BRIDGE ERECTION MACHINES

Marco Rosignoli
HNTB Corporation, USA
Keyor!s: Beam launchers, self-launching gantries, telescopic gantries, pivoted gantries, overhead
and underslung machines, movable scaffolding systems (MSSs), heavy lifters, lifting frames, form
travelers, span carriers with underbridge, design loads, modeling, analysis, load testing, instability,
robustness, progressive collapse
Contents
! "ntroduction to Bridge #onstruction Methods
$ Main %eatures of Bridge &rection Machines
' Beam (aunchers
) Self-(aunching *antries for Span-By-Span +recast Segmental &rection
, Movable Scaffolding Systems (MSSs) for Span-By-Span #asting
- Self-(aunching Machines for Balanced #antilever #onstruction
. #arriers and *antries for %ull-Span +recasting
/ 0esign (oads of MSSs and %orm 1ravelers
2 0esign (oads of 3eavy (ifters
!4 Modeling and 5nalysis
!! "nstability of '0 1russes
!$ "nstability of 6ertical Support Members
!' (oad 1esting
!) #onclusions
5c7nowledgments
*lossary
Bibliography
Bibliographical S7etch
S"##ary
Bridge industry is moving to mechani8ed construction because this saves labor, shortens pro9ect
duration and improves :uality 1his trend is evident in many countries and affects most construction
methods Mechani8ed bridge construction is based on the use of special machines
;ew-generation bridge erection machines are comple< and delicate structures 1hey handle heavy
loads on long spans under the same constraints that the obstruction to overpass e<erts onto the final
structure Safety of operations and :uality of the final product depend on comple< interactions
between human decisions, structural, mechanical and electro-hydraulic components of machines, and
the bridge being erected
"n spite of their comple<ity, the bridge erection machines must be as light as possible =eight governs
the initial investment, the cost of shipping and site assembly, and the launch stresses =eight
limitation dictates the use of high-strength steel and designing for high stress levels in different load
and support conditions, which ma7es these machines potentially prone to instability
Bridge erection machines are assembled and dismantled many times, in different conditions and by
different crews 1hey are modified and adapted to new wor7 conditions Structural nodes and field
splices are sub9ected to hundreds of load reversals 1he nature of loading is often highly dynamic and
the machines may be e<posed to impacts and strong wind
(oads and support reactions are applied eccentrically, the support sections are often devoid of
diaphragms, and most machines have fle<ible support systems "ndeed such design conditions are
almost inconceivable in permanent structures sub9ected to such loads
1he level of sophistication of new-generation bridge erection machines re:uires ade:uate technical
culture (ong subcontracting chains may lead to loss of communication, the problems not dealt with
during planning and design must be solved on the site, the ris7s of wrong operations are not always
evident in so comple< machines, and human error is the prime cause of accidents
&<perimenting new solutions without the due preparation may lead to catastrophic results Several
bridge erection machines collapsed in the years, with fatalities and huge delays in the pro9ect
schedule 5 level of technical culture ade:uate to the comple<ity of mechani8ed bridge construction
would save human lives and would facilitate the decision-ma7ing processes with more appropriate
ris7 evaluations
$% Intro!"ction to Bri!ge Constr"ction Met&o!s
&very bridge construction method has its own advantages and wea7 points "n the absence of
particular re:uirements that ma7e one solution immediately preferable to the others, the evaluation of
the possible alternatives is always a difficult tas7
#omparisons based on the :uantities of structural materials may mislead 1he technological costs of
processing of raw materials (labor, investments for special e:uipment, shipping and site assembly of
e:uipment, energy) and the indirect costs related to pro9ect duration often govern in industriali8ed
countries 3igher :uantities of raw materials due to efficient and rapid construction processes rarely
ma7e a solution anti-economical
(ow technological costs are the reason for the success of the incremental launching method for +#
bridges #ompared to the use of ground falsewor7, launching diminishes the cost of labor with similar
investments #ompared to the use of an MSS, launching diminishes the investments with similar labor
costs "n both cases launching diminishes the technological costs of construction and even if the
launch stresses may increase the :uantities of raw materials, the balance is positive and the solution is
cost effective
1he construction method that comes closest to incremental launching is segmental precasting 1he
labor costs are similar but the investments are higher and the brea7-even point shifts to longer bridges
Spans of '4-,4m are erected span-by-span with overhead or underslung launching gantries (onger
spans are erected as balanced cantilevers: self-launching gantries reach !44-!$4m spans and lifting
frames cover longer spans and curved bridges
3eavy self-launching gantries are used for macro-segmental construction of 24-!$4m spans Span-by-
span erection of macro-segments re:uires props from foundations Balanced cantilever erection
involves casting long dec7 segments under the bridge for strand 9ac7ing into position Both solutions
re:uire high investments
>n shorter bridges, prefabrication is limited to the girders and the dec7 slab is cast in-place +recast
beams are often erected with ground cranes Sensitive environments, inaccessible sites, tall piers,
steep slopes and inhabited areas often re:uire assembly with beam launchers, and the technological
costs increase
(?1 and 3S? bridges with '4-)4m spans may be erected by full-span precasting 1he investment is
so high that the brea7-even point is reached with hundreds of spans 1he precasting plant delivers $)
spans per day for fast-trac7 construction of large-scale pro9ects >ptimi8ed material and labor costs
add to the high :uality of factory production ?oad carriers and ground cranes may erect four single-
trac7 @-girders (two (?1 spans) every night 3eavy carriers with underbridge and gantries fed by
S+M1s are the alternatives for ground delivery of 3S? spans +recast spans longer than !44m have
been erected with floating cranes
Medium-span +# bridges may also be cast in-place %or bridges with more than two or three spans it
is convenient to advance in line by reusing the same formwor7 several times, and the dec7 is built
span-by-span #asting occurs in either fi<ed or movable formwor7 1he choice of e:uipment is
governed by economic reasons as the labor cost associated with a fi<ed falsewor7 and the investment
re:uested for an MSS are both considerable
Starting from the forties, the original wooden falsewor7 has been replaced with modular steel framing
systems "n spite of the refined support structures, labor may e<ceed ,4A of the construction cost of
the span #asting on falsewor7 is a viable solution only with ine<pensive labor and small bridges
>bstruction of the area under the bridge is another limitation
5n MSS comprises a casting cell assembled onto a self-launching frame MSSs are used for span-by-
span casting of long bridges with '4-.4m spans "f the piers are not tall and the area under the bridge
is accessible, 24-!$4m spans can be cast with ),--4m MSSs supported onto a temporary pier in
every span ?epetitive operations diminish the cost of labor, the :uantities of raw materials are
unaffected, and :uality is higher than that achievable with a falsewor7
Bridges crossing inaccessible sites with tall piers and spans up to '44m are cast in-place as balanced
cantilevers =hen the bridge is short or the spans e<ceed !44-!$4m the dec7 supports the form
travelers >verhead travelers are preferred in +# bridges while underslung machines are used in
cable-stayed bridges and cable-supported arches =ith long bridges and 24-!$4m spans, two longer
casting cells may be suspended from a self-launching girder that also balances the cantilevers during
construction
'% Main (eat"res o) Bri!ge Erection Mac&ines
1he industry of bridge erection machines is a highly speciali8ed niche &very machine is initially
conceived for a scope, every manufacturer has its own technological habits, and every contractor has
preferences and reuse e<pectations 1he country of fabrication also influences several aspects of
design ;evertheless, the conceptual schemes are not many
Most beam launchers comprise two triangular trusses made of long welded modules 1he diagonals
may be bolted to the chords for easier shipping although site assembly is more e<pensive +ins or
longitudinal bolts are used for the field splices in the chords ;ew-generation single-girder machines
allow roboti8ed welding and have less support saddles and smaller winch-trolleys ,4m spans are
rarely e<ceeded in precast beam bridges
5 launching gantry for span-by-span erection of precast segmental bridges also operates on '4-,4m
spans but the payload is much higher as the gantry supports the entire span during assembly 1he
payload of an MSS for in-place span-by-span casting is even higher as it also includes the casting cell,
although the nature of loading is less dynamic
6ersatile twin-girder overhead machines comprise two trusses that suspend dec7 segments or the
casting cell and carry runways for winch-trolleys or portal cranes 1he field splices are designed for
fast assembly and the modular nature of design permits alternative assembly configurations 1hese
machines are easily reusableB however, their weight, labor demand and comple<ity of operations may
suggest the use of more speciali8ed machines on long bridges
(ighter and more automated single-girder overhead machines are built around a central '0 truss or
two braced "-girders 5 light front e<tension controls overturning and a rear #-frame rolls along the
completed bridge during launching Single-girder overhead machines are compact and stable and
re:uire ground cranes only for site assembly 1elescopic configurations with a rear main girder and a
front underbridge are also available for bridges with tight plan curves
@nderslung machines comprise two '0 trusses or pairs of braced "-girders supported onto pier
brac7ets +rops from foundations may be used to increase the load capacity when the piers are short
5 rear #-frame rolling over the completed bridge may be used to shorten the girders @nderslung
machines offer a lower level of automation than the single-girder overhead machines and are affected
by ground constraints and clearance re:uirements
Span-by-span macro-segmental construction re:uires heavy twin-truss overhead gantries with a rear
pendular leg that ta7es support onto the dec7 prior to segment lifting 1ransverse 9oints at the span
:uarters and a longitudinal 9oint at bridge centerline divide /4-!44m continuous spans into four
segments 1he segments are cast under the gantry with casting cells that roll along the completed
bridge and are rotated and fed with the prefabricated cage at the abutment
>verhead gantries for balanced cantilever erection of precast segments reach !44-!$4m spans
#ompared to span-by-span erection, the payload is lower as no entire span is suspended from the
gantry 1he negative moment from the long front cantilever and the launch stresses on so long spans
govern design 6arying-depth trusses are structurally more efficient while constant-depth trusses are
easier to reuse on different span lengths Stay cables are rarely used in new-generation machines
>verhead MSSs for balanced cantilever bridges operate in a similar way 1wo long casting cells
suspended from a self-launching girder shift symmetrically from the pier toward midspan to cast the
two cantilevers 5fter midspan closure and launching to the ne<t pier, the casting cells are set close to
each other to cast the new double pier-head segment 1hese machines can be easily modified for
strand-9ac7ing of macro-segments cast on the ground
1he bridge itself can support lifting frames for balanced cantilever erection of precast segments or
form travelers for in-place casting 1hese light machines are used in short or curved bridges, +# spans
up to '44m, and cable-stayed bridges (ifting frames and form travelers permit erection of several
hammers at once and different erection se:uences than from abutment to abutment, but they re:uire
more prestressing and increase the demand for labor and ground cranes
#arriers with underbridge and heavy gantries fed by S+M1s are used to erect precast spans Spans
are rarely longer than )4m in (?1 and 3S? bridges and ,4m in highway bridges due to the
prohibitive load on the carriers and the bridge (onger spans have been handled with floating cranes
when the bridge length permitted amorti8ation of such investments
*% Bea# +a"nc&ers
1he most common method for erecting precast beams is with ground cranes #ranes usually give the
simplest and most rapid erection procedures with the minimum of investment, and the dec7 may be
built in several places at once *ood access is necessary along the entire length of the bridge to
position the cranes and deliver the girders 1all piers or steep slopes ma7e erection e<pensive or
prevent it at all
1he use of a beam launcher solves any difficulty 5 beam launcher is a light self-launching machine
comprising two triangular trusses 1he truss length is about $' times the typical span but this is rarely
a problem as the gantry operates above the dec7 (%igure !) Beam launchers easily cope with
variations in span length and dec7 geometry, plan curvatures and ground constraints #rossbeams
support the gantry and allow shifting to erect the edge girders and to traverse the gantry for launching
along curves
Figure 1: 102m, 90ton launcher for 45m, 120ton beams (Comtec)
Two winchtrolle!s s"an between the to" chor#s of the trusses an# lo#ge two
winches each$ The main winch sus"en#s the beam an# a translation winch acting
on a ca"stan mo%es the trolle! along the gantr!$ & thir# trolle! carries an electric
generator that fee#s gantr! o"erations$ 'hen the beams are #eli%ere# at the
abutment, the winches ma! be re"lace# with less e("ensi%e longstro)e
c!lin#ers$
& beam launcher o"erates in one of two wa!s #e"en#ing on how the beams are
#eli%ere#$ *f the beams are #eli%ere# on the groun#, the launcher lifts them u" to
the #ec) le%el an# "laces them onto the bearings$ *f the beams are #eli%ere# at
the abutment, the launcher is mo%e# bac) to the abutment an# the winch
trolle!s are mo%e# to the rear en# of the gantr!$ The front trolle! "ic)s u" the
front en# of the beam an# mo%es it forwar# with the rear en# sus"en#e# from a
stra##le carrier$ 'hen the rear en# of the beam reaches the rear winchtrolle!,
the trolle! "ic)s it u" to release the carrier$
The longitu#inal mo%ement of the gantr! is a twoste" "rocess$ &utomatic
clam"s bloc) the trusses to the crossbeams an# the winchtrolle!s mo%e the
beam one s"an ahea#+ then the winchtrolle!s are
anchored to the crossbeams, the bloc7s are released and the translation winches push the trusses to the
ne<t span ?edundancy of anchorages is necessary in both phases for safe launching along inclined
planes 1he se:uence can be repeated many times so when the beams are delivered at the abutment,
the gantry can place them several spans ahead =hen the bridge is long, moving the gantry over many
spans slows the erection down and may be faster to cast the dec7 slab as soon as the beams are placed
and to deliver the ne<t beams along the completed bridge
Truss #e,ections at lan#ing at the "iers are reco%ere# with alignment we#ges$
The alignment force is small but the support saddles must be anchored to avoid displacements or
overturning ?ealignment may also be achieved with long-stro7e cylinders that rotate arms pinned to
the tip of the truss Similar devices are also applied to the rear end of the gantry to release the support
reaction when launching forward and to recover the deflection when launching bac7ward
Figure 2: -4m, 9.ton singlegir#er shifter for 2.m, /0ton beams (0eal)
;ew-generation single-girder launchers are based on two braced "-girders 1he main girder is less
e<pensive than two triangular trusses due to roboti8ed welding, the winch-trolleys are smaller, the
number of support saddles halves, and the crossbeams are shorter (ightened launching noses may be
attained with laser-cut windows in the webs to avoid hand welding 5 #-frame supports the rear end
of the gantry and allows the beams to pass through when delivered along the completed bridge 1he
#-frame is not necessary when the beams are delivered on the ground as the launcher lifts and shifts
them into position within the same span (%igure $)
#rossbeams anchored to the pier caps carry rails for lateral shifting of the gantry 1he crossbeams
have lateral overhangs for placement of the edge girders and to traverse the gantry for launching along
curves 5d9ustable support legs located so as not to interfere with the precast beams are used to set the
crossbeams hori8ontal Some launchers have light service cranes at the ends of the trusses to
reposition the crossbeams without any need for ground cranes
1he support saddles comprise bottom rollers that shift laterally along the crossbeam and top rollers
that support the truss &:uali8er beams allow the top rollers to cope with the fle<ural rotations in the
truss and the gradient of the launch plane 5 vertical pivot connects the two roll assemblies to
allow rotations in the hori8ontal plane (ateral shifting along the crossbeams is achieved with
capstans or light long-stro7e cylinders
5utomatic clamps bloc7 the trusses to the crossbeams during winch-trolley operations (aunching
occurs along inclined planes and brea7ing of any component of the tow system would leave the gantry
unrestrained on low-friction supports ?edundancy of tow systems involves oversi8ing and slow
operations
,% Sel)-+a"nc&ing Gantries )or Span-By-Span .recast Seg#ental Erection
Span-by-span erection of precast segmental bridges is used for spans shorter than ,4m in highway
bridges and '4-),m in dual-trac7 (?1 bridges with bo<-or @-section Single-trac7 (?1 spans with @-
section are typically precast full-length for ground delivery and erection with two ground cranes
because of the faster erection rate
5ll the segments for a span are placed onto or suspended from the gantry before gluing so that no
additional deflections can occur 5fter application of prestress, lowering the gantry releases the span
onto the bearings in one operation 1he spans of continuous bridges are released onto 9ac7s and
connected with concrete stitches to the pier-head segments 1he solutions of continuity are loc7ed
with concrete shims and partial tensioning of a few permanent tendons before casting the closures
1he prestressing tendons are tensioned from a front stressing platform 5 typical )4m simply-
supported span with epo<y 9oints is erected in $ or ' days &rection rates of up to a span a day are
achievable with an underslung gantry and dry 9oints
>verhead and underslung gantries are used to support a complete span of segments 5 twin-girder
overhead gantry comprises two triangular trusses or braced "-girders supported onto crossbeams
(%igure ') 1russes are lighter while "-girders are more stable and solid and allow roboti8ed welding
#onnections designed to develop member strength e<ploit the modular nature of design with the
possibility of alternative assembly configurations %ield splices of new-generation machines are
designed for fast site assembly
%igure ': 2/m, )4,ton overhead gantry with ),ton portal crane
for ),m, ,44ton dual-trac7 @-girder (?1 spans (;?S)
5 winch-trolley or a portal crane spanning between the girders lifts and moves the segments into
position 5u<iliary support legs at the ends of the gantry are used to erect the pier-head segments of
continuous spans and to reposition the support crossbeams without ground cranes
1he overhead gantries are not much affected by ground constraints, straddle bents, #-piers and
variations in span length and dec7 geometryB however, they are more comple< to design, assemble
and operate than the underslung machines, and they are also more e<pensive and slower in erecting
