1=2xk+2 and 2yk+1=2yk-2
4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x,y) onto the circular path centered at (xc,yc) and
plot the coordinate values.
x=x+xc y=y+yc
6. Repeat step 3 through 5 until x>=y.

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Example : Midpoint Circle Drawing

Given a circle radius r=10

The circle octant in the first quadrant from x=0 to x=y. The initial value of the decision
parameter is P0=1-r = - 9

For the circle centered on the coordinate origin, the initial point is (x0,y0)=(0,10) and
initial increment terms for calculating the decision parameters are

2x0=0 , 2y0=20

Successive midpoint decision parameter values and the corresponding coordinate

positions along the circle path are listed in the following table.

k pk (xk+1, yk-1) 2xk+1 2yk+1

0 -9 (1,10) 2 20
1 -6 (2,10) 4 20
2 -1 (3,10) 6 20
3 6 (4,9) 8 18
4 -3 (5,9) 10 18
5 8 (6,8) 12 16
6 5 (7,7) 14 14

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Implementation of Midpoint Circle Algorithm

void circleMidpoint (int xCenter, int yCenter, int radius)

{
int x = 0;
int y = radius;
int p = 1 - radius;
void circlePlotPoints (int, int, int, int);
/* Plot first set of points */
circlePlotPoints (xCenter, yCenter, x, y);
while (x < y)
{
x++ ;
if (p < 0)
p +=2*x +1;
else
{
y--;
p +=2* (x - Y) + 1;
}
circlePlotPoints(xCenter, yCenter, x, y)
}
}
void circlePlotPolnts (int xCenter, int yCenter, int x, int y)
{
setpixel (xCenter + x, yCenter + y ) ;
setpixel (xCenter - x. yCenter + y);
setpixel (xCenter + x, yCenter - y);
setpixel (xCenter - x, yCenter - y ) ;
setpixel (xCenter + y, yCenter + x);
setpixel (xCenter - y , yCenter + x);
setpixel (xCenter t y , yCenter - x);
setpixel (xCenter - y , yCenter - x);
}

Ellipse-Generating Algorithms

An ellipse is an elongated circle. Therefore, elliptical curves can be generated by

modifying circle-drawing procedures to take into account the different dimensions of an
ellipse along the major and minor axes.

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Properties of ellipses

An ellipse can be given in terms of the distances from any point on the ellipse to two
fixed positions called the foci of the ellipse. The sum of these two distances is the same
values for all points on the ellipse.

If the distances to the two focus positions from any point p=(x,y) on the ellipse are
labeled d1 and d2, then the general equation of an ellipse can be stated as

d1+d2=constant

Expressing distances d1 and d2 in terms of the focal coordinates F1=(x1,y2) and

F2=(x2,y2)
sqrt((x-x1)2+(y-y1)2)+sqrt((x-x2)2+(y-y2)2)=constant

By squaring this equation isolating the remaining radical and squaring again. The
general ellipse equation in the form

Ax2+By2+Cxy+Dx+Ey+F=0

The coefficients A,B,C,D,E, and F are evaluated in terms of the focal coordinates and the
dimensions of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.

The major axis is the straight line segment extending from one side of the ellipse
to the other through the foci. The minor axis spans the shorter dimension of the ellipse,
perpendicularly bisecting the major axis at the halfway position (ellipse center) between
the two foci.

An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary orientation is to

input the two foci and a point on the ellipse boundary.

Ellipse equations are simplified if the major and minor axes are oriented to align
with the coordinate axes. The major and minor axes oriented parallel to the x and y axes
parameter rx for this example labels the semi major axis and parameter r y labels the semi
minor axis

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((x-xc)/rx)2+((y-yc)/ry)2=1

Using polar coordinates r and θ, to describe the ellipse in Standard position with
the parametric equations

x=xc+rxcos θ
y=yc+rxsin θ

Angle θ called the eccentric angle of the ellipse is measured around the perimeter of a
bounding circle.

We must calculate pixel positions along the elliptical arc throughout one quadrant, and
then we obtain positions in the remaining three quadrants by symmetry

Midpoint ellipse Algorithm

The midpoint ellipse method is applied throughout the first quadrant in two parts.

The below figure show the division of the first quadrant according to the slope of an
ellipse with rx<ry.

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In the x direction where the slope of the curve has a magnitude less than 1 and unit steps
in the y direction where the slope has a magnitude greater than 1.

Region 1 and 2 can be processed in various ways

1. Start at position (0,ry) and step clockwise along the elliptical path in the first
quadrant shifting from unit steps in x to unit steps in y when the slope becomes less than
-1
2. Start at (rx,0) and select points in a counter clockwise order.
2.1 Shifting from unit steps in y to unit steps in x when the slope becomes
greater than -1.0
2.2 Using parallel processors calculate pixel positions in the two regions
simultaneously
3. Start at (0,ry)
step along the ellipse path in clockwise order throughout the first quadrant
ellipse function (xc,yc)=(0,0)
fellipse (x,y)=ry2x2+rx2y2 –rx2 ry2
which has the following properties:
fellipse (x,y) <0, if (x,y) is inside the ellipse boundary
=0, if(x,y) is on ellipse boundary
>0, if(x,y) is outside the ellipse boundary
Thus, the ellipse function fellipse (x,y) serves as the decision parameter in the
midpoint algorithm.

Starting at (0,ry):

Unit steps in the x direction until to reach the boundary between region 1 and
region 2. Then switch to unit steps in the y direction over the remainder of the curve in
the first quadrant.

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At each step to test the value of the slope of the curve. The ellipse slope is
calculated

dy/dx= -(2ry2x/2rx2y)

At the boundary between region 1 and region 2

dy/dx = -1.0 and 2ry2x=2rx2y

to more out of region 1 whenever

2ry2x>=2rx2y

The following figure shows the midpoint between two candidate pixels at sampling
position xk+1 in the first region.

To determine the next position along the ellipse path by evaluating the decision
parameter at this mid point

P1k = fellipse (xk+1,yk-1/2)

= ry2 (xk+1)2 + rx2 (yk-1/2)2 – rx2 ry2

if P1k <0, the midpoint is inside the ellipse and the pixel on scan line yk is
closer to the ellipse boundary. Otherwise the midpoint is outside or on the ellipse
boundary and select the pixel on scan line yk-1

At the next sampling position (xk+1+1=xk+2) the decision parameter for region 1 is
calculated as

21
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

p1k+1 = fellipse(xk+1 +1,yk+1 -½ )

=ry2[(xk +1) + 1]2 + rx2 (yk+1 -½)2 - rx2 ry2

Or

p1k+1 = p1k +2 ry2(xk +1) + ry2 + rx2 [(yk+1 -½)2 - (yk -½)2]

Where yk+1 is yk or yk-1 depending on the sign of P1k.

Decision parameters are incremented by the following amounts

increment = { 2 ry2(xk +1) + ry2 if p1k <0 }

{ 2 ry2(xk +1) + ry2 - 2rx2 yk+1 if p1k ≥ 0 }

Increments for the decision parameters can be calculated using only addition and
subtraction as in the circle algorithm.

The terms 2ry2 x and 2rx2 y can be obtained incrementally. At the initial position
(0,ry) these two terms evaluate to
2 ry2x = 0

2rx2 y =2rx2 ry

x and y are incremented updated values are obtained by adding 2ry2to the current
value of the increment term and subtracting 2rx2 from the current value of the increment
term. The updated increment values are compared at each step and more from region 1 to
region 2. when the condition 4 is satisfied.

In region 1 the initial value of the decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the
ellipse function at the start position

(x0,y0) = (0,ry)

region 2 at unit intervals in the negative y direction and the midpoint is now taken
between horizontal pixels at each step for this region the decision parameter is evaluated
as

p10 = fellipse(1,ry -½ )

= ry2 + rx2 (ry -½)2 - rx2 ry2

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Or

p10 = ry2 - rx2 ry + ¼ rx2

over region 2, we sample at unit steps in the negative y direction and the midpoint is now
taken between horizontal pixels at each step. For this region, the decision parameter is
evaluated as

p2k = fellipse(xk +½ ,yk - 1)

= ry2 (xk +½ )2 + rx2 (yk - 1)2 - rx2 ry2

1. If P2k >0, the mid point position is outside the ellipse boundary, and select the
pixel at xk.
2. If P2k <=0, the mid point is inside the ellipse boundary and select pixel position
xk+1.
To determine the relationship between successive decision parameters in region 2
evaluate the ellipse function at the sampling step : yk+1 -1= yk-2.

