APPENDIX 3

HUMAN SKELETAL
REMAINS FROM
CHOTUNA
JOHN W. VERANO
Nineteen human burials were excavated at Chotuna during the 198082
field seasons. All can be assigned to the Late Phase (AD 13701600).
Skeletal preservation at Chotuna is variable. Of the 19 burials found, 4
contained skeletal remains in such poor condition that they could not be
recovered. The remaining 15 vary considerably in the quality of bone preser-
vation, ranging from relatively complete skeletons to highly fragmentary
remains. The specific causes of these preservation differences are unknown,
but likely factors include interment in sandy soil and depth of burial relative
to the water table.
Laboratory analysis of the Chotuna skeletal remains included determina-
tion of age and sex, estimation of living stature, and visual examination for
evidence of skeletal or dental pathology. The initial analysis was conducted
by the present author in the summer of 1983, with a follow-up study and
additional photographic work in 2007, in collaboration with the archaeolo-
gist Mellisa Lund Valle of the National Museum of Archaeology,
Anthropology, and History of Peru.
Estimation of age at death for juvenile remains was based on tooth calci-
fication, eruption, and root closure, long bone length, appearance of ossifica-
tion centers, and epiphyseal closure. Adults were aged on the basis of pubic
symphysis morphology, dental attrition, and cranial suture closure, as well as
on degenerative changes such as vertebral osteophytosis and osteoarthritis
(Bass 1971; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; White and Folkens 2000).
As clearly defined sex differences in the human skeleton do not become
manifest until after puberty, no attempt was made to assign sex to the infant
and child burials. For the adults, sex was determined on the basis of pelvic
8 ,
morphology, supplemented by observations on the general size and robustic-
ity of the skeleton (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; White and Folkens 2000).
Estimation of living stature for adults was calculated using regression for-
mulas developed by Santiago Genovs (Genovs 1967), generally considered
to be the best available formulas for estimating living stature for Andean
skeletal remains (Verano 1997). Only two adults had long bones sufficiently
preserved to permit stature estimation.
HUACA GLORI A BURI ALS
The Huaca Gloria burials (A2 T1A2 T9) were found on the east side of
the huaca, and all date to the Late Phase (ca. AD 13701600).
BURI AL A2 T1
Tomb 1 contained the fragmentary remains of a 2535 year-old male.
Although young, he suffered from multiple dental pathologies, including car-
ious lesions on two premolars and the antemortem loss of three molars. No
skeletal pathology was observed, and no measurements could be taken due to
the fragmentary nature of the remains.
BURI AL A2 T2
The occupant of Tomb 2 was an adult male over 50 years of age.
Advanced age is suggested by morphology of the pubic symphysis, which
shows marginal lipping and degenerative changes to its surface (Fig. 209),
and by degenerative changes to the vertebral bodies (Fig. 210), hip (Fig. 211),
and the shoulder joints. Muscle attachment areas show pronounced entheso-
phyte development (Figs. 212, 213), another feature commonly seen only in
older adults. The frontal bone has several irregularly shaped lesions that may
mark an old injury or soft tissue infection (Fig. 214). Their margins are
rounded, indicating that they had healed. Another healed injury was noted on
a right rib, which shows a well-healed fracture of the shaft (Fig. 215). Dental
problems included the antemortem loss of many teeth and an active abscess
of the upper right canine.
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Figure 209 Right pubic sym-
physis, A2 T2.
Figure 210 Vertebral osteophytosis on lumbar vertebrae, A2 T2.
Figure 211 Degenerative
changes on the superior rim of
the acetabulum, A2 T2.
Figure 212 Anterior view of the proximal ends of the femora
of A2 T2, showing enthesophytes on the greater trochanters.
Figure 213 Ischia of A2T2, showing enthesophyte develop-
ment on the ischial tuberosities.
BURI AL A2 T3
Tomb 3 contained the well-preserved skeleton of a young
adult male, approximately 2535 years of age. Measurement of the
maximum length of the right femur produced an estimated living
stature of 161 +/- 3.4 centimeters, or approximately 5 feet 4
inches, which is within the normal range for males in prehistoric
northern coastal Peruvian populations (Verano 1997). Dental
pathologies include the premature loss of three molars and enam-
el hypoplasia on the upper and lower canines (Fig. 216).