the segments with spreader beams
1he overhead gantries operate in one of two ways depending on how the segments are delivered "f
the segments are delivered along the completed bridge, the winch-trolley pic7s them up at the rear end
of the gantry, moves them forward to the assembly location, and lowers them down to the dec7 level
"f the segments are delivered on the ground, the winch-trolley lifts them up to the dec7 level 3angers
and spreader beams hold the segments into position during assembly 5fter reaching the assembly
location, the segments are hung to the gantry and the winch-trolley is released for a new cycle 1o
avoid interference with the hangers, the segments are moved out with the long side in the longitudinal
plane (%igure )) and are rotated before suspension with a hydraulic hoo7
%igure ): (ongitudinal movement of the segment (3;1B)
3eavier overhead gantries are used for span-by-span macro-segmental erection of /4-!44m spans
1he span comprises four segments 5 longitudinal 9oint at bridge centerline divides the bo< girder into
two halves, and transverse 9oints at the span :uarters divide each half into a pier-head segment and a
midspan segment 5 temporary pier supports the front end of the midspan segments in every span,
while the rear end is suspended from the front cantilever of the completed bridge 1he temporary pier
also balances the pier-head segments (%igure ,) 1he construction 9oints have through reinforcement
and are closed with in-place stitches and integrative prestressing
1he macro-segments are cast beneath the gantry, on the completed dec7 1he gantry cannot rotate so
long and heavy segments so the two casting cells (%igure -) roll along the completed bridge bac7 to
the abutment, where they are rotated by !/4C and fed with the prefabricated cage for the con9ugated
segment 5fter reaching the gantry, vertical cylinders lift the casting cells from the rails to apply the
casting load over the webs of the bo< girder
%igure ,: )-m, -)4ton pier-head macro-segment
placed with a !-$m, !$/4ton overhead gantry
%igure -: )-m casting cells for midspan (left)
and pier-head (right) macro-segments
1he length of the gantry is about !/ times the typical span 5 pendular =-frame at the rear end of the
gantry ta7es support onto the dec7 prior to lifting the segment 5 front pendular leg (%igure ,) is used
during launching to reposition the front crossbeam 1he two trusses are connected at both ends and
cannot be launched individually 1he pier-head segments are inserted under the front crossbeam and
temporarily supported onto the pier capB the front winch-trolley pic7s them up again in a more
advanced location for final placement
#rossbeams support the gantry at the piers with articulated saddles that allow longitudinal and lateral
movements and rotations about the transverse and vertical a<es 1he support saddles comprise
transverse rollers that shift along the crossbeams and longitudinal rollers that support the
%igure .: '$-roll saddle for -',ton service load
%igure /: (aunch
cylinders
truss 5ssemblies of e:uali8er beams follow the fle<ural rotations in the trusses, allow launching onto
grades, and e:uali8e the load in the rolls (%igure .) ?ectangular rails welded to crossbeams and
trusses facilitate load dispersal into the webs, transfer lateral forces, and 7eep the rollers aligned with
the webs
Some support saddles lodge longitudinal loc7 systems for the truss and all crossbeams are e:uipped
with transverse loc7 systems 1he support legs of the crossbeams include ad9ustment cylinders with
safety nut to set the frame hori8ontal 1he crossbeams are anchored to the piers with tensioned bars
that resist uplift forces 1he crossbeams have long lateral overhangs and significant uplift forces may
arise in the anchor systems
1he lightest twin-girder overhead gantries may be launched with winches and capstans 3ydraulic
cylinders lodged within the support saddles and ta7ing contrast into rac7s anchored to the trusses
provide higher thrust forces and safer operations +aired cylinders are often used (%igure /) so that
one cylinder loc7s the truss while the ad9acent cylinder is repositioned
5 single-girder overhead gantry ta7es support onto the front pier of the span to erect and the front
pier-head segment of the completed bridge 1he girder is rigidly framed to the front support legs, a
light front e<tension controls overturning, and a rear #-frame rolls along the completed bridge during
launching ;o rear nose is necessary so these gantries are shorter and lighter than the twin-girder
overhead machines and better suitable for curved bridges
(ateral bracing connects two "-girders or trusses Bracing includes D-frames, connections designed to
minimi8e displacement-induced fatigue, field splices designed for fast assembly, and sufficient
fle<ural stiffness to resist vibration stresses #ross diaphragms connected at the same locations of
lateral bracing or crossbeams framed into webs and flanges by vertical stiffeners distribute torsion and
provide transverse rigidity Bracing and field splices are designed so as to allow a winch-trolley
suspended from the bottom flangesEchords to run through
%igure 2: %riction launcher on ad9ustable support bloc7
Some first-generation overhead machines were e:uipped with stay cables, a deviation tower applied
to the support legs at the rear pier, and a long rear balancing truss with counterweights at the end
#able-stayed gantries have been abandoned with time in spite of their structural efficiency as the
cables complicate and slow down the operations and increase labor demand 6arying-depth trusses are
also rarely used in span-by-span erection as they are hardly reusable on different span lengths
Special launch devices are necessary when the support legs are integral with the main girder
(aunching is achieved by friction, ta7ing advantage of the vertical load that the girder applies to the
launcher (%igure 2)
Support bo<es are located under the bottom flanges of the girder (ongitudinal launch cylinders move
the bo<es along the low-friction surfaces of two pivoted arms and vertical 9ac7s at the ends of
the arms lift and lower the main girder 1he wor7ing cycle is as follows (!) 1he 9ac7s lower the
girder onto the support bo<es ($) 1he launch cylinders push the bo<es forward and the thrust force is
transferred to the girder by friction (') =hen the bo<es reach the front end of the arms, the 9ac7s lift
the girder and the launch cylinders pull the support bo<es bac7 to the initial position to start this cycle
again
5 vertical pivot between friction launcher and support bloc7 allows rotations when launching along
curves (ow-friction surfaces between support bloc7 and base frame allow lateral shifting 1he
geometry control systems are e:uipped with sliding clamps so that the entire assembly can be hung to
the launching nose during span assembly (%igure !4) 1he sliding clamps also prevent uplift during
launching as the base frame is anchored to the dec7 with tensioned bars
1he rear support of the gantry is a #-frame that rolls along the completed bridge during launching
1ransverse cylinders shift the frame laterally when launching along curves (ongitudinal cylinders
rotate the frame about the vertical a<is to the local radius of plan curvature 6ertical cylinders at the
base of the frame ad9ust geometry to dec7 superelevation and control the support reaction that the #-
frame applies to the dec7 during launching 1he top crossbeam of the #-frame is inserted into a
rectangular slot with low-friction surfaces in the main girder for direct transfer of the support reaction
%igure !4: %riction launchers suspended from the main girder
5fter application of prestress, the rear launcher is moved over the front pier-head segment 1he span
is released onto the bearings by retracting the main cylinders of the front legs and the rear #-frame,
and the launcher thus lands onto the dec7 5fter anchoring the launcher to the dec7, full retraction of
the front cylinders leaves the gantry supported onto the launcher and the rear #-frame, and launching
begins
=hen the tip of the launching nose reaches the new pier, the winch-trolley places the new pier-head
segment, and the front launcher is then moved onto the latter for launch completion 5n au<iliary
front support leg controls overturning during these operations 5t the end of launching the gantry is
lifted for span erection, which also disengages the launchers %inally, both launchers are par7ed
along the launching nose to clear the segment assembly areaB these movements are driven by light
hydraulic motors
%riction launchers offer high intrinsic safety as the worst conse:uence of hydraulic faults is launch
stoppage &:uipment can be designed for the launch loads and overloaded without e<cessive concerns
in case of need +(#s permit synchroni8ation of the two launchers and setting limit pressures to
avoid overloading (aunch-cycle automation with displacement sensors simplifies operations and
increases the launch speed
1elescopic single-girder overhead gantries have been designed for erecting dual-trac7 (?1 bridges
with tight plan curvature (%igure !!) 1he winch-trolley is suspended from the main girder and the
segments are delivered on the ground or along the completed bridge through the rear #-frame "n
order to cope with tight plan curvatures, the gantry comprises a main girder and a front self-launching
underbridge 5 turntable with hydraulic controls for translation and vertical and hori8ontal rotations
connects the main girder to the underbridge 0uring launching the turntable pulls the main girder
along the underbridge =hen the front support legs reach the new pier and the rear #-frame reaches
the front end of the completed bridge, the underbridge is launched forward to clear the area under the
main girder for erection of the new span$
%igure !!: )!m, 2-ton underbridge and ).m, !'$ton main
girder for '.m, ')4ton dual-trac7 (?1 spans (0eal)
Many precast segmental bridges have been erected with underslung gantries 1hese machines are
positioned beneath the dec7 with the main girders on either side of the pier 1he gantry supports the
bo< girder segments under the wings with ad9ustable sliding saddles for control of cambersB
underslung gantries are rarely used with @-sections 1he gantry ta7es support onto pier brac7ets, =-
frames on through girders, or crossbeams hung to the pier cap =hen the piers are short and slender,
the pier brac7ets may be supported onto props from foundations to avoid soc7ets in the pier (%igure
!$) 1his solution is fre:uently used in (?1 bridges
1he segments are placed onto the gantry with a ground crane or a lifting frame =hen the segments
are delivered along the completed bridge, the lifter is placed at the rear end of the gantry =hen the
%igure !$: .-m, '$,ton underslung gantry with )4ton
crane for ',m, )24ton dual-trac7 (?1 span (;?S)
%igure !': 2!m, '''ton pivoted underslung gantry with )4ton
crane for '-.m, '2$ton dual-trac7 (?1 spans (;?S)
segments are delivered on the ground, the crane is placed at the front end of the gantry 1he segments
are placed onto the gantry close to the lifter and rolled into position 5 portal crane may also be used
to lift the segments and move them into position @pon application of prestress, the span is released
onto the bearings by lowering the gantry
>verturning is controlled with front and rear launching noses and the length of the gantry is more than
twice the typical span length 1his ma7es the standard underslung machines hardly compatible with
curved bridges as the girders conflict with the piers and the completed bridge 1he front ends of the
main girders may be connected with a crossbeam that slides along a central self-launching
underbridge 5 rear #-frame rolling along the completed bridge during launching further shortens the
rigid portion of the machine 1hese telescopic gantries cope with tight plan radii but re:uire a
particular 6-design of the pier caps to create the launch clearance for the front underbridge
+ivoted girders with hydraulic hinges have also been used: the machine of %igure !' may erect )4m
dual-trac7 (?1 spans with .,m radius +ivoted girders have also been used in overhead machines: the
gantry of %igure ' may erect '4m dual-trac7 (?1 spans with -4m radius "f one considers the
constraints of precast segmental erection in congested urban areas, it is not surprising that so many
innovative bridge erection machines have been designed for (?1 systems
1he underslung gantries are simple to design, assemble and operate Segment erection is fast and
props from foundations can be used to increase the load capacity when wor7ing low on the ground
3owever, these machines pro9ect beneath the dec7, which may cause interference with straddle bents
and #-piers, clearance problems when passing over roads or railroads, and difficulties in the end spans
as the abutment walls are wider than the piers 1his problem is solved by applying the rear noses after
launching the gantry to the second span over props from foundations 1he front noses are also
dismantled before launching the gantry to the last span 1he abutment walls must be tall not to prevent
operations in the first and last span
/% Mo0a1le Sca))ol!ing Syste#s 2MSS3s4 )or Span-By-Span Casting
5 +# bridge can be cast span-by-span proceeding from an abutment toward the opposite one =hen
the piers are short and the area under the bridge is accessible, the formwor7 can be supported onto a
ground falsewor7 "n bridges of length sufficient to amorti8e the investment, the use of an MSS allows
transferring the casting cell to the new span in a few hours instead of wee7s 1he savings of labor are
substantial, the area under the bridge is unaffected, and :uality of construction is better than that
achievable on a falsewor7
5n MSS is typically designed to cast an entire span Solid or voided slabs with stiffening haunches at
the piers are used for '4-)4m highway spans, ribbed slabs with double-1 section are used up to ,4m
spans, and bo< girders reach ,4-.4m spans Bo< girders for railway bridges rarely e<ceed ,4m spans
Simply-supported spans are cast full length %or continuous dec7s, the abutment span is cast with a
short front cantilever and the subse:uent spans e<tend out over the piers for $4-$,A of the typical
span length
1he rear end of the MSS ta7es support onto the front cantilever of the completed bridge to minimi8e
the distance between the supports of the MSS and to diminish the time-dependent stress redistribution
of staged construction within the continuous dec7 1he casting cycle is one or two wee7s per span
"f the piers are not tall and the area under the bridge is accessible, 24-!$4m continuous spans may be
divided into two segments with 9oints at the span :uarters 1he front end of the midspan segment and
the MSS are supported onto a temporary pier, and the rear end of the MSS is suspended from a #-
frame that rolls along the completed bridge "n-line casting of 24-!$4m varying-depth spans is much
faster than balanced cantilever construction, with casting cycles of two to four wee7s for the entire
span
Solid, voided and ribbed slabs are cast in one phase while bo< girders are cast in one or two phases
1he inner tunnel form for one-phase casting remains within the completed span and is e<tracted and
reopened within the reinforcement cage of the new span 1wo-phase casting involves casting bottom
slab, webs and support diaphragms in a first time and the top slab after two or three days 5 form table
supported onto the first-phase concrete is e<tracted from the "re%ious s"an to cast the #ec)
slab$
1wo-phase casting restricts the :uantity of concrete processed daily and facilitates handling of inner
forms Foints at the top slab level also avoid the hori8ontal crac7s that sometimes affect one-phase
casting due to settlement of fresh concrete in the webs 1he main concerns with two-phase casting are
related to the deflections of the MSS 1he weight of the top slab deflects the casting cell, which may
cause crac7ing in the non-prestressed first-phase @-section
#oncrete is poured with conveyor belts or pumps "n the simply supported spans, concrete should be
poured starting at the center of the span and progressing symmetrically toward the ends to minimi8e
the deflections of the casting cell in the final phases of filling 1his se:uence is labor intensive and the
use of retarding admi<tures is often preferred to 7eep the concrete fluid for the entire duration of
filling 1his allows casting the span directionally from bul7head to bul7head but the shutters must be
designed for full hydrostatic loads "n the continuous spans, the casting cell is filled with one of two
alternative se:uences "n a first procedure, concrete is poured starting at the front pier and proceeding
symmetrically until the front cantilever is filledB then the remaining section is filled bac7ward toward
the construction 9oint 1his se:uence diminishes the fle<ural rotations in the main girders at the front
pier and is preferred when the MSS is supported onto two lines of saddles (=frames on through
girders or two crossbeams on wide towers)
%igure !): 2.m, -24ton underslung MSS for ))m,
!!24ton dual-trac7 3S? spans (1hyssenGrupp)
"n a second procedure, concrete is poured starting at the front bul7head and proceeding bac7ward
1his se:uence re:uires less labor and facilitates finishing, and larger fle<ural rotations are not a ma9or
issue when the MSS is supported onto one line of saddles (pier brac7ets) "n both cases the
construction 9oint is cast at the end of pouring to avoid settlement %orms are stripped prior to
tensioning of tendons to minimi8e prestress losses in the forms, and the MSS is then lowered in one
operation to transfer the span weight to the bearings
1he self-launching frame of an underslung MSS (%igure !)) supports the bottom crossbeams of the
casting cell with ad9ustable saddles for setting of camber and superelevation 5n underslung gantry
supports the precast segments under the wings while an MSS supports the bottom crossbeams, and the
machine therefore pro9ects deeply under the bridge
1he reinforcement cage for the entire span may be prefabricated behind the abutment and delivered
along the completed bridge 1his shortens the casting cycle to one wee7 with one shift per day and
improves ris7 mitigation with parallel tas7s #age insertion is simple because access to the casting cell
is free from obstructions in an underslung MSS 1he cage carrier moves forward on stiffened strips of
the outer form and lowers cage and front bul7head into the casting cell in one operation 1he carrier
may be e:uipped with concrete distribution arms and a covering to protect the casting cell during
concrete pouring
1he underslung MSSs ta7e support onto pier brac7ets or =-frames on through girders (%igure '/)
1he support saddles lodge friction launchers or launch cylinders acting into rac7s 1he pier brac7ets
include 9ac7s with safety nut or screw 9ac7s that lift the MSS to the span casting elevation and lower it
bac7 onto the launch rollers after application of prestress Some MSSs suspend the pier brac7ets from
the main girders after dismantling and hydraulic motors move the brac7ets to the new pier for crane-
less application
=-frames on through girders are always assembled with ground cranes #ylinders with safety nut
supported onto the through girders lift the =-frame to the span casting elevation and lower it bac7
after application of prestress to release the span Support saddles designed for the total load (weight
and payload) are often based on +1%& s7ids 5t the current state of practice, rollers and +1%& sliders
are complementary Sliders are used for slow launching of high loads and rollers are used for medium
loads and fast launching
>verturning is controlled with launching noses and the length of these machines is more than twice
the typical span 1he standard underslung MSSs are not suitable for bridges with tight plan radiiB
pivoted girders with hydraulic hinges have been used in curved bridges in spite of their cost and
comple<ity and the load eccentricity of the offset casting cell @nderslung MSSs also pro9ect beneath
the dec7, which may cause interference with straddle bents and #-piers, clearance problems when
passing over roads or railroads, and difficulties in the first and last span