P2k+1 = fellipse(xk+1 +½,yk+1 -1 )

=ry2(xk +½) 2 + rx2 [(yk+1 -1) -1]2 - rx2 ry2

or

p2k+1 = p2k -2 rx2(yk -1) + rx2 + ry2 [(xk+1 +½)2 - (xk +½)2]

With xk+1set either to xkor xk+1, depending on the sign of P2k. when we enter
region 2, the initial position (x0,y0) is taken as the last position. Selected in region 1 and
the initial decision parameter in region 2 is then

p20 = fellipse(x0 +½ ,y0 - 1)

= ry2 (x0 +½ )2 + rx2 (y0 - 1)2 - rx2 ry2

To simplify the calculation of P20, select pixel positions in counter clock wise
order starting at (rx,0). Unit steps would then be taken in the positive y direction up to the
last position selected in region 1.

Mid point Ellipse Algorithm

1. Input rx,ry and ellipse center (xc,yc) and obtain the first point on an ellipse
centered on the origin as

23
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

(x0,y0) = (0,ry)

2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as

P10=ry2-rx2ry +(1/4)rx2

3. At each xk position in region1 starting at k=0 perform the following test. If

P1k<0, the next point along the ellipse centered on (0,0) is (xk+1, yk) and

p1k+1 = p1k +2 ry2xk +1 + ry2

Otherwise the next point along the ellipse is (xk+1, yk-1) and

p1k+1 = p1k +2 ry2xk +1 - 2rx2 yk+1 + ry2

with

2 ry2xk +1 = 2 ry2xk + 2ry2

2 rx2yk +1 = 2 rx2yk + 2rx2

And continue until 2ry2 x>=2rx2 y

4. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 2 using the last
point (x0,y0) is the last position calculated in region 1.

p20 = ry2(x0+1/2)2+rx2(yo-1)2 – rx2ry2

5. At each position yk in region 2, starting at k=0 perform the following test, If

p2k>0 the next point along the ellipse centered on (0,0) is (xk,yk-1) and

p2k+1 = p2k – 2rx2yk+1+rx2

Otherwise the next point along the ellipse is (xk+1,yk-1) and

p2k+1 = p2k + 2ry2xk+1 – 2rx2yk+1 + rx2

Using the same incremental calculations for x any y as in region 1.

6. Determine symmetry points in the other three quadrants.

7. Move each calculate pixel position (x,y) onto the elliptical path centered on
(xc,yc) and plot the coordinate values
x=x+xc, y=y+yc
8. Repeat the steps for region1 unit 2ry2x>=2rx2y

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Example : Mid point ellipse drawing

Input ellipse parameters rx=8 and ry=6 the mid point ellipse algorithm by
determining raster position along the ellipse path is the first quadrant. Initial
values and increments for the decision parameter calculations are
2ry2 x=0 (with increment 2ry2=72 )
2rx2 y=2rx2 ry (with increment -2rx2= -128 )

For region 1 the initial point for the ellipse centered on the origin is (x0,y0) =
(0,6) and the initial decision parameter value is

p10=ry2-rx2ry2+1/4rx2=-332

Successive midpoint decision parameter values and the pixel positions along the
ellipse are listed in the following table.

k p1k xk+1,yk+1 2ry2xk+1 2rx2yk+1

0 -332 (1,6) 72 768
1 -224 (2,6) 144 768
2 -44 (3,6) 216 768
3 208 (4,5) 288 640
4 -108 (5,5) 360 640
5 288 (6,4) 432 512
6 244 (7,3) 504 384

Move out of region 1, 2ry2x >2rx2y .

For a region 2 the initial point is (x0,y0)=(7,3) and the initial decision parameter
is
p20 = fellipse(7+1/2,2) = -151

The remaining positions along the ellipse path in the first quadrant are then
calculated as

k P2k xk+1,yk+1 2ry2xk+1 2rx2yk+1

0 -151 (8,2) 576 256
1 233 (8,1) 576 128
2 745 (8,0) - -

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Implementation of Midpoint Ellipse drawing

#define Round(a) ((int)(a+0.5))

void ellipseMidpoint (int xCenter, int yCenter, int Rx, int Ry)
{
int Rx2=Rx*Rx;
int Ry2=Ry*Ry;
int twoRx2 = 2*Rx2;
int twoRy2 = 2*Ry2;
int p;
int x = 0;
int y = Ry;
int px = 0;
int py = twoRx2* y;
void ellipsePlotPoints ( int , int , int , int ) ;
/* Plot the first set of points */
ellipsePlotPoints (xcenter, yCenter, x,y ) ;

/ * Region 1 */
p = ROUND(Ry2 - (Rx2* Ry) + (0.25*Rx2));
while (px < py)
{
x++;
px += twoRy2;
i f (p < 0)
p += Ry2 + px;
else
{
y--;
py -= twoRx2;
p += Ry2 + px - py;
}
ellipsePlotPoints(xCenter, yCenter,x,y);
}
/* Region 2 */
p = ROUND (Ry2*(x+0.5)*' (x+0.5)+ Rx2*(y- l )* (y- l ) - Rx2*Ry2);
while (y > 0 )
{
y--;
py -= twoRx2;
i f (p > 0)
p += Rx2 - py;
else

26
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

{
x++;
px+=twoRy2;
p+=Rx2-py+px;
}
ellipsePlotPoints(xCenter, yCenter,x,y);
}
}
void ellipsePlotPoints(int xCenter, int yCenter,int x,int y);
{
setpixel (xCenter + x, yCenter + y);
setpixel (xCenter - x, yCenter + y);
setpixel (xCenter + x, yCenter - y);
setpixel (xCenter- x, yCenter - y);
}

Attributes of output primitives

Any parameter that affects the way a primitive is to be displayed is referred to as an

attribute parameter. Example attribute parameters are color, size etc. A line drawing
function for example could contain parameter to set color, width and other properties.

1. Line Attributes
2. Curve Attributes
3. Color and Grayscale Levels
4. Area Fill Attributes
5. Character Attributes
6. Bundled Attributes

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Line Attributes

Basic attributes of a straight line segment are its type, its width, and its color. In some
graphics packages, lines can also be displayed using selected pen or brush options

Line Type
Line Width
Pen and Brush Options
Line Color

Line type

Possible selection of line type attribute includes solid lines, dashed lines and dotted lines.
To set line type attributes in a PHIGS application program, a user invokes the function

setLinetype (lt)

Where parameter lt is assigned a positive integer value of 1, 2, 3 or 4 to generate lines

that are solid, dashed, dash dotted respectively. Other values for line type parameter it
could be used to display variations in dot-dash patterns.

Line width

Implementation of line width option depends on the capabilities of the output device to
set the line width attributes.

setLinewidthScaleFactor(lw)

Line width parameter lw is assigned a positive number to indicate the relative width of
line to be displayed. A value of 1 specifies a standard width line. A user could set lw to a
value of 0.5 to plot a line whose width is half that of the standard line. Values greater
than 1 produce lines thicker than the standard.

Line Cap

We can adjust the shape of the line ends to give them a better appearance by adding line
caps.

There are three types of line cap. They are

Butt cap
Round cap
Projecting square cap

28
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Butt cap obtained by adjusting the end positions of the component parallel lines so that
the thick line is displayed with square ends that are perpendicular to the line path.

Round cap obtained by adding a filled semicircle to each butt cap. The circular arcs are
centered on the line endpoints and have a diameter equal to the line thickness

Projecting square cap extend the line and add butt caps that are positioned one-half of
the line width beyond the specified endpoints.

Three possible methods for smoothly joining two line segments

Mitter Join
Round Join
Bevel Join

1. A miter join accomplished by extending the outer boundaries of each of the two lines
until they meet.
2. A round join is produced by capping the connection between the two segments with a
circular boundary whose diameter is equal to the width.
3. A bevel join is generated by displaying the line segment with but caps and filling in tri
angular gap where the segments meet

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Pen and Brush Options

With some packages, lines can be displayed with pen or brush selections. Options in this
category include shape, size, and pattern. Some possible pen or brush shapes are given in
Figure

Line color

A poly line routine displays a line in the current color by setting this color value in the
frame buffer at pixel locations along the line path using the set pixel procedure.
We set the line color value in PHlGS with the function

setPolylineColourIndex (lc)

Nonnegative integer values, corresponding to allowed color choices, are assigned to the
line color parameter lc

Example : Various line attribute commands in an applications program is given by the

following sequence of statements

30
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

setLinetype(2);
setLinewidthScaleFactor(2);
setPolylineColourIndex (5);
polyline(n1,wc points1);
setPolylineColorIindex(6);
poly line (n2, wc points2);

This program segment would display two figures, drawn with double-wide dashed lines.
The first is displayed in a color corresponding to code 5, and the second in color 6.