A developmental anomaly is present on the eleventh thoracic
vertebra (Figs. 217, 218). An oval defect in the vertebral body,
approximately 1 centimeter in maximum diameter, marks where
the fetal notochord failed to be absorbed during ossification of the
centrum. Known as a cleft or butterfly vertebra, this defect can
range from a small opening (as in this case) to a large cleft. Other
cases have been described in prehistoric Peruvian skeletons,
although the defect is relatively rare (Barnes 1994; Mann and
Verano 1990). In modern clinical cases, the defect is clinically
silent and is normally an incidental finding in radiographs. Severe
cases, however, can lead to scoliosis. In the case of the skeleton in
Tomb 3, the body of the affected vertebra is only mildly abnor-
mal in shape, as seen in anterior view (Fig. 219), and probably
would not have presented any difficulties to its owner.
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Figure 214 Lesion on frontal bone of A2 T2. Figure 215 Healed fracture of right rib, A2 T2.
Figure 216 Lower
canine of A2 T3 with
multiple linear enamel
hypoplasias.
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Figure 217 Eleventh thoracic vertebra of
A2 T3, superior view.
Figure 218 Eleventh thoracic vertebra
of A2 T3, inferior view.
Figure 219 Anterior view of thoracic verte-
brae T10T12 of A2 T3.
BURI AL A2 T4
Tomb 4 contained the fragmentary remains of a male of approximately
2022 years of age. All long bone epiphyses are fused, but the iliac crest epi-
physis shows incomplete union (Fig. 220), and the sternal end of the clavicle
shows no epiphysis present (Fig. 221). The upper third molars are in occlu-
sion, but the lowers are unerupted. Thus, skeletal and dental development
were still incomplete in this individual at the time of death. All four canine
teeth show pitting and linear defects, indicating bouts of childhood illness or
malnutrition (Fig. 222). No other pathologies are present, although the fifth
metatarsal bones of both feet are bowed outward (Fig. 223).
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Figure 220 Right ilium of A2 T4, showing
incomplete fusion of iliac crest epiphysis.
Figure 221 Medial end of clavicle of A2
T4, showing no epiphyseal development.
Figure 222 Lower (to the left) and upper canines of A2 T4,
showing enamel hypoplasias.
Figure 223 Fifth metatarsals of A2 T4,
showing lateral bowing of the distal ends.
BURI AL A2 T5
Tomb 5 contained the very fragmentary
remains of an infant. The crowns of the second
deciduous molars are fully calcified, which sug-
gests an age of at least ten months, but the roots
of the deciduous incisors are still incomplete,
which places an upper age limit at around 18
months. No visible pathology is present.
BURI AL A2 T6
Tomb 6 contained the relatively complete
remains of an 1113 year-old child. This burial
was of particular interest when first discovered,
because it showed extensive eroded areas on the
skull that had an appearance suggestive of cra-
nial syphilis. When examined in the laboratory,
the skull indeed looked pathological (Fig. 224).
However, close inspection demonstrated that the
lesions are strictly erosive in character, with no
evidence of bone reaction or healing, as would
be expected in treponemal infection (Hackett
1976; Ortner 2003). Further evidence inconsis-
tent with syphilis included the fact that the lat-
eral aspect of the maxillae and mandible also
had erosive damage (Fig. 225), and these are not
areas typically involved in syphilis. No lesions
were present on the post cranial skeleton, where
they are commonly found in the case of syphilis.
We noted also that the eroded areas of the skull
are darkly stained, which is consistent with
postmortem taphonomic change. Why the skull
and mandible are more affected than the rest of
the skeleton is not clear. Perhaps textiles wrap-
ping the head retained more moisture, or per-
haps there was some localized soil difference in
the head area. Since first examining this skull in
1983, I have seen similar erosive defects in
Moche burials at Pacatnamu in the Jequetepeque
Valley and at the Pyramid of the Moon in the
Moche Valley, so this specimen is not unique.
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Figure 224 Erosive defects on the skull vault of A2 T6.
Figure 225 Eroded areas on the left maxilla and
mandible of A2 T6.
BURI AL A2 T7
Tomb 7 contained the relatively complete remains of an infant. The first
deciduous molar crowns are fully calcified, but not the second molars, and the
lower incisors were just beginning to erupt, which indicates an age at death
of between 68 months. Maximum length of the left femur without epiphy-
ses is 105 millimeters, consistent with the dental age estimate (Johnston
1962; Ubelaker 1989). No pathology was observed.
BURI AL A2 T8
Tomb 8 contained the fragmentary skeleton of a male, approximately
3545 years of age. Living stature is estimated to have been relatively short,
146 centimeters, or 4 feet 11 inches, based on the length of the left femur.