"n a twin-girder overhead MSS (%igure !,), hangers suspend the outer form from two trusses or bo<
girders 5ssemblies of crossbeams and modular towers support the main girders at the piers 1he
towers are anchored with tensioned bars that resist uplift forces 1he crossbeams have long lateral
overhangs and significant uplift forces may arise in the anchor systems
%igure !,: !!4m,
!)24ton overhead MSS with -4ton
crane for ,.)m, !'/4ton single-trac7 3S? spans
5n au<iliary tower is placed onto the cantilever of the completed bridge to minimi8e the distance
between the supports of the MSS, to avoid form settlements at the 9oint, and to control the stress
redistribution of staged construction within the dec7 #ylinders with safety nut lift the crossbeams to
the span casting elevation and lower them bac7 after application of prestress to release the span 1he
length of the MSS is more than twice the span length 1his is rarely a problem with overhead
machines as the girders do not interfere with the dec7 and the piers 5 portal crane with (-frame and
pendular leg assists the operations of the casting cell 5fter releasing the span, the hanger bars are
decoupled and the modules of outer form are lowered to the ground and transported under the ne<t
span to be lifted after launching 1he inner forms remain in the completed spans and are repositioned
after cage assembly
1win-girder overhead MSSs cope with different span lengths and straddle bents and #-piers Being
above the dec7, they are less affected by ground constraints 3owever, they are more comple< to
design, assemble and operate than the underslung MSSs, and much slower during launching as the
outer form is lowered to the ground #age prefabrication re:uires several portal cranes for cage
insertion into the casting cell and is rarely used with these machines
"n a single-girder overhead MSS for )4-,4m highway spans, the outer form is suspended from a
central girder that ta7es support at the front pier of the span to cast and onto the front cantilever of the
completed bridge 1hese machines are custom-designed for long parallel bridges that allow
amorti8ing of the investment: they are lighter and shorter than the twin-girder overhead MSSs, able
to reposition the support systems, and simpler to assemble and operate 1hey allow faster launching
and form setting with substantial savings in labor costs, operations are more automated, and the
casting cell can be covered and e:uipped with concrete distribution arms
1he main girder comprises two braced trusses or "-girders (ateral bracing includes D-or G-frames,
connections designed for fast site assembly and to minimi8e displacement-induced fatigue, and
sufficient fle<ural stiffness to resist vibration stresses #ross diaphragms or crossbeams framed to
webs and flanges by vertical stiffeners provide transverse rigidity and distribute torsion Bracing,
crossbeams and stiffeners are designed to allow unrestricted operations of winch-trolleys suspended
from the bottom flanges (%igure !-)
Figure 1/: 110m, .90ton singlegir#er o%erhea# 122 for 4-$5m, ./0ton s"ans
Brac7ets overhanging from the main girder suspend form hangers with telescopic connections for
setting of camber +inned splices at bridge centerline divide the bottom crossbeams of the outer form
into two halves 3ydraulic e<tractors assist pin removal after release of the span (ong-stro7e
hydraulic cylinders at the base of the form hangers rotate the two halves of the outer form to vertical
to avoid interference with the pier during launching (%igure !.) 1he single-girder overhead MSSs
are launched with the outer form suspended from the main girder and the casting cell is reclosed with
an inverse se:uence of operations after launching
(ateral bracing and edge girders connect the form suspension brac7ets to enhance the lateral stability
of the MSS 1he form hangers are connected by vertical bracing to enhance torsional stability during
span casting %orm hangers and bottom crossbeams may be designed for the full load of the casting
cell or may be integrated with hanger bars crossing the casting cell 1he outer form is less e<pensive
but many holes have to be sealed in every span and inserting and removing the hanger bars further
increases the labor cost
%igure !.: >pened outer form during launching
(5+ Bridge #onstruction Systems)
1he front support of the MSS comprises a bo< leg on either side of the main girder and an upper bo<
diaphragm that creates a #-frame &very leg includes a base cylinder with safety nut and a telescopic
assembly for e<traction of the bottom portion of the leg from the dec7 1he telescopic assembly is
loc7ed by a through pin during span casting 5 hydraulic e<tractor assists pin removal after lowering
the MSS onto the friction launcher, and long-stro7e au<iliary cylinders lift the bottom portion of the
leg prior to launching (%igure !/) 1he leg is protected from fresh concrete with left-in-place plastic
pipes or steel forms fi<ed to the leg