Curve attributes

Parameters for curve attribute are same as those for line segments. Curves displayed with
varying colors, widths, dot –dash patterns and available pen or brush options

Color and Grayscale Levels

Various color and intensity-level options can be made available to a user, depending on
the capabilities and design objectives of a particular system

In a color raster system, the number of color choices available depends on the amount of
storage provided per pixel in the frame buffer

Color-information can be stored in the frame buffer in two ways:

We can store color codes directly in the frame buffer

We can put the color codes in a separate table and use pixel values as an index into
this table

With the direct storage scheme, whenever a particular color code is specified in an
application program, the corresponding binary value is placed in the frame buffer for
each-component pixel in the output primitives to be displayed in that color.

A minimum number of colors can be provided in this scheme with 3 bits of storage per
pixel, as shown in Table

31
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Color tables(Color Lookup Tables) are an alternate means for providing extended color
capabilities to a user without requiring large frame buffers

3 bits - 8 choice of color

6 bits – 64 choice of color
8 bits – 256 choice of color

A user can set color-table entries in a PHIGS applications program with the function

setColourRepresentation (ws, ci, colorptr)

32
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Parameter ws identifies the workstation output device; parameter ci specifies the color
index, which is the color-table position number (0 to 255) and parameter colorptr points
to a trio of RGB color values (r, g, b) each specified in the range from 0 to 1

Grayscale

With monitors that have no color capability, color functions can be used in an application
program to set the shades of gray, or grayscale, for displayed primitives. Numeric values
over the range from 0 to 1 can be used to specify grayscale levels, which are then
converted to appropriate binary codes for storage in the raster.

Intensity = 0.5[min(r,g,b)+max(r,g,b)]

Area fill Attributes

Options for filling a defined region include a choice between a solid color or a
pattern fill and choices for particular colors and patterns

Fill Styles

Areas are displayed with three basic fill styles: hollow with a color border, filled with a
solid color, or filled with a specified pattern or design. A basic fill style is selected in a
PHIGS program with the function

setInteriorStyle(fs)

Values for the fill-style parameter fs include hollow, solid, and pattern. Another value for
fill style is hatch, which is used to fill an area with selected hatching patterns-parallel
lines or crossed lines

33
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

The color for a solid interior or for a hollow area outline is chosen with where fill color
parameter fc is set to the desired color code

setInteriorColourIndex(fc)

Pattern Fill

We select fill patterns with setInteriorStyleIndex (pi) where pattern index parameter pi
specifies a table position

For example, the following set of statements would fill the area defined in the fillArea
command with the second pattern type stored in the pattern table:

SetInteriorStyle( pattern)
SetInteriorStyleIndex(2);
Fill area (n, points)

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Character Attributes

The appearance of displayed character is controlled by attributes such as font, size, color
and orientation. Attributes can be set both for entire character strings (text) and for
individual characters defined as marker symbols

Text Attributes

The choice of font or type face is set of characters with a particular design style as
courier, Helvetica, times roman, and various symbol groups.

The characters in a selected font also be displayed with styles. (solid, dotted,
double) in bold face in italics, and in or shadow styles.

A particular font and associated stvle is selected in a PHIGS program by setting an

integer code for the text font parameter tf in the function

setTextFont(tf)

Control of text color (or intensity) is managed from an application program with

setTextColourIndex(tc)

where text color parameter tc specifies an allowable color code.

Text size can be adjusted without changing the width to height ratio of characters with

SetCharacterHeight (ch)

Parameter ch is assigned a real value greater than 0 to set the coordinate height of capital
letters

The width only of text can be set with function.

SetCharacterExpansionFactor(cw)
35
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Where the character width parameter cw is set to a positive real value that scales the body
width of character

Spacing between characters is controlled separately with

setCharacterSpacing(cs)

where the character-spacing parameter cs can he assigned any real value

The orientation for a displayed character string is set according to the direction of the
character up vector

setCharacterUpVector(upvect)

Parameter upvect in this function is assigned two values that specify the x and y vector
components. For example, with upvect = (1, 1), the direction of the up vector is 45o and
text would be displayed as shown in Figure.

To arrange character strings vertically or horizontally

setTextPath (tp)

36
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Where the text path parameter tp can be assigned the value: right, left, up, or down

Another handy attribute for character strings is alignment. This attribute specifies how
text is to be positioned with respect to the $tart coordinates. Alignment attributes are set
with

setTextAlignment (h,v)

where parameters h and v control horizontal and vertical alignment. Horizontal alignment
is set by assigning h a value of left, center, or right. Vertical alignment is set by
assigning v a value of top, cap, half, base or bottom.

A precision specification for text display is given with

setTextPrecision (tpr)

tpr is assigned one of values string, char or stroke.

Marker Attributes

A marker symbol is a single character that can he displayed in different colors and in
different sizes. Marker attributes are implemented by procedures that load the chosen
character into the raster at the defined positions with the specified color and size. We
select a particular character to be the marker symbol with

setMarkerType(mt)

where marker type parameter mt is set to an integer code. Typical codes for marker type
are the integers 1 through 5, specifying, respectively, a dot (.) a vertical cross (+), an
asterisk (*), a circle (o), and a diagonal cross (X).

37
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

We set the marker size with

setMarkerSizeScaleFactor(ms)

with parameter marker size ms assigned a positive number. This scaling parameter is
applied to the nominal size for the particular marker symbol chosen. Values greater than
1 produce character enlargement; values less than 1 reduce the marker size.

Marker color is specified with

setPolymarkerColourIndex(mc)

A selected color code parameter mc is stored in the current attribute list and used to
display subsequently specified marker primitives

Bundled Attributes

The procedures considered so far each function reference a single attribute that specifies
exactly how a primitive is to be displayed these specifications are called individual
attributes.

A particular set of attributes values for a primitive on each output device is chosen by
specifying appropriate table index. Attributes specified in this manner are called bundled
attributes. The choice between a bundled or an unbundled specification is made by setting
a switch called the aspect source flag for each of these attributes

setIndividualASF( attributeptr, flagptr)

where parameter attributer ptr points to a list of attributes and parameter flagptr points to
the corresponding list of aspect source flags. Each aspect source flag can be assigned a
value of individual or bundled.

Bundled line attributes

Entries in the bundle table for line attributes on a specified workstation are set with the
function

setPolylineRepresentation (ws, li, lt, lw, lc)

Parameter ws is the workstation identifier and line index parameter li defines the bundle
table position. Parameter lt, lw, tc are then bundled and assigned values to set the line
type, line width, and line color specifications for designated table index.

38
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Example

setPolylineRepresentation(1,3,2,0.5,1)
setPolylineRepresentation (4,3,1,1,7)

A poly line that is assigned a table index value of 3 would be displayed using
dashed lines at half thickness in a blue color on work station 1; while on workstation 4,
this same index generates solid, standard-sized white lines

Bundle area fill Attributes

Table entries for bundled area-fill attributes are set with

setInteriorRepresentation (ws, fi, fs, pi, fc)

Which defines the attributes list corresponding to fill index fi on workstation ws.
Parameter fs, pi and fc are assigned values for the fill style pattern index and fill color.

Bundled Text Attributes

setTextRepresentation (ws, ti, tf, tp, te, ts, tc)

bundles values for text font, precision expansion factor size an color in a table position
for work station ws that is specified by value assigned to text index parameter ti.

Bundled marker Attributes

setPolymarkerRepresentation (ws, mi, mt, ms, mc)

That defines marker type marker scale factor marker color for index mi on
workstation ws.

Inquiry functions

Current settings for attributes and other parameters as workstations types and status in the
system lists can be retrieved with inquiry functions.

inquirePolylineIndex ( lastli) and

inquireInteriorcColourIndex (lastfc)

Copy the current values for line index and fill color into parameter lastli and lastfc.

39
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Two Dimensional Geometric Transformations

Changes in orientations, size and shape are accomplished with geometric transformations
that alter the coordinate description of objects.

Basic transformation

Translation
 T(tx, ty)
 Translation distances
Scale
 S(sx,sy)
 Scale factors
Rotation
 R( )
 Rotation angle
Translation

A translation is applied to an object by representing it along a straight line path

from one coordinate location to another adding translation distances, tx, ty to original
coordinate position (x,y) to move the point to a new position (x’,y’) to

x’ = x + tx, y’ = y + ty
40
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

The translation distance point (tx,ty) is called translation vector or shift vector.