He suffered from a large carious lesion on the lower left third molar and had
periodontal disease, as indicated by a loss of alveolar bone around the roots
of the teeth. Vertebral osteophytosis is present on the lumbar vertebrae and
on several thoracic vertebrae, but otherwise no skeletal pathology was
observed.
BURI AL A2 T9
Tomb 9 contained the fragmentary skeleton of a child 1113 years of
age. Enamel hypoplasias are visible on all four permanent canines.
ARTI SANS QUADRANGLE BURI ALS
The Artisans Quadrangle burials (AQ T1AQ T6) all date to the Late
Phase. Three of the burials (AQ T1AQ T3) had such poor bone preservation
that they could not be recovered. Only AQ T4AQ T6 will be described here.
BURI AL AQ T4
Tomb 4 contained the very fragmentary remains of a 711 year-old
child. Preservation was very poor, but age could be estimated on the basis of
dental development. Hypoplastic lines are present on the canines and upper
central incisors.
BURI AL AQ T5
Tomb 5 contained the fragmentary remains of a 1215 year-old adoles-
cent of undetermined sex. Enamel hypoplasias are visible on the permanent
canines.
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BURI AL AQ T6
Tomb 6 contained the highly fragmentary remains of a 711 year-old
child. Only bone fragments and teeth were recovered from this burial, but the
following observations could be used to estimate age: the first permanent
molars show little occlusal wear and have open roots; the second permanent
molars have not erupted; and the third molar crowns are only partially calci-
fied. No pathology was observed.
DI SCUSSI ON
As was noted in the introduction, all the burials found at Chotuna can be
assigned to the Late Phase. On the basis of associated grave goods, they can
be subdivided into the following groups:
Chimu Late Phase AQ T1AQ T6
Chimu-Inca Late Phase A2 T1A2 T4
Colonial Late Phase A2 T5A2 T9
Given the small number of burials recovered from Chotuna, statements
about differences in pathology and general health through time must be made
with caution. However, some general observations can be made. There is no
skeletal evidence for the introduction of any new diseases during the Colonial
Late Phase, as was originally suspected in the case of Burial A2 T6. Of course,
this does not rule out the arrival of infectious diseases such as smallpox,
bubonic plague, measles, or influenza, which do not leave evidence in bone,
but are known to have ravaged coastal Peru after European contact (Cook
1981; 1998). The most common pathological conditions seen at Chotuna
(dental caries, periodontal disease, tooth loss, enamel hypoplasia) do not
appear to show changes in frequency through time. Dental disease, in the
form of caries, peridontal disease, and antemortem tooth loss, was a common
problem for adults at Chotuna and is most likely due to a diet rich in carbo-
hydrates such as maize. Similar frequencies of dental disease have been report-
ed for other prehistoric coastal Peruvian populations (Verano 1997).
Also common at Chotuna was enamel hypoplasia, a condition where nor-
mal enamel development in a developing tooth crown is disrupted, leading to
pits or linear defects on the lingual or buccal surface of the tooth crown.
Hypoplastic defects have been linked to childhood illnesses and episodic
dietary stress (Goodman and Rose 1990; Skinner and Goodman 1992). They
are most frequently seen on the permanent canine teeth and provide a visible
record of metabolic stress suffered in the roughly 25 year age range, when
the canine tooth crowns are developing.
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In the 10 Chotuna burials that could be examined for enamel hypopla-
sia, half had visible enamel defects. This high frequency suggests that child-
hood diseases or periodic food shortages put children at Chotuna under sig-
nificant stress during the growing years. Moreover, multiple hypoplastic lines
are present in most cases, indicating repeated bouts of illness or nutritional
stress.
There are very few other examples of pathology at Chotuna. Only one
individual (A2 T2) shows evidence of osteoarthritis. This low incidence of
such a universally common affliction of old age is no doubt due to the fact
that A2 T2 was the only individual over age 45 found at Chotuna. Vertebral
osteophytosis (degenerative changes on the bodies of the vertebrae) was com-
mon in adults, although not strongly developed in any one individual. The
only examples of traumatic lesions were seen in Burial A2 T2: a healed
wound on the frontal bone, and a healed rib fracture.
In total, the skeletal remains of three infants, five children, two adoles-
cents, and five adults were recovered in excavations at Chotuna. Although
these remains are for the most part fragmentary and must represent a very
small sample of the total number of individuals who were buried at this site
over the centuries, they nonetheless provide some information about health
and disease at Chotuna. Ongoing study of human skeletal remains from other
north coast sites in Peru should soon provide a background against which the
pathologies seen at Chotuna can be better interpreted.
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