1he rear support of the MSS is an ad9ustable #-frame designed to allow cage insertion and to cope
with dec7 curvature and superelevation 3ydraulic cylinders with safety nut lower the MSS in one
operation after application of prestress 1he force applied to the dec7 during launching is controlled
hydraulically
(aunching is achieved with two electronically synchroni8ed friction launchers as in a single-girder
overhead gantry for precast segmental erection 1he rear launcher moves the MSS in the first phases
of launching and the front launcher is placed onto the front pier when the launching nose reaches it
%igure !/: %ront support leg
5 front au<iliary leg supports the cantilever during placement of the front launcher onto the pier +lan
geometry is ad9usted at the rear launcher and the rear #-frame in curved bridges
"n so refined MSSs the reinforcement cage is always prefabricated behind the abutment for the entire
span to shorten the casting cycle to one wee7 or less with one shift of carpenters and ironwor7ers per
day +arallel tas7s also improve ris7 mitigation 1he cage includes front bul7head, anchorages, ducts,
spacers and all embedded items Strand is typically inserted into the ducts during span curing 1he
cage carrier (%igure !2) comprises modules hinged to each other and running on the same rails as the
rear #-frame of the MSSB the front module is motori8ed 1he cage is tied to a full-length lifting frame
to accelerate insertion into the casting cell and avoid distortion
1he MSS has a rear cantilever where the winch-trolleys are par7ed at cage arrival (%igure $4) 1he
hydraulic legs of the lifting frame are e<tracted to lift the cage from the bottom platform of the carrier
1he front winch-trolley pic7s up the front module of the lifting frame and moves out along the MSSB
this pulls the lifting frame forward along the carrier 1he second winch-trolley pic7s up the second
module of the frame, and so on until complete cage suspension
1he lifting frame is moved forward and lowered into the casting cell, the hydraulic legs are retracted
to release the cage, and the frame is e<tracted from the cage and moved bac7 onto the carrier with an
inverse se:uence of operations 1he bottom platform of the carrier is used as rebar 9ig during cage
prefabrication
%igure !2: #age carrier for ).,m spans
Figure 20: 3ar)ing area for winchtrolle!s
"n machines with a lower level of automation, the web cage is assembled over the new span during
curing and is suspended from the MSS during launching Monorail winches assist cage assembly and
lowering into the casting cell after launching ;ew-generation single-girder overhead MSSs are
targeting 24m spans in tangent highway bridges and .4m spans in 3S? bridges #onstant-depth
trusses are generated with stac7ed assemblies of modular panels and arched overhead trusses further
increase the stiffness of the casting cell (%igure $!) 1he modular nature of assembly facilitates
adaptation to shorter spans, although a higher level of automation is often preferred for span-byspan
casting of )4-,4m spans

(aunching on long spans re:uires light machines 1he MSS of %igure $! has !.2 payloadEweight
ratio 1russes and space frames are used for form hangers and bottom frame, and hanger bars cross the
casting cell to further lighten the outer form 5s a drawbac7 of the high structural efficiency, the large
number of field splices increases cost and duration of site assembly and complicates inspections
%igure $!: !)4m, ./4ton overhead MSS for .4m, !)44ton spans (B&?0)
%igure $$: Sensor-controlled .4M; prestressing for two-phase casting (B&?0)
>ne-phase casting of 24m bo< girders would involve handling .44-244m
'
of concrete in a few hours
1wo-phase casting reduces the demand on batching plant and concrete delivery lines along the
completed bridge but re:uires control of deflections of the casting cell in so fle<ible MSSs
Sensor-controlled tendons (%igure $$) may be automatically tensioned during filling of the casting
cell and released during application of prestress 1he automation and control systems include sensors,
electric boards, +(#, hydraulic groups, prestressing 9ac7s with motori8ed safety nut, and control and
communication systems 1he prestressing system response is damped to avoid tendon vibrations

+restressing increases cost and comple<ity of the MSS and the a<ial load ma7es the truss more prone
to out-of-plane buc7ling #ombining sophisticated automation and control systems with the s7ill and
attention of wor7ers in constructions involves additional challenges >n the other hand, span-by-span
casting of .4-24m spans with wee7ly casting cycle is much faster than balanced cantilever
construction, design of reinforcement and prestressing is more efficient, and the operators of bridge
erection machines must be accurately trained anyway
5% Sel)-+a"nc&ing Mac&ines )or Balance! Cantile0er Constr"ction
Balanced cantilever construction is suited to precast segmental and cast-in-place bridges +recast
segmental construction re:uires powerful erection machines but allows industriali8ed casting and
faster erection and is therefore addressed to bridges with a great number of spans Segment assembly
with ground cranes or lifting frames permits free erection se:uences while the use of a self-launching
gantry re:uires that the dec7 be erected from one abutment toward the opposite oneB however,
directional erection permits delivering the segments along the completed bridge
1he dec7 of in-place bridges is cast in short segments with pairs of form travelers 1ime-schedule
dictates the number of form travelers to be used simultaneously =hen the cantilevers from the two
piers face each other at midspan, the closure segment is cast and bottom slab tendons are installed to
ma7e the dec7 continuous 1he travelers are then lowered to the ground and repositioned onto a new
pier-head segment
Balanced cantilever bridges have bo< girder section ?ibbed slabs have been built in the past and are
still used in the cable-stayed bridges as torsion and most of the negative moment are resisted by two
planes of cables Bo< girders may have constant or varying depth #onstant-depth dec7s are simpler to
cast but competitive in a narrow span range (,4-.4m) while varying-depth dec7s are used on spans
ranging from .4m to $,4-'44m 0epth variation adapts the fle<ural capacity to demand but the pier-
head segments soon become too tall and heavy for ground transportation and lifting, and spans longer
than !$4-!'4m are generally cast in-place
1he construction method dictates the length of the pier-head segments "n a cast-in-place bridge the
pier-head segment must accommodate a pair of form travelers in the initial stages of cantilever
construction and lengths of /-!4m are fre:uent +rops from foundations or pier brac7ets support the
casting cell *eometry is comple<, the wor7ing space is limited and the segment is typically divided
into numerous casting phases ?einforcement and prestressing are also comple< and construction
durations of $ to ) months for a pier-head segment are not infre:uent
"n a precast segmental bridge the pier-head segment should have the same weight as the other
segments not to re:uire special lifting devices 1he segment contains a thic7 support diaphragm and
the bottom slab is also thic7 to resist the negative bending from the cantilevers, so the segment is very
short 1his facilitates placement as the gantry must also ta7e support at the pier during handling of the
pier-head segment
1he most common erection methods for precast segments are with ground cranes, lifting frames or
gantries at the dec7 level *round cranes re:uire good access to the dec7 along the entire length of the
bridge #ranes usually give the simplest and most rapid erection procedures with minimum
investment #ranes are readily available in many countries and multiple cantilevers can be erected at
once 1he main constraints on crane erection are access and tall piers, as balanced cantilever bridges
are often selected in response to inaccessible terrains
0ec7-supported lifting frames are used on tall piers, long or curved spans, spans of different length,
and spans over water where special lifters can handle heavier segments and barge delivery minimi8es
geometry and weight constraints (ifting frames are also the standard solution for erection of cable-
stayed bridges when time or site constraints discourage from in-place casting