Translation equation can be expressed as single matrix equation by using column vectors
to represent the coordinate position and the translation vector as
P ( x, y )
T (t x , t y )

x' x t x
y' y t y

x' x tx
y' y ty
P' P T

Moving a polygon from one position to another position with the translation
vector (-5.5, 3.75)

Rotations:

A two-dimensional rotation is applied to an object by repositioning it along a

circular path on xy plane. To generate a rotation, specify a rotation angle θ and the
position (xr,yr) of the rotation point (pivot point) about which the object is to be rotated.

Positive values for the rotation angle define counter clock wise rotation about
pivot point. Negative value of angle rotate objects in clock wise direction. The
transformation can also be described as a rotation about a rotation axis perpendicular to
xy plane and passes through pivot point

41
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Rotation of a point from position (x,y) to position (x’,y’) through angle θ relative to
coordinate origin

The transformation equations for rotation of a point position P when the pivot point is at
coordinate origin. In figure r is constant distance of the point positions Ф is the original
angular of the point from horizontal and θ is the rotation angle.

The transformed coordinates in terms of angle θ and Ф

x’ = rcos(θ+Ф) = rcosθ cosФ – rsinθsinФ

y’ = rsin(θ+Ф) = rsinθ cosФ + rcosθsinФ

The original coordinates of the point in polar coordinates

x = rcosФ, y = rsinФ

the transformation equation for rotating a point at position (x,y) through an angle θ about
origin

x’ = xcosθ – ysinθ

y’ = xsinθ + ycosθ

Rotation equation

P’= R . P

Rotation Matrix

cos sin
R=
sin cos

42
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

x' cos sin x

y' sin cos y

Note : Positive values for the rotation angle define counterclockwise rotations about the
rotation point and negative values rotate objects in the clockwise.

Scaling

A scaling transformation alters the size of an object. This operation can be carried out for
polygons by multiplying the coordinate values (x,y) to each vertex by scaling factor Sx &
Sy to produce the transformed coordinates (x’,y’)

x’= x.Sx y’ = y.Sy

scaling factor Sx scales object in x direction while Sy scales in y direction.

The transformation equation in matrix form

x' sx 0 x
y' 0 sy y

or

P’ = S. P

Where S is 2 by 2 scaling matrix

Turning a square (a) Into a rectangle (b) with scaling factors sx = 2 and sy= 1.

Any positive numeric values are valid for scaling factors sx and sy. Values less than 1
reduce the size of the objects and values greater than 1 produce an enlarged object.

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

There are two types of Scaling. They are

Uniform scaling
Non Uniform Scaling

To get uniform scaling it is necessary to assign same value for sx and sy. Unequal values
for sx and sy result in a non uniform scaling.

Matrix Representation and homogeneous Coordinates

Many graphics applications involve sequences of geometric transformations. An

animation, for example, might require an object to be translated and rotated at each
increment of the motion. In order to combine sequence of transformations we have to
eliminate the matrix addition. To achieve this we have represent matrix as 3 X 3 instead
of 2 X 2 introducing an additional dummy coordinate h. Here points are specified by
three numbers instead of two. This coordinate system is called as Homogeneous
coordinate system and it allows to express transformation equation as matrix
multiplication

Cartesian coordinate position (x,y) is represented as homogeneous coordinate

triple(x,y,h)

• Represent coordinates as (x,y,h)

• Actual coordinates drawn will be (x/h,y/h)
For Translation

x' 1 0 tx x
y' 0 1 ty y
1 0 0 1 1

P' T t x , t y P

For Scaling

x' sx 0 0 x
y' 0 sy 0 y
1 0 0 1 1

P' S sx , s y P

44
CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

For rotation

x' cos sin 0 x

y' sin cos 0 y
1 0 0 1 1
P' R P

Composite Transformations

A composite transformation is a sequence of transformations; one followed by the other.

we can set up a matrix for any sequence of transformations as a composite
transformation matrix by calculating the matrix product of the individual
transformations

Translation

If two successive translation vectors (tx1,ty1) and (tx2,ty2) are applied to a coordinate
position P, the final transformed location P’ is calculated as

P’=T(tx2,ty2).{T(tx1,ty1).P}

={T(tx2,ty2).T(tx1,ty1)}.P

Where P and P’ are represented as homogeneous-coordinate column vectors.

1 0 tx2 1 0 tx1 1 0 tx1 tx2

0 1 ty2 . 0 1 ty1 0 1 ty1 ty2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Or

T(tx2,ty2).T(tx1,ty1) = T(tx1+tx2,ty1+ty2)

Which demonstrated the two successive translations are additive.

Rotations

Two successive rotations applied to point P produce the transformed position

P’=R(θ2).{R(θ1).P}={R(θ2).R(θ1)}.P

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

By multiplying the two rotation matrices, we can verify that two successive rotation are
additive

R(θ2).R(θ1) = R(θ1+ θ2)

So that the final rotated coordinates can be calculated with the composite rotation matrix
as

P’ = R(θ1+ θ2).P

cos 2 sin 2 0 cos 1 sin 1 0 cos( 2 1) sin( 2 1) 0

sin 2 cos 2 0 . sin 1 cos 1 0 sin( 2 1) cos( 2 1) 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Scaling

Concatenating transformation matrices for two successive scaling operations produces

the following composite scaling matrix

sx 2 0 0 sx1 0 0 sx 2.sx1 0 0
0 sy 2 0 . 0 sy1 0 0 sy 2.sy1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

General Pivot-point Rotation

1. Translate the object so that pivot-position is moved to the coordinate origin

2. Rotate the object about the coordinate origin
Translate the object so that the pivot point is returned to its original position

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

The composite transformation matrix for this sequence is obtain with the concatenation

Which can also be expressed as T(xr,yr).R(θ).T(-xr,-yr) = R(xr,yr,θ)

General fixed point scaling

Translate object so that the fixed point coincides with the coordinate origin
Scale the object with respect to the coordinate origin
Use the inverse translation of step 1 to return the object to its original position

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Concatenating the matrices for these three operations produces the required scaling matix

Can also be expressed as T(xf,yf).S(sx,sy).T(-xf,-yf) = S(xf, yf, sx, sy)

Note : Transformations can be combined by matrix multiplication

x' 1 0 tx cos sin 0 sx 0 0 x

y' 0 1 ty sin cos 0 0 sy 0 y
w' 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 w

Implementation of composite transformations

#include <math.h>
#include <graphics.h>
typedef float Matrix3x3 [3][3];
Matrix3x3 thematrix;

void matrix3x3SetIdentity (Matrix3x3 m)

{
int i,j;
for (i=0; i<3; i++)
for (j=0: j<3; j++ )
m[il[j] = (i == j);
}

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

/ * Multiplies matrix a times b, putting result in b */

void matrix3x3PreMultiply (Matrix3x3 a. Matrix3x3 b)
{
int r,c:
Matrix3x3 tmp:
for (r = 0; r < 3: r++)
for (c = 0; c < 3; c++)
tmp[r][c] =a[r][0]*b[0][c]+ a[r][1]*b[l][c] + a[r][2]*b[2][c]:
for (r = 0: r < 3: r++)
for Ic = 0; c < 3: c++)
b[r][c]=- tmp[r][c]:
}

void translate2 (int tx, int ty)

{
Matrix3x3 m:
rnatrix3x3SetIdentity (m) :
m[0][2] = tx;
m[1][2] = ty:
matrix3x3PreMultiply (m, theMatrix);
}
vold scale2 (float sx. float sy, wcPt2 refpt)
(
Matrix3x3 m.
matrix3x3SetIdentity (m);
m[0] [0] = sx;
m[0][2] = (1 - sx)* refpt.x;
m[l][l] = sy;
m[10][2] = (1 - sy)* refpt.y;
matrix3x3PreMultiply (m, theMatrix);
}

void rotate2 (float a, wcPt2 refPt)

{
Matrix3x3 m;
matrix3x3SetIdentity (m):
a = pToRadians (a);
m[0][0]= cosf (a);
m[0][1] = -sinf (a) ;
m[0] [2] = refPt.x * (1 - cosf (a)) + refPt.y sinf (a);
m[1] [0] = sinf (a);
m[l][l] = cosf (a];

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

m[l] [2] = refPt.y * (1 - cosf (a) - refPt.x * sinf ( a ) ;

matrix3x3PreMultiply (m, theMatrix);
}

void transformPoints2 (int npts, wcPt2 *pts)