%i<ed frames anchored to the tip of the cantilever can lift only from the ground and have limited
segment handling capability 0erric7s have a rotating arm that can lift segments from behind or
laterallyB they have a large maneuvering area but apply significant loads to the dec7 and are used
%igure $': (ifting of 24ton pier-head segment (#omtec)
%igure $): '4m, 24ton lifting frame for -)ton segments (0eal)
only in cable-stayed bridges 5 mobile lifting frame comprises a motori8ed base frame and a
cantilever nose that supports a lifting trolley (ight segments are lifted with winches and heavier
segments with strand 9ac7s 5 lifting frame is much lighter than a wheeled crane as it is devoid of
counterweights 1his simplifies placing the machine onto the pier-head segment at the beginning of
erection and diminishes dec7 prestressing but re:uires anchoring the machine to the dec7 before
lifting of every segment 1he pier-head segment is lifted or cast in-place to establish a platform on
which one or two lifting frames are secured 5n au<iliary frame may be used to lift the pier-head
segment with the winch-trolley of the lifting frame (%igure $')
Straddle carriers with cantilever noses on both sides of the machine move from one side of the pier to
the other to lift the segments in turn Straddle carriers with winch-trolleys and spreader beams wider
than the top slab can pic7 up the segment at the base of the pier and move it out beneath the cantilever
(%igure $)) >ther types of motori8ed frames move the segment over the dec7 and rotate and lower it
into position Most lifting frames also suspend a stressing platform beyond the segment for fabrication
and tensioning of the top slab tendons "n spite of the single-operation-machine nature and the
disruption when moving to the ne<t pier, the lifting frames can solve erection conditions incompatible
with ground cranes and gantries 1he erection cycle is typically one segment per day
(aunching gantries achieve faster erection rates and minimi8e ground disruption when the segments
are delivered along the completed bridge *antries are suited to building over water or other such
obstructionsB however, they erect the dec7 from abutment to abutment and are delayed if problems
occur at any pier or span >ne or two winch-trolleys lift and transport the segments into position "f
the segments are delivered along the completed bridge, the winch-trolley pic7s them up at the rear end
of the gantry "f the segments are delivered on the ground, the winch-trolley raises them up to the dec7
level
%igure $,: !-4m, '$4ton gantry for !4$m spans and !4,ton segments (6S()
1he earliest single-truss overhead gantries were slightly longer than the span to erect 1he length of
the truss was sufficient to span between the front cantilever of the completed bridge and the ne<t pier
during launching, and minimi8ing the distance between the supports resulted in lighter gantries Some
of these machines were e:uipped with a deviation tower and symmetrical stay cables that relieved the
negative bending in the truss 1he use of stay cables complicates the operations and increases labor
demand but may be a brilliant solution when few long spans have to be erected (%igure $,) and the
remainder of the bridge can be erected without activating the stay-cables or minimi8ing their
ad9ustment 1hese light machines are easier to ship and erect than the standard twin-girder overhead
gantries
5 single plane of stay cables is generally preferred and a fan layout simplifies pull ad9ustment from a
stressing platform at the top of the tower 5 few cables may also be anchored to the bottom chords to
provide torsional restraint to the truss Single-truss gantries are preferred for better control of out-of-
plane buc7ling and simpler structural nodes at the anchor points of the cables 1he winch-trolleys run
along the bottom chords and the field splices in the truss have longitudinal bolts above the top flange
and below the bottom flange to permit the wheels to pass through
%igure $-: !4/m, $./ton gantry for ),m spans and -4ton segments (6S()
%igure $.: +lacement of the first !/$ton down-station segment
with a !2/m, /.-ton gantry for !4!m spans (3;1B)
Short gantries overload the front cantilever of the completed bridge +lacing the pier-head segments is
also more comple< 1he length of new-generation machines is more than twice the span length
(%igure $-) 1hese machines ta7e support at the piers during span erection and the higher cost of a
longer gantry is balanced by less reinforcement and prestressing in the entire bridge +lacement of
pier-head segments and launching are also simplified, and labor demand is lower
1he typical launch se:uence for a new-generation gantry for long balanced cantilever spans is as
follows (!) 1he cantilevers are erected with the gantry anchored to crossbeams sitting onto the pier-
head segments of the completed bridge and the new pier ($) 5fter midspan closure and tensioning of
continuity tendons, the front pendular leg ta7es support onto the front cantilever and the winch-trolley
moves the front crossbeam forward to the '
rd
or )
th
segment (') 1he front leg is released and the
gantry is launched until the rear end reaches the rear crossbeam ()) 1he rear au<iliary leg ta7es
support onto the dec7 and the winch-trolley moves the rear crossbeam to midspan (,) 1he rear leg is
released and the gantry is launched until the front leg ta7es support onto the new pier (-) 1he gantry
places the pier-head segment and the first down-station segment (%igure $.) (.) 1he winch-trolley
moves the front crossbeam onto the new pier-head segment and the rear crossbeam onto the pier-head
segment of the completed bridge (/) 1he front leg is released and the gantry is launched forward and
anchored to the crossbeams in the erection configuration for the new span ;o ground cranes are
necessary for launching
=hen the length of the bridge is insufficient to amorti8e the investments of segmental precasting, the
balanced cantilever bridges are cast in-place "n-place casting is also the standard solution for curved
spans and spans longer than !$4m
%igure $/: >verhead form traveler
=hen form travelers support the casting cells, the segments are '-,m long for reasons of weight and
load unbalance ,--m segments are possible although form fle<ibility may cause crac7ing and
geometry defects and the form travelers are more e<pensive 1he standard convertible traveler is
designed for ,m segments up to ,44ton heavy, casting cell included
5 typical overhead form traveler consists of a casting cell suspended from a number of trusses e:ual
to the number of webs in the bo< girder 1he trusses of the oldest travelers were heavy and long to
enhance the action of rear counterweights "n the new-generation machines the counterweights have
been replaced with ad9ustable tie-downs rolling within launch rails and the trusses are lighter and
shorter 1russes, front and rear crossbeams and bracing systems are modular assemblies of pinned
members for fast assembly 1he steel frame of an overhead traveler may weigh between $,ton and
2,ton (%igure $/)
1he casting cell is suspended with hangers and ad9ustable to varying dec7 geometry (segment length,
bo< height, thic7ness of webs and bottom slab) and road alignment (curvature and superelevation)
=or7ing platforms are incorporated around the traveler and a stressing platform is suspended beyond
the bul7head for fabrication and tensioning of tendons 1he inner form is stripped from the previous
segment and pulled forward within the cage of the new segment by rolling along suspended rails
=hen the pier-head segment is .-!4m long, two form travelers can be assembled at the same time "t
typically ta7es $ wee7s to assemble a traveler and another $ wee7s to assemble the casting cell
#asting the initial segment ta7es another $ to ' wee7s 1he segments are typically cast on a ,-day
cycle after the learning curve has passed
1he segments are cast in one phase proceeding from the front bul7head bac7wards to minimi8e
settlement at the construction 9oint 1he inner shutter is e:uipped with windows for concrete
vibration #oncrete with early high strength is used to shorten the casting cycle
"n the overhead travelers the trusses are supported onto the front dec7 segment and anchored to the
second segment with tie-downs that prevent overturning (%igure $2) 6ertical cylinders at the front
support lift the traveler from the launch rails for casting 5fter tensioning the top slab tendons, the
outer form is stripped and the traveler is lowered onto the launch rails 5d9ustable tie-downs roll along
the rails to prevent overturning during launching

(aunching is a two-step process: first the rails are pushed forward and anchored to the new segment,
and then the traveler is lowered onto the rails and pulled forward ?ails and traveler are launched with
the same set of hydraulic cylinders (aunch cylinders are repositioned alternately #uring
launching to a%oi# uncontrolle# mo%ements of the tra%eler$
Figure 29: &nchoring an# launch #e%ices
"n the underslung form travelers for +# bo< girders, a #-frame supported onto the webs of the front
segment suspends a longitudinal '0 truss on either side of the dec7, beneath the bo< wings "n the
cable-stayed bridges the #-frame is replaced with hydraulic hangers rolling along the edge girders to
avoid interference with the cables (%igure '4) #ounter-rollers at the rear end of the trusses ta7e
contrast against the dec7 soffit to prevent overturning

1he forms are stripped by releasing the vertical cylinders of #-frames and hangers (aunch cylinders
push the launch rails over the new segment and then pull #-frames and hangers along the rails
(aunching an underslung traveler is more comple< but the reinforcement cage for the segment can be
prefabricated as the casting cell is free from obstructions
%igure '4: $)m, $4$ton underslung traveler for 2<$)m, '$4ton dec7 segments (6S()
%igure '!: !/.m, !$$ton underslung traveler for .2m, $-.ton arch segments (;?S)
1he underslung form travelers for cable-stayed bridges are heavy due to the wide dec7 and the long
segments based on cable spacing 0eflections are controlled with stiff longitudinal trusses and
transverse '0 trusses or space frames that support the bottom form table of the casting cell and
control torsion in the main trusses 5u<iliary stay cables may be anchored to the pylons to control the
deflections of the longest segments
@nderslung travelers with full-width #-frame are also used for in-place casting of cable-supported
arches (%igure '!) 1he #-frame is anchored to the arch during operations of the casting cell due to
the slope of the arch segments Strand bra7es are incorporated into the launch rails for additional
safety from uncontrolled movements 1he segment is cast in one phase by filling the casting cell
upward 1he top shutter is closed with the progress of filling to facilitate inspection and concrete
vibration 1he support cables of the arch are installed after launching the casting cell to the ne<t
segment to avoid interference
5s an alternative to the use of form travelers cantilevering from the dec7, a balanced cantilever bridge
can be cast with a single-or twin-girder overhead MSS (%igure '$) supported at the pier and onto the
front cantilever of the completed bridge 1wo long casting cells suspended from one or two girders
shift symmetrically from the pier-head segment to midspan to cast the cantilevers 5fter achieving
midspan continuity, the girders are launched to the ne<t span and the casting cells are moved to the
ne<t pier and set close to each other to cast the new pier-head segment
%igure '$: !,/m, !-44ton MSS for balanced cantilever casting of !$4m
spans with !!'m, -/4ton two-phase segments (1hyssenGrupp)

1he use of a suspension-girder MSS is suitable for spans up to !44-!$4m and tangent or slightly
curved bridges of ade:uate length 1he length of the main girders is about !' times the ma<imum
span 0espite its cost, an MSS for balanced cantilever construction offers many advantages 1he
machine provides easy access for wor7ers and materials from the completed bridge "f the dec7 is
supported onto bearings, the MSS stabili8es the cantilevers and avoids temporary loc7 systems at the
piers 0ec7 balancing is also useful when the dec7 is continuous with tall piers (ess prestressing is
necessary along the entire bridge as no form travelers are suspended from the cantilevers
#asting cells suspended from many points are so stiff that the segments can be !4-!$m long and wider
than $4m 1ransferring the casting cells to the ne<t pier is much simpler (no dismantling and
reassembly wor7 is necessary), no special casting cell is necessary for the pier-head segments, the use
of ground cranes is minimi8ed, construction is faster, and labor savings may be substantial 1he end
dec7 segments at the abutments are also cast with the MSS 1he main limitation is the need for casting
the dec7 from one abutment toward the other
%igure '': Strand-9ac7ing of /4m, -,4ton segment (1hyssenGrupp)
1he MSSs for balanced cantilever casting can be easily adapted to macro-segmental erection 1he
casting cells are replaced with lifting platforms for strand-9ac7ing (ong dec7 segments are cast under
the bridge and lifted into position (%igure '') 1he pier-head segments are cast in-place with short
casting cells suspended from the machine =et 9oints with through reinforcement avoid the geometry
re:uirements of short-line match-casting and allow bridge design for partial prestressing 1he
segments are hung to the main girders during casting of !4-!,m stitches and application of top-slab
prestressing
6% Carriers an! Gantries )or ("ll-Span .recasting
Many (?1 and 3S? bridges have been built with precast spans %ull-span precasting allows rapid
construction and high :uality from repetitive casting processes in factory conditions

Bo< girders are used for 3S? and highway bridges and @-girders are used for 3S? and (?1 bridges
1he spans may be longer than !44m when floating cranes are used for placement *round
transportation is rarely used for spans longer than )4m for 3S? and (?1 bridges and ,4m for
highway bridges 1he investment needed to set up large precasting facilities and to provide heavy
span transportation and placement machines limits the cost-effectiveness of full-span precasting to
long bridges with many e:ual spans, small radii of plan curvature and low gradient 1hese conditions
are met more easily in 3S? bridges
%igure '): ,/m, '$!ton carrier for placement
of '!,m, .)4ton single-trac7 3S? spans

1he spans are placed onto bearings or seismic isolators to simplify the erection process Simply-
supported spans also diminish the thermal stresses in the continuous welded rails of 3S? bridges 1he
spans can be connected with in-place stitches to form a continuous structure, although in-place
stitches do not offer the same high levels of :uality as the rest of the bridge

1he precasting plant is located near the bridge 1he reinforcement cages are prefabricated and
different combinations of pre-and post-tensioning are possible 1he spans are removed from the
casting cells with heavy portal cranes or wheeled carriers and stored on temporary foundations for
completion of prestressing, application of bearings and finishing 1he precasting plant delivers two to
four spans every day in relation to the erection rate of the delivery and assembly lines
%or 3S? viaducts over land, the spans are transported along the completed bridge with wheeled
carriers 5 span carrier (%igure ')) comprises two wheeled trolleys connected by a bo< girder
supporting two winch-trolleys Movement and steering are governed by hydraulic motors powered by
diesel engines

+ic7ing up the span from the casting cell involves a comple< se:uence of operations 1he carrier is
moved alongside the span, the trolleys are rotated by 24C by pivoting about hydraulic props, and the
carrier is moved transversely over the span 5fter applying the spreader beams and lifting the span,
the carrier is moved bac7 to the transportation route and realigned with an inverse se:uence of
operations 1he same operations are repeated to place the span onto the supports of the storage area
and to pic7 it up for final delivery
5fter reaching the abutment, automatic drive systems controlled by ultrasound sensors govern the
movement of the carrier over the webs of the bo< girders or within the @-section 1he automatic-drive
speed of the machine of %igure ') is '4 7mEh at full load and -4 7mEh unloaded 1he carrier spreads
the load onto two spans and the a<le load is e:uali8ed hydraulically or electronically to compensate
for span deflections
5t the front end of the completed bridge, the front trolley of the span carrier reaches the rear end of
the underbridge (%igure ',) 5 self-propelled support saddle rolling along the underbridge is inserted
beneath the front trolley 3ydraulic cylinders lift the rear end of the underbridge until the
%igure ',: #arrier moving forward along a ./m, $!/ton underbridge
%igure '-: .,m, ,$4ton gantry with '/m, /4ton underbridge for placement
of ''m, 244ton dual-trac7 3S? spans (Bei9ing =ow9oint Machinery)
wheels of the carrier are released 1he motors of front saddle and rear trolley are synchroni8ed to
move the carrier along the underbridge 5fter reaching the span lowering location, the rollers of the
underbridge are released and the motor of the support saddle is inverted to launch the underbridge to
the ne<t span until the lowering area under the span is cleared 1he counter-plates of bearings are
installed during pier construction 1hree plates are set at the design elevation and the fourth plate is
set )-,mm below 1he span is lowered onto electronic load cells placed onto the counter-plates 5fter
ad9usting the support reactions to the design tolerance with stainless-steel shims at the fourth
plate, the load cells are removed and the span is lowered onto the bearings %inally, the underbridge is
moved bac7ward to release the front trolley onto the new span 1ransverse wheel spacing re:uired for
operations of the underbridge allows the presence of other machines on the bridge during span
delivery for earlier start of finishing wor7
3eavy gantries with underbridge are also used for placement of 3S? spans in combination with
S+M1s that deliver the spans along the completed bridge (%igure '-) 1he front winch-trolley of the
gantry pic7s up the front end of the span and moves it forward while the rear end slides along a
support girder on the S+M1 1hen the second winch-trolley pic7s up the rear end of the span to
release the transporter
(aunching the gantry to the ne<t span ta7es a couple of hours and two or three spans can be erected
every day when crossover emban7ments e<ist along the bridge and the casting yard is designed for
such productions #ompared with the use of span carriers with underbridge, gantries re:uire heavy
lifters in the casting yard to handle the spans and to place them onto the transporters 1he S+M1s
apply higher loads to the bridge and delay the finishing wor7, which can start only upon completion
of span delivery

1he single-trac7 @-girders for (?1 bridges are much lighter 1heir weight ranges from !'4ton for
$,m spans to !/4ton for ',m spans and they may therefore be transported on public roads =hen the
area under the bridge is accessible, two ground cranes may erect four @-girders (two complete spans)
every night 1he @-girders may also be delivered along the completed bridge and erected with twin-
girder overhead gantries 1he dual-trac7 @-girders are too wide for full-span delivery and are typically
erected by segmental precasting
7% Design +oa!s o) MSS3s an! (or# Tra0elers
1he design loads of MSSs and form travelers are distinguished in permanent loads and varying loads
+ermanent loads include self-weight and superimposed dead load 6arying loads include weight and
pressure of fresh concrete, the reinforcement cage, the load redistribution at the application of
prestress, the actions transferred by lifting devices applied to the MSS, the load of personnel and
stored materials on the wor7 platforms, the actions of snow and wind, and the thermal variations

1he casting cell is designed for the weight of forms and reinforcement, the filling se:uence and the
load redistribution at the application of prestress Shutters are designed for the pressure of fluid
concrete and the stress distribution generated by supports, ties and anti-floating anchorages between
inner and outer forms (ateral pressure of concrete may be computed with hydrostatic distribution in
the upper portion and constant value in the lower portion %orm design for full hydrostatic pressure is
specified for fast filling or when retarding admi<tures are used for one-phase casting (oad unbalance
between the webs can displace the inner form and twist the MSS so concrete level is 7ept controlled
during filling
=ind loads may be determined with reductions of the return period in relation to pro9ect duration %or
these machines it is possible to identify precise wind conditions for their use and the load
combinations distinguish normal operational conditions and out-of-service conditions MSSs of
medium length are unli7ely to sustain damage from wind-induced vibrations (aunching is avoided in
the presence of strong wind and achieving first lateral fre:uency higher than 4$4-4$,38 is often
enough to prevent vibrations 0esign standards prescribe slenderness limits for the members of a truss
and selecting the minimum si8e members of lateral bracing to satisfy the slenderness ratio is often
sufficient to obtain acceptable lateral fre:uencies and buc7ling factors
1he loads applied to MSSs and form travelers are grouped into two load conditions (oad #ondition "
is the normal operational condition, which includes permanent loads, payload, load of personnel and
stored items on wor7 platforms, loads applied by lifting devices, and wind and thermal loads (oad
#ondition " is also used to analy8e the launch stresses (oad #ondition "" is the out-of-service
condition, which includes permanent loads, partial load on wor7 platforms (snow if more demanding)
and out-of-service wind =ind in load #ondition " is chec7ed for any possible configuration of the
machine while out-of-service wind is chec7ed in anchored conditions
(oad #ondition " is also used to analy8e the application of prestress 5s prestress is applied, the span
lifts up from the casting cell 5s the weight is relieved, however, the casting cell recovers the
deflection 5n MSS is more fle<ible than a +# span and the casting cell recovers only a portion of the
deflection accumulated during concrete pouring 5fter application of prestress, therefore, the MSS
e<erts a residual support action onto the span >verloading of young concrete is avoided by releasing
the span in stages as prestress is applied or by tensioning only a part of the tendons prior to releasing
the span 1he span is released by lowering the MSS to minimi8e stress redistribution within the
casting cell
Both service (S(S) and strength (@(S) limit states are chec7ed S(Ss correspond to the loss of
functionality of the machine (displacements of components, rotations of field splices that alter the
geometry of the casting cell, etc)B unit load factors are used for the two load conditions and the
resistance factors are prescribed by the design standards @(Ss are related to critical conditions such
as rigid e:uilibrium (overturning, uncontrolled sliding, etc), rupture of connections, yielding, and
local and global (out-of-plane) buc7ling, and the two load conditions are chec7ed with different load
factors
8% Design +oa!s o) Hea0y +i)ters
1he load combinations for the design of beam launchers, lifting frames, launching gantries and span
carriers are more comple< because of the dynamic nature of loading 1he discussion that follows is
based on %&M-!44! but load classifications and combinations can be easily adapted to different
design standards
1he heavy lifters are grouped into classes in relation to the tas7s they perform during their service life
1he classification determines the load amplification factor used for the design of the structural
components, which varies from !44 for 5!-class units to !$4 for 5/-class units 1he class is
determined based on the number of load cycles and the load level 5 load spectrum relates the entity
of loading with the number of cycles Since most load cycles of these machines occur at or near the
load capacity, the spectral factor is typically high 3owever, the number of cycles is low and these
machines are often designed as 5$-class units with load factor !4$

5 similar classification applies for the mechanical components 1he load amplification factor varies
from !44 for M!-class units to !'4 for M/-class units 1he bridge erection machines are typically
designed as M$-or M'-class units with !4) and !4/ load amplification factor, respectively 1he
amplification factors for structural and mechanical components are applied to the loads and the load
combinations are then processed with load and resistance factors per design standard 1he design
loads are divided into four groups: forces that act regularly during normal operations, forces that arise
occasionally in the machine in service, e<ceptional forces in service and out-ofservice, and forces that
arise during assembly and dismantling
1he regular forces include permanent loads, payload and inertial effects of load movements =eight
and mass of members are increased by $4-)4A to account for attachments #oncentrated loads and
masses represent heavier components such as launch rollers, hydraulic articulations and electric
generators +ayload includes lifted accessories
6ertical inertial forces derive from the sudden application or removal of the load (e.g. precast
segments on barges with rough sea), positive or negative accelerations during load movements, and
the intervention of the emergency bra7es upon electric blac7-out (ongitudinal inertial forces derive
from accelerations or decelerations of winch-trolleys or portal cranes along the runways

1he occasional forces are wheel impacts, wind, snow, ice and thermal differences =heel impacts are
often disregarded when the field splices in the rails are welded and ground away at dismantling of the
machine Snow and ice are often disregarded in ordinary weathers
1he e<ceptional forces are out-of-service wind, test loads, impacts against end-of-stro7e buffers or
fi<ed obstacles, and the design earth:ua7e "mpacts against buffers at the end of runways are often
disregarded for translation speed lower than 4.mEs provided that the runways are e:uipped with end-
of-stro7e switches 1he effects are computed in relation to the deceleration impressed and are
increased by $,A for linear-spring buffers and -4A for constant-force hydraulic buffers$

1he design loads are grouped into three load conditions (oad #ondition " is the normal operational
condition and includes permanent loads, payload inclusive of vertical dynamic amplification, and
payload plus weight of winch-trolley or portal crane inclusive of longitudinal dynamic amplification
5ll these loads are multiplied by the load amplification factor resulting from the classification of the
machine
(oad #ondition "" is the operational condition in the presence of occasional forcesB it combines the
actions of #ondition " with wind in service, snow, ice and thermal differences "n the presence of
strong wind the longitudinal dynamic amplification factor may be different from the value for (oad
#ondition " because the action of wind affects the starting and bra7ing times of the portal cranes

(oad #ondition """ is the action of e<ceptional loads "t considers the following combinations: (!)
permanent loads and out-of-service windB ($) permanent loads, payload and impacts against end-of-
stro7e buffers or obstaclesB (') permanent loads, payload and design earth:ua7eB and ()) permanent
loads, wind in service and assembly and dismantling operations 5lthough conceptually similar to
assembly, launching is typically chec7ed as (oad #ondition "" because of the higher fre:uency of
operations (oad testing may re:uire specific chec7s when the static test load is greater than !)4A of
the design load or the dynamic test load is greater than !$4A
Both S(Ss and @(Ss are assessed S(Ss correspond to the loss of functionality of the machineB unit
load factors are used for the three load conditions and the resistance factors are prescribed by the
design standards @(Ss correspond to critical conditions and the three load conditions are chec7ed
with progressively lower load factors
Most design standards do not distinguish between local and global (out-of-plane) buc7ling and both
forms of instability are chec7ed li7e any other @(S condition >ut-of-plane buc7ling of primary
members is a more ris7y event than local buc7ling of web panels or secondary members ;o post-
critical domain or alternative load paths e<ist in many cases and the critical load is influenced by
geometry imperfections that are difficult to detect "t is therefore common practice to chec7 out-of-
plane buc7ling of trusses and support towers with higher load factors, in the $4-$, range
$9% Mo!eling an! Analysis
1he optimum level of detail for the numerical model of a bridge erection machine depends on
numerous factors 1he more refined the model, the more accurate the results of analysis and the
cambers to assign to the casting cell 3owever, simple models allow rapid investigation of different
load and support conditions, facilitate the research of the design-governing conditions, and provide
the stress magnitude to be e<pected from more refined analyses and the boundary conditions to assign
to local models
1he underslung machines are typically supported onto stiff pier brac7ets and simple beam models are
often sufficient for bo< girders or braced "-girders 1russes are more comple< to analy8e and '0 frame
models are necessary when the pier brac7ets are fle<ible or primary truss members are loaded
indirectly Modeling the supports is also necessary when the self-launching frame is supported onto
pier brac7ets and props from foundations to represent the different stiffness of supports
%igure '.: '0 frame model of the MSS of %igure !,
1win-truss overhead machines are supported onto the overhangs of long crossbeams and '0 frame
models of the entire machine are necessary to evaluate the effects of crossbeam deflections "n the
MSS of %igure !, the casting cell is suspended on either side from two paired trusses 5 third truss
controls out-of-plane buc7ling and carries the runway for the portal crane 1he secondary truss and
one of the main trusses are e<tended into the launching noses while the third truss is interrupted at the
ends of the casting cell 1he ,'44-frame-element model of the MSS (%igure '.) highlights the need
for stability of these machines: the brown members resist the payload and the orange members
stabili8e operations and launching Most of the machine is aimed at stabili8ing a few components
5n ideal truss should fulfill three conditions (!) 1he members of diagonals and chords are pinned at
the nodes 1his condition is never respected in a self-launching machine: the nodes are continuous and
when the truss has pinned splices for fast field assembly, the pins are located far from the nodes ($)
1he loads are applied at the panel nodes 5lso this condition is never respected Bridge and form
design dictates the location of the hangers for segments and casting cell 1he load applied by the
winch-trolleys migrates along the top chords, the support reactions migrate along the
bottom chords during launching, and the trusses may be supported with out-of-node eccentricity even
during span casting (') 1he gravity a<es of all members converging into a node cross at the geometric
panel node 1his condition could actually be respected, although in most cases the convergence points
of the diagonals onto the chords are staggered to simplify node welding