{
int k:
float tmp ;
for (k = 0; k< npts: k++)
{
tmp = theMatrix[0][0]* pts[k] .x * theMatrix[0][1] * pts[k].y+ theMatrix[0][2];
pts[k].y = theMatrix[1][0]* pts[k] .x * theMatrix[1][1] * pts[k].y+ theMatrix[1][2];
pts[k].x =tmp;
}
}

void main (int argc, char **argv)

{
wcPt2 pts[3]= { 50.0, 50.0, 150.0, 50.0, 100.0, 150.0};
wcPt2 refPt ={100.0. 100.0};
long windowID = openGraphics (*argv,200, 350);
setbackground (WHITE) ;
setcolor (BLUE);
pFillArea(3, pts):
matrix3x3SetIdentity(theMatrix);
scale2 (0.5, 0.5, refPt):
rotate2 (90.0, refPt);
translate2 (0, 150);
transformpoints2 ( 3 , pts)
pFillArea(3.pts);
sleep (10);
closeGraphics (windowID);

Other Transformations

1. Reflection
2. Shear

Reflection

A reflection is a transformation that produces a mirror image of an object. The mirror

image for a two-dimensional reflection is generated relative to an axis of reflection by
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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

rotating the object 180o about the reflection axis. We can choose an axis of reflection in
the xy plane or perpendicular to the xy plane or coordinate origin

Reflection of an object about the x axis

Reflection the x axis is accomplished with the transformation matrix

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Reflection of an object about the y axis

Reflection the y axis is accomplished with the transformation matrix

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Reflection of an object about the coordinate origin

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Reflection about origin is accomplished with the transformation matrix

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

Reflection axis as the diagonal line y = x

To obtain transformation matrix for reflection about diagonal y=x the transformation
sequence is
1. Clock wise rotation by 450
2. Reflection about x axis
3. counter clock wise by 450

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Reflection about the diagonal line y=x is accomplished with the transformation
matrix

0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1

Reflection axis as the diagonal line y = -x

To obtain transformation matrix for reflection about diagonal y=-x the transformation
sequence is
1. Clock wise rotation by 450
2. Reflection about y axis
3. counter clock wise by 450

Reflection about the diagonal line y=-x is accomplished with the transformation
matrix
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1

Shear

A Transformation that slants the shape of an object is called the shear transformation.
Two common shearing transformations are used. One shifts x coordinate values and other
shift y coordinate values. However in both the cases only one coordinate (x or y)
changes its coordinates and other preserves its values.

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X- Shear

The x shear preserves the y coordinates, but changes the x values which cause vertical
lines to tilt right or left as shown in figure

The Transformations matrix for x-shear is

1 shx 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

which transforms the coordinates as

x’ =x+ shx .y

y’ = y

Y Shear

The y shear preserves the x coordinates, but changes the y values which cause horizontal
lines which slope up or down

The Transformations matrix for y-shear is

1 0 0
sh y 1 0
0 0 1

which transforms the coordinates as

x’ =x

y’ = y+ sh y .x

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XY-Shear

The transformation matrix for xy-shear

x' 1 shx 0 x
y' sh y 1 0 y
1 0 0 1 1

which transforms the coordinates as

x’ =x+ shx .y

y’ = y+ sh y .x

Shearing Relative to other reference line

We can apply x shear and y shear transformations relative to other reference lines. In x
shear transformations we can use y reference line and in y shear we can use x reference
line.

X shear with y reference line

We can generate x-direction shears relative to other reference lines with the
transformation matrix

1 shx shx . yref

0 1 0
0 0 1

which transforms the coordinates as

x’ =x+ shx (y- yref )

y’ = y

Example

Shx = ½ and yref=-1

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Y shear with x reference line

We can generate y-direction shears relative to other reference lines with the
transformation matrix

1 shx shx . y ref

0 1 0
0 0 1

which transforms the coordinates as

x’ =x

y’ = shy (x- xref) + y

Example

Shy = ½ and xref=-1

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

Two dimensional viewing

The viewing pipeline
A world coordinate area selected for display is called a window. An area on a display
device to which a window is mapped is called a view port. The window defines what is to
be viewed the view port defines where it is to be displayed.
The mapping of a part of a world coordinate scene to device coordinate is referred to as
viewing transformation. The two dimensional viewing transformation is referred to as
window to view port transformation of windowing transformation.
A viewing transformation using standard rectangles for the window and viewport

The two dimensional viewing transformation pipeline

The viewing transformation in several steps, as indicated in Fig. First, we

construct the scene in world coordinates using the output primitives. Next to obtain a
particular orientation for the window, we can set up a two-dimensional viewing-
coordinate system in the world coordinate plane, and define a window in the viewing-
coordinate system.

The viewing- coordinate reference frame is used to provide a method for setting up
arbitrary orientations for rectangular windows. Once the viewing reference frame is
established, we can transform descriptions in world coordinates to viewing coordinates.

We then define a viewport in normalized coordinates (in the range from 0 to 1) and map
the viewing-coordinate description of the scene to normalized coordinates.

At the final step all parts of the picture that lie outside the viewport are clipped, and the
contents of the viewport are transferred to device coordinates. By changing the position
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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

of the viewport, we can view objects at different positions on the display area of an
output device.

Window to view port coordinate transformation:

A point at position (xw,yw) in a designated window is mapped to viewport coordinates

(xv,yv) so that relative positions in the two areas are the same. The figure illustrates the
window to view port mapping.

A point at position (xw,yw) in the window is mapped into position (x v,yv) in the associated
view port. To maintain the same relative placement in view port as in window

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xv xvmin xw xwmin
=
xvmax xvmin xwmax xwmin
yv yvmin yw ywmin
=
yvmax yvmin ywmax ywmin
solving these expressions for view port position (xv,yv)

xvmax xvmin
xv = xvmin + xw xwmin
xwmax xwmin
yvmax yvmin
yv = yvmin + yw ywmin
ywmax ywmin

where scaling factors are

sx = xvmax – xvmin sy = yvmax - yvmin

xwmax – xwmin ywmax - ywmin

The conversion is performed with the following sequence of transformations.

1. Perform a scaling transformation using point position of (xw min, yw min) that
scales the window area to the size of view port.
2. Translate the scaled window area to the position of view port. Relative
proportions of objects are maintained if scaling factor are the same(Sx=Sy).

Otherwise world objects will be stretched or contracted in either the x or y direction when
displayed on output device. For normalized coordinates, object descriptions are mapped
to various display devices.

Any number of output devices can be open in particular application and another
window view port transformation can be performed for each open output device. This
mapping called the work station transformation is accomplished by selecting a window
area in normalized apace and a view port are in coordinates of display device.

Mapping selected parts of a scene in normalized coordinate to different video

monitors with work station transformation.

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Two Dimensional viewing functions

Viewing reference system in a PHIGS application program has following function.

evaluateViewOrientationMatrix(x0,y0,xv,yv,error, viewMatrix)

where x0,y0 are coordinate of viewing origin and parameter xv, yv are the world
coordinate positions for view up vector.An integer error code is generated if the input
parameters are in error otherwise the view matrix for world-to-viewing transformation is
calculated. Any number of viewing transformation matrices can be defined in an
application.

To set up elements of window to view port mapping

evaluateViewMappingMatrix (xwmin, xwmax, ywmin, ywmax, xvmin, xvmax, yvmin,

yvmax, error, viewMappingMatrix)

Here window limits in viewing coordinates are chosen with parameters xwmin, xwmax,
ywmin, ywmax and the viewport limits are set with normalized coordinate positions
xvmin, xvmax, yvmin, yvmax.

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The combinations of viewing and window view port mapping for various workstations in
a viewing table with

setViewRepresentation(ws,viewIndex,viewMatrix,viewMappingMatrix,
xclipmin, xclipmax, yclipmin, yclipmax, clipxy)

Where parameter ws designates the output device and parameter view index sets an
integer identifier for this window-view port point. The matrices viewMatrix and
viewMappingMatrix can be concatenated and referenced by viewIndex.

setViewIndex(viewIndex)

selects a particular set of options from the viewing table.

At the final stage we apply a workstation transformation by selecting a work station

window viewport pair.

setWorkstationWindow (ws, xwsWindmin, xwsWindmax,

ywsWindmin, ywsWindmax)

setWorkstationViewport (ws, xwsVPortmin, xwsVPortmax,

ywsVPortmin, ywsVPortmax)

where was gives the workstation number. Window-coordinate extents are specified in the
range from 0 to 1 and viewport limits are in integer device coordinates.

Clipping operation

Any procedure that identifies those portions of a picture that are inside or outside of a
specified region of space is referred to as clipping algorithm or clipping. The region
against which an object is to be clipped is called clip window.

Algorithm for clipping primitive types:

Point clipping
Line clipping (Straight-line segment)
Area clipping
Curve clipping
Text clipping

Line and polygon clipping routines are standard components of graphics packages.

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Point Clipping

Clip window is a rectangle in standard position. A point P=(x,y) for display, if following
inequalities are satisfied:

xwmin <= x <= xwmax

ywmin <= y <= ywmax

where the edges of the clip window (xwmin,xwmax,ywmin,ywmax) can be either the
world-coordinate window boundaries or viewport boundaries. If any one of these four
inequalities is not satisfied, the point is clipped (not saved for display).

Line Clipping

A line clipping procedure involves several parts. First we test a given line segment
whether it lies completely inside the clipping window. If it does not we try to determine
whether it lies completely outside the window . Finally if we can not identify a line as
completely inside or completely outside, we perform intersection calculations with one or
more clipping boundaries.

Process lines through “inside-outside” tests by checking the line endpoints. A line with
both endpoints inside all clipping boundaries such as line from P1 to P2 is saved. A line
with both end point outside any one of the clip boundaries line P3P4 is outside the
window.

Line clipping against a rectangular clip window

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

All other lines cross one or more clipping boundaries. For a line segment with end points
(x1,y1) and (x2,y2) one or both end points outside clipping rectangle, the parametric
representation

x = x1 + u x2 x1 ,
y = y1 + u y2 y1 , 0 u 1
could be used to determine values of u for an intersection with the clipping boundary
coordinates. If the value of u for an intersection with a rectangle boundary edge is outside
the range of 0 to 1, the line does not enter the interior of the window at that boundary. If
the value of u is within the range from 0 to 1, the line segment does indeed cross into the
clipping area. This method can be applied to each clipping boundary edge in to
determined whether any part of line segment is to displayed.

Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping

This is one of the oldest and most popular line-clipping procedures. The method
speeds up the processing of line segments by performing initial tests that reduce the
number of intersections that must be calculated.

Every line endpoint in a picture is assigned a four digit binary code called a region
code that identifies the location of the point relative to the boundaries of the clipping
rectangle.

Binary region codes assigned to line end points according to relative position with
respect to the clipping rectangle.

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Regions are set up in reference to the boundaries. Each bit position in region code is used
to indicate one of four relative coordinate positions of points with respect to clip window:
to the left, right, top or bottom. By numbering the bit positions in the region code as 1
through 4 from right to left, the coordinate regions are corrected with bit positions as

bit 1: left

bit 2: right

bit 3: below

bit4: above

A value of 1 in any bit position indicates that the point is in that relative position.
Otherwise the bit position is set to 0. If a point is within the clipping rectangle the region
code is 0000. A point that is below and to the left of the rectangle has a region code of
0101.

Bit values in the region code are determined by comparing endpoint coordinate
values (x,y) to clip boundaries. Bit1 is set to 1 if x <xwmin.

For programming language in which bit manipulation is possible region-code bit

values can be determined with following two steps.

(1) Calculate differences between endpoint coordinates and clipping boundaries.

(2) Use the resultant sign bit of each difference calculation to set the corresponding value
in the region code.

bit 1 is the sign bit of x – xwmin

bit 2 is the sign bit of xwmax - x

bit 3 is the sign bit of y – ywmin

bit 4 is the sign bit of ywmax - y.

Once we have established region codes for all line endpoints, we can quickly determine
which lines are completely inside the clip window and which are clearly outside.

Any lines that are completely contained within the window boundaries have a
region code of 0000 for both endpoints, and we accept

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these lines. Any lines that have a 1 in the same bit position in the region codes for each
endpoint are completely outside the clipping rectangle, and we reject these lines.

We would discard the line that has a region code of 1001 for one endpoint and a
code of 0101 for the other endpoint. Both endpoints of this line are left of the clipping
rectangle, as indicated by the 1 in the first bit position of each region code.

A method that can be used to test lines for total clipping is to perform the logical
and operation with both region codes. If the result is not 0000,the line is completely
outside the clipping region.

Lines that cannot be identified as completely inside or completely outside a clip

window by these tests are checked for intersection with window boundaries.

Line extending from one coordinates region to another may pass through the clip
window, or they may intersect clipping boundaries without entering window.

Cohen-Sutherland line clipping starting with bottom endpoint left, right , bottom
and top boundaries in turn and find that this point is below the clipping rectangle.

Starting with the bottom endpoint of the line from P1 to P2, we check P1 against
the left, right, and bottom boundaries in turn and find that this point is below the clipping
rectangle. We then find the intersection point P1’ with the bottom boundary and discard
the line section from P1 to P1’.

The line now has been reduced to the section from P1’ to P2,Since P2, is outside the
clip window, we check this endpoint against the boundaries and find that it is to the left

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

of the window. Intersection point P2’ is calculated, but this point is above the window. So
the final intersection calculation yields P2”, and the line from P1’ to P2”is saved. This
completes processing for this line, so we save this part and go on to the next line.

Point P3 in the next line is to the left of the clipping rectangle, so we determine the
intersection P3’, and eliminate the line section from P3 to P3'. By checking region codes
for the line section from P3'to P4 we find that the remainder of the line is below the clip
window and can be discarded also.

Intersection points with a clipping boundary can be calculated using the slope-
intercept form of the line equation. For a line with endpoint coordinates (x1,y1) and (x2,y2)
and the y coordinate of the intersection point with a vertical boundary can be obtained
with the calculation.

y =y1 +m (x-x1)

where x value is set either to xwmin or to xwmax and slope of line is calculated as

m = (y2- y1) / (x2- x1)

the intersection with a horizontal boundary the x coordinate can be calculated as

x= x1 +( y- y1) / m

with y set to either to ywmin or to ywmax.

Implementation of Cohen-sutherland Line Clipping

#define Round(a) ((int)(a+0.5))

#define LEFT_EDGE 0x1

#define RIGHT_EDGE 0x2
#define BOTTOM_EDGE 0x4
#define TOP_EDGE 0x8
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

#define INSIDE(a) (!a)

#define REJECT(a,b) (a&b)
#define ACCEPT(a,b) (!(a|b))

unsigned char encode(wcPt2 pt, dcPt winmin, dcPt winmax)

{

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

unsigned char code=0x00;

if(pt.x<winmin.x)
code=code|LEFT_EDGE;
if(pt.x>winmax.x)
code=code|RIGHT_EDGE;
if(pt.y<winmin.y)
code=code|BOTTOM_EDGE;
if(pt.y>winmax.y)
code=code|TOP_EDGE;
return(code);
}
void swappts(wcPt2 *p1,wcPt2 *p2)
{
wcPt2 temp;
tmp=*p1;
*p1=*p2;
*p2=tmp;
}
void swapcodes(unsigned char *c1,unsigned char *c2)
{
unsigned char tmp;
tmp=*c1;
*c1=*c2;
*c2=tmp;
}
void clipline(dcPt winmin, dcPt winmax, wcPt2 p1,ecPt2 point p2)
{
unsigned char code1,code2;
int done=FALSE, draw=FALSE;
float m;
while(!done)
{
code1=encode(p1,winmin,winmax);
code2=encode(p2,winmin,winmax);
if(ACCEPT(code1,code2))
{
done=TRUE;
draw=TRUE;
}
else if(REJECT(code1,code2))
done=TRUE;
else
{

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

if(INSIDE(code1))
{
swappts(&p1,&p2);
swapcodes(&code1,&code2);
}
if(p2.x!=p1.x)
m=(p2.y-p1.y)/(p2.x-p1.x);
if(code1 &LEFT_EDGE)
{
p1.y+=(winmin.x-p1.x)*m;
p1.x=winmin.x;
}
else if(code1 &RIGHT_EDGE)
{
p1.y+=(winmax.x-p1.x)*m;
p1.x=winmax.x;
}
else if(code1 &BOTTOM_EDGE)
{
if(p2.x!=p1.x)
p1.x+=(winmin.y-p1.y)/m;
p1.y=winmin.y;
}
else if(code1 &TOP_EDGE)
{
if(p2.x!=p1.x)
p1.x+=(winmax.y-p1.y)/m;
p1.y=winmax.y;
}
}
}
if(draw)
lineDDA(ROUND(p1.x),ROUND(p1.y),ROUND(p2.x),ROUND(p2.y));
}

Liang – Barsky line Clipping:

Based on analysis of parametric equation of a line segment, faster line clippers

have been developed, which can be written in the form :

x = x1 + u ∆x
y = y1 + u ∆y 0<=u<=1

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where ∆x = (x2 - x1) and ∆y = (y2 - y1)

In the Liang-Barsky approach we first the point clipping condition in parametric

form :

xwmin <= x1 + u ∆x <=. xwmax

ywmin <= y1 + u ∆y <= ywmax

Each of these four inequalities can be expressed as

µpk <= qk. k=1,2,3,4

the parameters p & q are defined as

p1 = -∆x q1 = x1 - xwmin
p2 = ∆x q2 = xwmax - x1
P3 = -∆y q3 = y1- ywmin
P4 = ∆y q4 = ywmax - y1

Any line that is parallel to one of the clipping boundaries have pk=0 for values of
k corresponding to boundary k=1,2,3,4 correspond to left, right, bottom and top
boundaries. For values of k, find qk<0, the line is completely out side the boundary.