0epicting the effects of geometry imperfections re:uires accurate models 5n ideal model describes
the entire machine: '0 trusses, winch-trolleys if capable to e<ert a lateral restraint action between the
chords, pendular legs, crossbeams and support towers >ut-of-node eccentricities and steps in the
gravity a<is at the changes of cross-section are considered Special 9oints are located at all points of
discontinuity such as internal releases of degrees-of-freedom, changes in cross-section, field splices,
support points, and points of application of concentrated loads +oint loads and masses represent non-
structural attachments, property modification factors account for distributed weight and mass of
attachments, and end offsets account for the finite si8e of diagonal and chord nodes
%igure '/: 0ismantling of a =-frame on through girders
1he reliability of internal releases of degrees-of-freedom should be critically reviewed 1he twin-
girder overhead machines ta7e support onto fle<ible tower-crossbeam assemblies 1he master tower
restrains the girders longitudinally and rollers or +1%& s7ids allow thermal displacements at the
secondary tower ?ollers and s7ids slide after overcoming brea7away friction "f the longitudinal
stiffness of the tower-crossbeam assembly is lower than the brea7away force, rollers and s7ids cannot
slide and thermal deformations in the main girders will cause hori8ontal bending in the crossbeams
and +-delta effects in the towers

Similar considerations apply for the internal releases of rotations 1he friction launchers support the
main girder with pivoted arms that can be modeled with eccentric cylindrical hinges Mechanical
articulations are e<pensive when the tower legs are distant or =-frames on through girders are used
on either side of the pier "n such cases the crossbeams are placed onto hydraulic 9ac7s (%igure '/) that
also provide geometry ad9ustment and lower the MSS to release the span 1he 9ac7s are e:uipped with
safety nuts that are tightened prior to span erection 0ifferent restraint conditions are therefore to be
modeled for the 9ac7s 0uring launching the 9ac7s are modeled so as to 7eep the support reactions
uniform (the hydraulic circuits are interconnected to create a hydraulic hinge) 0uring span erection
the 9ac7s are modeled with vertical frame elements with released top rotations to model the ball-and-
soc7et head 5nalysis with tightened 9ac7s will show that the inner crossbeams are more loaded than
the outer ones due to fle<ural rotations in the main girders
$$% Insta1ility o) *D Tr"sses
1he stability of a freestanding truss is influenced by the degree of fi<ity at the supports, a support
condition prompting the truss to twist as it deflects laterally, the lateral restraint e<erted by inclined
diagonals or lateral bracing on the compression chords, the location of loads in relation to the center
of shear of the cross-section, and the level of imperfection in the initial geometry of the truss
"n a twin-truss machine these factors coe<ist and coalesce 1he degree of fi<ity at the supports is low
as the truss is supported onto fle<ible crossbeams 1he truss bends laterally and twists because of the
deflections of the crossbeams and the height of the truss amplifies the lateral displacements of the top
chord 1riangular trusses are tall and narrow (the typical height-to-width ratio is about ') and the
lateral restraint that so inclined diagonals e<ert onto the top chord is poor 1he winch-trolleys load the
truss above the center of shear of the cross-section and the geometry imperfections are amplified by a
large number of field splices
0esign standards normally recogni8e two types of instability 1he first type is related to the overall
sway of the structure (out-of-plane buc7ling) and the second type is related to deformations of a
member between its end nodes (local buc7ling) >ut-of-plane buc7ling can rarely be assessed with
bibliographic values of the critical elastic moment in so comple< structures
#ommercial software for structural analysis can depict buc7ling in every member of a truss but
analy8ing many buc7ling modes with comple< numerical models involves long computational times
>ut-of-plane buc7ling is therefore analy8ed numerically and the local modes are chec7ed with the
load magnification factors prescribed by the design standards in relation to the effective length of
members
%igure '2: %irst buc7ling mode at segment lifting
Buc7ling analysis investigates the stability of the elastic e:uilibrium of a structure under a given set of
loads Since buc7ling modes and factors depend on the load, buc7ling is analy8ed for different load
conditions "nertial load amplification also affects the buc7ling factor during movements of the load
>ut-of-plane buc7ling of a launching gantry is analy8ed by simulating the placement of segments
5nalysis is simpler in an MSS as the casting cell is fi<ed
&<cessive confidence with a gantry due to having handled similar loads in the past may be a serious
mista7e Stability depends on the entity of the load but also on how the load is applied to the machine
1he buc7ling factor of the gantry of %igure , is lower at lifting of the pier-head macro-segment
(%igure '2) than at lifting of the midspan segment because the winch-trolleys are close to each other
instead of being at the ends of the segment
>verloaded members may buc7le suddenly and inspections are necessary during assembly and at
regular intervals 0amaged diagonals must be reinforced or replaced even when they seem to be in
non-critical locations as the load and support conditions vary so much in these machine that they
could become the critical element 0iaphragms should also be inspected fre:uently and the reasons
for out-of-flat should be investigated as this ma7es the members susceptible to local buc7ling
1he robustness of a machine depends on the stability of members against local buc7ling and on the
overall response of the machine to local failure (ocal buc7ling of a primary member is often critical
in the support towers while stable alternative load paths often e<ist in so redundant trussesB however,
local buc7ling may trigger a chain reaction of failures causing progressive collapse
1he simplest way to ensure robustness and reduce the ris7 of progressive collapse is to re:uire
insensitivity to local failure H i.e. local buc7ling of a primary member must not cause collapse of the
machine or of a ma9or part of it 5lthough the structural damage induced by local buc7ling is limited,
the sudden stress redistribution generated by the loss of carrying capacity of a member is a highly
dynamic process that re:uires analysis in the time domain
1he effects of local buc7ling can be analy8ed with the following approach (!) Start from an accurate
numerical model of the machine ($) +erform a buc7ling analysis and compute forces and moments at
the ends of the buc7ling member under the loads that generate buc7ling (') ?emove the buc7ling
member from the model and apply end forces and moments with a specific load case ()) 0efine a
load function that increases from 4 to ! and holds constant until fading of vibrations (,) 0efine an
unload function that abruptly drops from 4 to -! and holds constant for the duration of the analysis
(-) (oad the model :uasi-statically by applying buc7ling loads and end nodal loads with the load
function (.) 5naly8e the dynamic response to member buc7ling by removing the nodal loads with the
unload function
5s regards the integration method, modal superposition in the time domain provides a highly efficient
procedure with shorter run-times than direct integration #losed-form integration of modal e:uations
is used to compute the response so that numerical instability is never encountered and the time step
may be any sampling value that is deemed fine enough to capture the pea7 response values 0irect
integration re:uires longer run-times and the results are sensitive to time-step si8eB however, impact
problems that e<cite a large number of modes are often solved more efficiently by direct integration
1his also applies for the dynamic analysis of loss of segments or impacts against end-of-stro7e
buffers
1he load path in the support regions of a '0 truss may include several pairs of diagonals (especially
when the launch rollers are long) and load redistribution at member buc7ling is not always critical
1he pea7 response stresses are chec7ed li7e any other @(S condition "f analysis detects buc7ling in
other members, the same approach may be used to analy8e the entire buc7ling se:uence until stress
stabili8ation or collapse ;onlinear lin7s that drop forces and moments to 8ero when the local
buc7ling load is reached may be inserted into the model to automate the analysis of progressive
collapse, although nonlinear direct integration further increases the run time
%igure )4: %lange buc7ling in a 2-m, ')4ton MSS
(ocal buc7ling of flanges can trigger critical situations in the bo< girders as during launching the
support sections are devoid of diaphragms "n a twin-girder overhead MSS the left bo< girder (on the
right in %igure )4) was slightly misaligned left-bound =hen the front launch cantilever was )/m
long, the operator decided to realign it 5 crossbeam was placed at the front support to sustain two flat
9ac7s on +1%& plates 1he 9ac7s had to be inserted under the webs to pull the bo< girder right-bound
along the low-friction surface 1he procedure was misunderstood and after lifting the bo< girder with
the flat 9ac7s, the +1%& plates were inserted between the bo< girder and the main support 9ac7s
"n the initial phases of realignment the bottom flange of the bo< girder resisted the transverse bending
generated by the increasing eccentricity in the support reactions &ventually the outer flange and the
central flange panel buc7led upwards 1his generated two low-friction inclined planes that gave raise
to uncontrolled right-bound sliding of the bo< girder #ollapse was avoided because the edge of the
bottom flange impacted against the end bloc7 of the crossbeam (aunch rails welded under the webs
improve load dispersal, transfer lateral forces and also remind distract operators where the support
reactions must be applied
$'% Insta1ility o) :ertical S"pport Me#1ers
1he load of an erection machine is transferred to the bridge foundations through comple< load paths
that include structural, mechanical and electro-hydraulic components 1he support legs of these
machines are affected by specific forms of instability
1he pendular legs are among the most delicate components because their length must be varied to
ta7e support onto the pier cap and onto the dec7 (%igure ,) 1his is achieved with articulated legs and
rotation cylinders, and the presence of multiple hinges along the vertical load path ma7es the legs
prone to out-of-plane buc7ling when fully e<tended
1he bottom crossbeam of a pendular =-frame (%igure )!) had a bo< section over the entire width
?eusing the gantry in a curved bridge re:uired shifting the support cylinders laterally to align them
%igure )!: 1hree-hinge load path in a pendular =-frame
with the dec7 webs, so the crossbeam was windowed at the ends 5s a result, the torsional constant in
the windowed end sections dropped to about one-thousandth of the bo< girder constant

=hen the support cylinders are at the ends of the crossbeam, the vertical load path is a three-hinge
scheme where the central hinge has minimal rotational stiffness due to the low torsional constant of
the windowed section 1he buc7ling factor for self-weight was as low as 4-4 Bo<-stiffeners were
applied to increase the torsional constant and stabili8e the frame
=hen a machine is supported onto temporary towers, the load applied to the towers is always
eccentric 5s cantilevers partially fi<ed at the base, the towers are sensitive to forces and couples
applied to the top "f the towers are deformable, buc7ling analysis must account for the +-delta effect
%le<ibility of foundations should also be considered, especially when only some of the tower legs ta7e
support onto the pier footing %igure )$ shows the bracing systems of the rear support tower of an
MSS 1he upper section is reasonably braced while the lower section is IbracedJ with light tubes and
iron wire Slenderness ratios and notional design loads for hori8ontal braces are far from being
respected in this machine
0esign of end connections affects strength and stability of the modular towers =hen the legs are
compressed and the contact surface between column and end plate is machined, the end weld is
sub9ected to minimal stresses "n case of load reversal, the end weld is designed for tension and
compression is resisted by the machined surface "f the contact is machined poorly, however, the weld
can brea7 in compression and at load reversal, the column can detach from the end plate 1his is one
of the cases where design details should account for the e<pected level of K5EK# of fabrication
Modular towers are also used as props from foundations 1hese towers have ad9ustment screws at the
base (verticality) and at the top (local gradient) and diagonal turnbuc7les assure stability of the
ad9ustment screws when fully e<tracted (ocal buc7ling in a support tower is the most plausible cause
of collapse of two bridge spans, two bridge piers and the erection gantry (%igure )')
%igure )$: Bracing deficiencies in a !2m support tower
%igure )': *antry collapse
%orensic investigation detected design and assembly deficiencies in the tower (oad eccentricity and
thermal loads were disregarded in the design (ateral fle<ibility prevented sliding at the support
saddles and the +-delta effect of thermal dec7 deformations was also disregarded 1he ad9ustment
screws were e<tracted e<cessively, the end turnbuc7les were all missing, and the lateral connections
between au<iliary frames and main tower were installed at the middle of the panels instead of at the
nodes, which increased the effective length of compression legs (%igure ))) 1he subcontractor was
certified for "S> 244! :uality management systems "n spite of a !$2 buc7ling factor with theoretical
geometry, the tower did buc7le
%igure )): %irst buc7ling mode of the collapsed tower
5s a matter of fact, buc7ling should always be chec7ed with prudent load factors in these temporary
structures
5ll ad9ustment screws should be regarded as potentially prone to local buc7ling @pon completion of
launching, gantries and MSSs for span-by-span construction are lifted to the span erection level
3ydraulic cylinders with safety nut or screw 9ac7s are used to support the girders after lifting =hen
the screw 9ac7s are e<tracted e<cessively (%igure /), local buc7ling can cause collapse 1he allowed
e<traction of screw 9ac7s should be stated in the operation manual and the ris7y portion of the screws
should be mar7ed