If qk >=0, the line is inside the parallel clipping boundary.

When pk<0 the infinite extension of line proceeds from outside to inside of the
infinite extension of this clipping boundary.

If pk>0, the line proceeds from inside to outside, for non zero value of pk calculate
the value of u, that corresponds to the point where the infinitely extended line intersect
the extension of boundary k as
u = qk / pk

For each line, calculate values for parameters u1and u2 that define the part of line
that lies within the clip rectangle. The value of u1 is determined by looking at the
rectangle edges for which the line proceeds from outside to the inside (p<0).

For these edges we calculate

rk = qk / pk

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

The value of u1 is taken as largest of set consisting of 0 and various values of r. The
value of u2 is determined by examining the boundaries for which lines proceeds from
inside to outside (P>0).

A value of rkis calculated for each of these boundaries and value of u2 is the
minimum of the set consisting of 1 and the calculated r values.

If u1>u2, the line is completely outside the clip window and it can be rejected.

Line intersection parameters are initialized to values u1=0 and u2=1. for each
clipping boundary, the appropriate values for P and q are calculated and used by function

Cliptest to determine whether the line can be rejected or whether the intersection
parameter can be adjusted.

When p<0, the parameter r is used to update u1.

When p>0, the parameter r is used to update u2.

If updating u1 or u2 results in u1>u2 reject the line, when p=0 and q<0, discard the line,
it is parallel to and outside the boundary.If the line has not been rejected after all four
value of p and q have been tested , the end points of clipped lines are determined from
values of u1 and u2.
The Liang-Barsky algorithm is more efficient than the Cohen-Sutherland
algorithm since intersections calculations are reduced. Each update of parameters u1 and
u2 require only one division and window intersections of these lines are computed only
once.
Cohen-Sutherland algorithm, can repeatedly calculate intersections along a line
path, even through line may be completely outside the clip window. Each intersection
calculations require both a division and a multiplication.

Implementation of Liang-Barsky Line Clipping

#define Round(a) ((int)(a+0.5))

int clipTest (float p, float q, gfloat *u1, float *u2)
{
float r;
int retval=TRUE;
if (p<0.0)
{

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CS2401 –Computer Graphics Unit - I

r=q/p
if (r>*u2)
retVal=FALSE;
else
if (r>*u1)
*u1=r;
}
else
if (p>0.0)
{
r=q/p
if (r<*u1)
retVal=FALSE;
else
if (r<*u2)
*u2=r;
}
else
if )q<0.0)
retVal=FALSE
return(retVal);

void clipLine (dcPt winMin, dcPt winMax, wcPt2 p1, wcpt2 p2)
{
float u1=0.0, u2=1.0, dx=p2.x-p1.x,dy;
if (clipTest (-dx, p1.x-winMin.x, &u1, &u2))
if (clipTest (dx, winMax.x-p1.x, &u1, &u2))
{
dy=p2.y-p1.y;
if (clipTest (-dy, p1.y-winMin.y, &u1, &u2))
if (clipTest (dy, winMax.y-p1.y, &u1, &u2))
{
if (u1<1.0)
{
p2.x=p1.x+u2*dx;
p2.y=p1.y+u2*dy;
}
if (u1>0.0)
{
p1.x=p1.x+u1*dx;
p1.y=p1.y+u1*dy;
}
lineDDA(ROUND(p1.x),ROUND(p1.y),ROUND(p2.x),ROUND(p2.y));

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}
}
}

Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl Line clipping

By creating more regions around the clip window, the Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl (or NLN)
algorithm avoids multiple clipping of an individual line segment. In the Cohen-
Sutherland method, multiple intersections may be calculated.These extra intersection
calculations are eliminated in the NLN algorithm by carrying out more region testing
before intersection positions are calculated.

Compared to both the Cohen-Sutherland and the Liang-Barsky algorithms, the

Nicholl-Lee-Nicholl algorithm performs fewer comparisons and divisions. The trade-off
is that the NLN algorithm can only be applied to two-dimensional dipping, whereas both
the Liang-Barsky and the Cohen-Sutherland methods are easily extended to three-
dimensional scenes.

For a line with endpoints P1 and P2 we first determine the position of point P1,
for the nine possible regions relative to the clipping rectangle. Only the three regions
shown in Fig. need to be considered. If P1 lies in any one of the other six regions, we can
move it to one of the three regions in Fig. using a symmetry transformation. For
example, the region directly above the clip window can be transformed to the region left
of the clip window using a reflection about the line y = -x, or we could use a 90 degree
counterclockwise rotation.

Three possible positions for a line endpoint p1(a) in the NLN algorithm

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Case 1: p1 inside region

Case 2: p1 across edge

Case 3: p1 across corner

Next, we determine the position of P2 relative to P1. To do this, we create some new
regions in the plane, depending on the location of P1. Boundaries of the new regions are
half-infinite line segments that start at the position of P1 and pass through the window
corners. If P1 is inside the clip window and P2 is outside, we set up the four regions
shown in Fig

The four clipping regions used in NLN alg when p1 is inside and p2 outside the clip
window

The intersection with the appropriate window boundary is then carried out,
depending on which one of the four regions (L, T, R, or B) contains P2. If both P1 and P2
are inside the clipping rectangle, we simply save the entire line.

If P1 is in the region to the left of the window, we set up the four regions, L, LT, LR, and
LB, shown in Fig.

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These four regions determine a unique boundary for the line segment. For instance, if P2
is in region L, we clip the line at the left boundary and save the line segment from this
intersection point to P2. But if P2 is in region LT, we save the line segment from the left
window boundary to the top boundary. If P2 is not in any of the four regions, L, LT, LR,
or LB, the entire line is clipped.

For the third case, when P1 is to the left and above the clip window, we usethe clipping
regions in Fig.

Fig : The two possible sets of clipping regions used in NLN algorithm when P1 is
above and to the left of the clip window

In this case, we have the two possibilities shown, depending on the position of P1,
relative to the top left corner of the window. If P2, is in one of the regions T, L, TR, TB,
LR, or LB, this determines a unique clip window edge for the intersection calculations.
Otherwise, the entire line is rejected.

To determine the region in which P2 is located, we compare the slope of the

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line to the slopes of the boundaries of the clip regions. For example, if P1 is left of

the clipping rectangle (Fig. a), then P2, is in region LT if

slopeP1PTR<slopeP1P2<slopeP1PTL

or

yT – y1 < y2 – y1 < yT – y1

xR – x1 x2 – x1 xL – x1

And we clip the entire line if

(yT – y1)( x2 – x1) < (xL – x1 ) ( y2 – y1)

The coordinate difference and product calculations used in the slope tests are
saved and also used in the intersection calculations. From the parametric equations

x = x1 + (x2 – x1)u

y = y1 + (y2 – y1)u

an x-intersection position on the left window boundary is x = xL,, with

u= (xL – x1 )/ ( x2 – x1) so that the y-intersection position is

y = y1 + y2 – y1 (xL – x1 )

x2 – x1

And an intersection position on the top boundary has y = yT and u = (yT – y1)/ (y2 – y1)
with

x = x1 + x2 – x1 (yT – y1 )

y2 – y1

POLYGON CLIPPING

To clip polygons, we need to modify the line-clipping procedures. A polygon

boundary processed with a line clipper may be displayed as a series of unconnected line
segments (Fig.), depending on the orientation of the polygon to the clipping window.

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Display of a polygon processed by a line clipping algorithm

For polygon clipping, we require an algorithm that will generate one or more closed areas
that are then scan converted for the appropriate area fill. The output of a polygon clipper
should be a sequence of vertices that defines the clipped polygon boundaries.

Sutherland – Hodgeman polygon clipping:

A polygon can be clipped by processing the polygon boundary as a whole against

each window edge. This could be accomplished by processing all polygon vertices
against each clip rectangle boundary.