$*% +oa! Testing
Bridge erection machines are load tested after the first assembly ;ew load tests and comparisons with
previous tests should follow every ma9or reassembly
Beam launchers, launching gantries, lifting frames and span carriers may be sub9ected to static and
dynamic tests 1he static test load is !4 to )4A higher than the design load (oad testing consists of
slowly lifting a progressively increasing load until reaching the full test load 1he load is lifted at
different locations to reach full design stresses in the critical components of the machine and the
deflections are compared with the theoretical values 1he dynamic test load is typically !4 to $4A
higher than the design load 1he movements are tested individually at increasing speed Blac7-out
tests can also be performed to chec7 the intervention of the emergency bra7es
1he MSSs are sub9ected to static tests 1he load is increased in steps and the deflections are surveyed
at every step 1he full load is 7ept for a certain time, the MSS is unloaded and the residual deflections
are measured 1esting the MSS during casting of the first span is not advisable because loading cannot
be interrupted 1he deflections may also differ from the e<pectations, which would
result in inade:uate geometry of the first span (oad testing may be performed by applying a
waterproof membrane and filling the casting cell with water 5dditional load can be applied by
suspending concrete bloc7s
$,% Concl"sions
"nnovation in bridge erection methods is a need for industriali8ed countries to preserve their e<port
capability when competing with countries with less e<pensive labor %abricating bridge erection
machines in emerging countries was a way for consolidated manufacturers to ma<imi8e profit, but
selling cheap cloned machines soon became a new business for those emerging countries 5s soon as
the new manufacturers reach ade:uate levels of K5EK# and ac:uire the capability of providing
technical assistance to designers and contractors, the transfer of technology will be completed
Modern bridge erection machines are light, efficient, and comple< 1he level of sophistication of new-
generation machines re:uires ade:uate technical culture 5 level of technical culture ade:uate to the
comple<ity of mechani8ed bridge construction would save human lives and would facilitate the
decision-ma7ing processes with more accurate ris7 analyses
Ac;nole!g#ents
5+ Bridge #onstruction Systems, Bei9ing =ow9oint Machinery, B&?0, #omtec, 0eal, 3;1B,
"mpresa +i88arotti L #, ;?S, ?i88ani de&ccher, 1hyssenGrupp and 6S( are gratefully than7ed for
authori8ing the publication of photographs of their machines or related to independent design
chec7ing or technological consultancy assignments performed by the author
Glossary
Align#ent e!ge: 1russ e<tension with inclined bottom chords for progressive recovery of the elastic
deflection and release of the support reaction during launching
Bea# la"nc&er: (ight self-launching gantry for erection of precast beams
Capstan: &ndless ring cable for longitudinal movement of winch-trolleys
Casting cell: 5ssembly of outer form, inner form and front bul7head for casting of segments or spans
Casting cycle: ?epetitive se:uence of operations for casting a bridge segment or span
C-)ra#e: 5d9ustable frame that supportsEsuspends a bridge erection machine by rolling along the completed
bridge during launching "t includes vertical cylinders that ad9ust the frame geometry to bridge superelevation,
control the support reaction during launching, lift the machine prior to erecting the span, and lower the machine
onto the launch systems after application of prestress "t may include additional hydraulic ad9ustment systems
for transverse shifting and rotation about the vertical a<is when launching along curves
Cylin!er: (ong-stro7e hydraulic 9ac7 "t is typically e:uipped with a safety nut to be tightened for structural
safety during unattended operations 1he end of the rod has a ball-and-soc7et 9oint or other types of articulation
that minimi8e the fle<ural stresses in the rod
E<"ali=er 1ea#: +ivoted beam that e:uali8es the load in two rolls located at the beam ends 1wo e:uali8er
beams may be assembled onto a longer e:uali8er beam for a )-roll assembly /-roll assemblies are a practical
limit for heavy self-launching machines
(or# &angers: Suspension frames for a casting cell hung to an overhead MSS
(or# ta1le: Sliding form for the central top slab strip between webs, used in two-phase casting of bo< girders
"t may be supported onto brac7ets bolted to the inner web face of the @-segment or onto modular frames
supported onto the bottom slab
(or# tra0eler: Self-launching casting cell for in-place segmental casting of balanced cantilever bridges
(riction la"nc&er: Support device able to generate longitudinal movements in the main girder by friction
Hangers: Bars suspending precast segments or the casting cell from an overhead self-launching frame
Hea0y li)ter: Self-propelled machine e:uipped with heavy lifting devices #ranes, straddle carriers, derric7s,
cable cranes, beam launchers, lifting frames, gantries and span carriers are designed with standards for heavy
lifters
HSR: 3igh-Speed ?ailway
Hy!ra"lic &inge: 3ydraulically interconnected cylinders that allow differential movements at the supported
points with e:uali8ed forces
+a"nc&ing nose: &<tension applied to the main girder to control overturning during launching 1he front nose
is applied to the front end of the main girder in the launch direction 1he rear nose is applied to the rear end
Both noses are e:uipped with alignment wedges or lifting arms for progressive recovery of the elastic deflection
(front end) and progressive release of the support reaction (rear end)
+i)ting ar#: 3ydraulic system to recover the elastic deflection of the tip of the front nose and to release the
support reaction at the rear nose 5 long-stro7e cylinder rotates a pivoted arm to lift the tip of the launching nose
to the launch elevation and to lower it to release the support reaction
+i)ting )ra#e: Beam-and-winch assembly for lifting and handling of precast segments
+RT: (ight ?apid 1ransit
MSS: Movable Scaffolding System for in-place casting of +# bridges 5 dec7-supported MSS for balanced
cantilever bridges is called form traveler
One-p&ase casting: #asting techni:ue for solid or voided slabs, ribbed slabs and bo< girders where the entire
cross-section is cast at once
O0er&ea! #ac&ine: Bridge erection machine where precast segments or a casting cell are suspended from a
self-launching frame
.ayloa!: weight of the segment or the span before, during and after the application of prestress
.C: +restressed #oncrete
.en!"lar leg: 5rticulated au<iliary support leg retracted by hydraulic rotation about hori8ontal pivots
.ier 1rac;et: 5d9ustable support brac7et of underslung machines anchored to the pier cap
.+C: +rogrammable (ogical #ontroller
.T(E: +oly-1etra-%luor-&thylene (commercial name is 1eflon)
>A?>C: Kuality 5ssurance and Kuality #ontrol
Re0erse la"nc&ing: Bac7ward transfer of a bridge erection machine along the completed bridge to erect a
second parallel bridge
Roller: 5ssembly of cast-iron rolls onto one or more e:uali8er beams
Sel)-la"nc&ing gantry: Self-launching machine for erection of precast segmental bridges or spans
S+S: Serviceability (imit State
Span carrier: Multi-wheel machine for delivery and placement of precast spans along the completed bridge "t
includes two motori8ed trolleys connected by a bo< girder e:uipped with lifting winches 1he load on the
wheels is e:uali8ed hydraulically or electronically
S.MT: Self-+ropelled Modular 1ransporter
Sprea!er 1ea#: 5d9ustable suspension system for precast segments
Stra!!le carrier: =heeled portal crane for handling of precast girders and segments
Stressing plat)or#: =or7 area for fabrication and stressing of permanent prestressing tendons
S"pport cross1ea#: Support girder for overhead machines e:uipped with ad9ustable support legs and support
saddles for the main girders that shift laterally along the crossbeam 5 crossbeam comprises braced "-girders or a
bo< girder with stiffening diaphragms at the support legs
S"pport sa!!le: +ivoted assembly of rollers that supports the main girder and allows rotations about the
vertical and transverse a<es and longitudinal and transverse movements
S"pport toer: Modular structure anchored to a foundation, a pier cap or a bridge dec7 to support a formwor7,
precast segments or an overhead machine
Telescopic gantry: Self-launching machine comprised of a rear main girder and a front underbridge 1he front
end of the main girder slides along the underbridge during launching
Tra0ersing: (ateral shifting of the gantry along support brac7etsEcrossbeams during launching along curves
To-p&ase casting: #asting techni:ue for bo< girders where bottom slab and webs are cast in a first time and
the top slab is cast in a second time
T"nnel )or#: #ollapsible inner form for one-phase casting of bo< girders
U+S: @ltimate (imit State
Un!er1ri!ge: Self-launching front support girder for telescopic gantries and for placement of precast spans
with wheeled carriers
Un!ersl"ng #ac&ine: Bridge erection machine where precast segments or a casting cell are supported onto a
self-launching frame
@-)ra#e: 1russed assembly of crossbeam and diagonals supported onto through girders crossing the pier
longitudinally to support underslung machines 6ertical ad9ustment is achieved with cylinders located between
the through girders and the support frame
@inc&-trolley: 1rolley that rolls along the main girders and lodges a main lifting winch and a secondary
translation winch acting on a capstan "n some machines the translation capstan is replaced with hydraulic
motors
Bi1liograp&y
55S31> ($44') Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges 5merican
5ssociation of State 3ighway and 1ransportation >fficials (55S31>) M1his standard provides guidance on
design and construction of segmental +# bridges in the @S "t includes loads and load combinations for analysis
of staged constructionN
55S31> ($44/) Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works 5merican 5ssociation of State
3ighway and 1ransportation >fficials (55S31>) M1his manual provides general information for falsewor7
construction in the @SN
55S31> ($44/) Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works 5merican 5ssociation of State
3ighway and 1ransportation >fficials (55S31>) M1his manual provides design guidance for ground falsewor7
and other temporary wor7s for bridge construction in the @SN
55S31> ($4!4) LRD Bridge Design Specifications 5merican 5ssociation of State 3ighway and
1ransportation >fficials (55S31>) M1his standard rules bridge design practice in the @S "t includes some
guidance on bridge erection e:uipmentN
55S31> ($4!4) LRD Bridge Construction Specifications 5merican 5ssociation of State 3ighway and
1ransportation >fficials (55S31>) M1his standard rules bridge construction in the @S "t includes some
guidance on bridge erection e:uipmentN
5#" ($44)) Guide to orm!ork for Concrete 5merican #oncrete "nstitute (5#") M1his manual provides
general information and design guidance for formwor7N
5SB" ($44/) Construction "ractices Handbook for Concrete Segmental and Cable#Supported Bridges.
5merican Segmental Bridge "nstitute (5SB") M1his handboo7 is an international reference for construction of
segmental +# bridges "t provides broad information on the technical and technological aspects of most erection
methods for +# bridgesN
5"S# ($44-) Base "late and $nc%or Rod Design 5merican "nstitute of Steel #onstruction (5"S#) M1his
boo7let provides guidance for design of base plates and anchor rodsN
Boggs, 0B +eter7a, F (!22$) Wind Speeds for Design of Temporary Structures +roceedings of the !4
th
5S#&
Structures #ongress, San 5ntonio, @S5 5merican Society of #ivil &ngineers (5S#&) M1his paper defines
wind load to be used in the design of falsewor7 and other types of temporary structuresN
BS" (!2/$) Code of "ractice for alse!ork British Standards "nstitute (BS") M1his boo7let provides general
design and technical guidance for falsewor7 in the @GN