There are four possible cases when processing vertices in sequence around the
perimeter of a polygon. As each point of adjacent polygon vertices is passed to a window
boundary clipper, make the following tests:

1. If the first vertex is outside the window boundary and second vertex is inside,
both the intersection point of the polygon edge with window boundary and
second vertex are added to output vertex list.
2. If both input vertices are inside the window boundary, only the second vertex
is added to the output vertex list.

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3. If first vertex is inside the window boundary and second vertex is outside only
the edge intersection with window boundary is added to output vertex list.
4. If both input vertices are outside the window boundary nothing is added to the
output list.
Clipping a polygon against successive window boundaries.

Successive processing of pairs of polygon vertices against the left window boundary

Clipping a polygon against the left boundary of a window, starting with vertex 1.
Primed numbers are used to label the points in the output vertex list for this window
boundary.

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vertices 1 and 2 are found to be on outside of boundary. Moving along vertex 3 which is
inside, calculate the intersection and save both the intersection point and vertex 3. Vertex
4 and 5 are determined to be inside and are saved. Vertex 6 is outside so we find and save
the intersection point. Using the five saved points we repeat the process for next window
boundary.

Implementing the algorithm as described requires setting up storage for an output list of
vertices as a polygon clipped against each window boundary. We eliminate the
intermediate output vertex lists by simply by clipping individual vertices at each step and
passing the clipped vertices on to the next boundary clipper.

A point is added to the output vertex list only after it has been determined to be inside or
on a window boundary by all boundary clippers. Otherwise the point does not continue in
the pipeline.

A polygon overlapping a rectangular clip window

Processing the vertices of the polygon in the above fig. through a boundary clipping
pipeline. After all vertices are processed through the pipeline, the vertex list is {
v2”, v2’, v3,v3’}

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Implementation of Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping

typedef enum { Left,Right,Bottom,Top } Edge;

#define N_EDGE 4
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0

int inside(wcPt2 p, Edge b,dcPt wmin,dcPt wmax)

{
switch(b)
{
case Left: if(p.x<wmin.x) return (FALSE); break;
case Right:if(p.x>wmax.x) return (FALSE); break;
case bottom:if(p.y<wmin.y) return (FALSE); break;
case top: if(p.y>wmax.y) return (FALSE); break;
}
return (TRUE);
}
int cross(wcPt2 p1, wcPt2 p2,Edge b,dcPt wmin,dcPt wmax)
{
if(inside(p1,b,wmin,wmax)==inside(p2,b,wmin,wmax))
return (FALSE);
else
return (TRUE);
}
wcPt2 (wcPt2 p1, wcPt2 p2,int b,dcPt wmin,dcPt wmax )
{
wcPt2 iPt;
float m;
if(p1.x!=p2.x)
m=(p1.y-p2.y)/(p1.x-p2.x);
switch(b)
{
case Left:
ipt.x=wmin.x;

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ipt.y=p2.y+(wmin.x-p2.x)*m;
break;
case Right:
ipt.x=wmax.x;
ipt.y=p2.y+(wmax.x-p2.x)*m;
break;
case Bottom:
ipt.y=wmin.y;
if(p1.x!=p2.x)
ipt.x=p2.x+(wmin.y-p2.y)/m;
else
ipt.x=p2.x;
break;
case Top:
ipt.y=wmax.y;
if(p1.x!=p2.x)
ipt.x=p2.x+(wmax.y-p2.y)/m;
else
ipt.x=p2.x;
break;
}
return(ipt);
}
void clippoint(wcPt2 p,Edge b,dcPt wmin,dcPt wmax, wcPt2 *pout,int *cnt, wcPt2
*first[],struct point *s)
{
wcPt2 iPt;
if(!first[b])
first[b]=&p;
else
if(cross(p,s[b],b,wmin,wmax))
{
ipt=intersect(p,s[b],b,wmin,wmax);
if(b<top)
clippoint(ipt,b+1,wmin,wmax,pout,cnt,first,s);
else
{
pout[*cnt]=ipt;
(*cnt)++;
}
}
s[b]=p;
if(inside(p,b,wmin,wmax))

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if(b<top)
clippoint(p,b+1,wmin,wmax,pout,cnt,first,s);
else
{
pout[*cnt]=p;
(*cnt)++;
}
}
void closeclip(dcPt wmin,dcPt wmax, wcPt2 *pout,int *cnt,wcPt2 *first[], wcPt2 *s)
{
wcPt2 iPt;
Edge b;
for(b=left;b<=top;b++)
{
if(cross(s[b],*first[b],b,wmin,wmax))
{
i=intersect(s[b],*first[b],b,wmin,wmax);
if(b<top)
clippoint(i,b+1,wmin,wmax,pout,cnt,first,s);
else
{
pout[*cnt]=i;
(*cnt)++;
}
}
}
}
int clippolygon(dcPt point wmin,dcPt wmax,int n,wcPt2 *pin, wcPt2 *pout)
{
wcPt2 *first[N_EDGE]={0,0,0,0},s[N_EDGE];
int i,cnt=0;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
clippoint(pin[i],left,wmin,wmax,pout,&cnt,first,s);
closeclip(wmin,wmax,pout,&cnt,first,s);
return(cnt);
}

Weiler- Atherton Polygon Clipping

This clipping procedure was developed as a method for identifying visible

surfaces, and so it can be applied with arbitrary polygon-clipping regions.

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The basic idea in this algorithm is that instead of always proceeding around the
polygon edges as vertices are processed, we sometimes want to follow the window
boundaries. Which path we follow depends on the polygon-processing direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise) and whether the pair of polygon vertices currently being
processed represents an outside-to-inside pair or an inside- to-outside pair. For clockwise
processing of polygon vertices, we use the following rules:
For an outside-to-inside pair of vertices, follow the polygon boundary.
For an inside-to-outside pair of vertices,. follow the window boundary in a
clockwise direction.
In the below Fig. the processing direction in the Weiler-Atherton algorithm and the
resulting clipped polygon is shown for a rectangular clipping window.

An improvement on the Weiler-Atherton algorithm is the Weiler algorithm,

which applies constructive solid geometry ideas to clip an arbitrary polygon
against any polygon clipping region.

Curve Clipping

Curve-clipping procedures will involve nonlinear equations, and this requires

more processing than for objects with linear boundaries. The bounding rectangle for a
circle or other curved object can be used first to test for overlap with a rectangular clip
window.
If the bounding rectangle for the object is completely inside the window, we save
the object. If the rectangle is determined to be completely outside the window, we discard
the object. In either case, there is no further computation necessary.

But if the bounding rectangle test fails, we can look for other computation-saving
approaches. For a circle, we can use the coordinate extents of individual quadrants and
then octants for preliminary testing before calculating curve-window intersections.

The below figure illustrates circle clipping against a rectangular window. On the
first pass, we can clip the bounding rectangle of the object against the bounding rectangle

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of the clip region. If the two regions overlap, we will need to solve the simultaneous line-
curve equations to obtain the clipping intersection points.

Clipping a filled circle

Text clipping

There are several techniques that can be used to provide text clipping in a graphics
package. The clipping technique used will depend on the methods used to
generate characters and the requirements of a particular application.

The simplest method for processing character strings relative to a window

boundary is to use the all-or-none string-clipping strategy shown in Fig. . If all of the
string is inside a clip window, we keep it. Otherwise, the string is discarded. This
procedure is implemented by considering a bounding rectangle around the text pattern.
The boundary positions of the rectangle are then compared to the window boundaries,
and the string is rejected if there is any overlap. This method produces the fastest text
clipping.

Text clipping using a bounding rectangle about the entire string

An alternative to rejecting an entire character string that overlaps a window

boundary is to use the all-or-none character-clipping strategy. Here we discard only
those characters that are not completely inside the window .In this case, the boundary
limits of individual characters are compared to the window. Any character that either
overlaps or is outside a window boundary is clipped.

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Text clipping using a bounding rectangle about individual characters.

A final method for handling text clipping is to clip the components of individual
characters. We now treat characters in much the same way that we treated lines. If an
individual character overlaps a clip window boundary, we clip off the parts of the
character that are outside the window.

Text Clipping performed on the components of individual characters

Exterior clipping:

Procedure for clipping a picture to the interior of a region by eliminating

everything outside the clipping region. By these procedures the inside region of the
picture is saved. To clip a picture to the exterior of a specified region. The picture parts to
be saved are those that are outside the region. This is called as exterior clipping.

Objects within a window are clipped to interior of window when other higher
priority window overlap these objects. The objects are also clipped to the exterior of
overlapping windows.

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