r98z6 History Teachers Handbook PDF

The History Teacher's
Handbook
Also available from Continuum
Resources for Teaching History 1114, Susie Hodge
Resources for Teaching History 1416, Susie Hodge
100+ Ideas for Teaching History, Julia Murphy
The History
Teacher's
Handbook
Neil Smith
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# Neil Smith 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the
publishers.
Neil Smith has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be
identified as Author of this work.
As this book was going to press a new coalition government was making changes within
education, so references to the TDA, QCDA and any other governmental website may no
longer be coompletely up-to-date.
Resources section
Quick Glossary of Terms # Tabatha Wood
Education and Government # Simon Taylor
Teacher Training # Simon Taylor
Unions # Simon Taylor
Curriculum # Simon Taylor
Subject Associations # Simon Taylor
Exam Boards # Simon Taylor
Media # Simon Taylor
Lesson Planning # Simon Taylor
Inclusion SEN and other barriers to learning # Simon Taylor
Lesson Plans # Simon Taylor
Other Useful Websites # Simon Taylor
References # Simon Taylor
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 9781441145345 (paperback)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Smith, Neil.
History teacher's handbook / Neil Smith.
p. cm. (Continuum education handbooks)
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-1-4411-4534-5 (pbk.)
1. History teachersTraining ofUnited StatesHandbooks, manuals, etc.
2. HistoryStudy and teachingUnited StatesHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title.
II. Series.
LB1582.U6S65 2010
907.1'073dc22
2010001028
Typeset by BookEns, Royston, Herts.
Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham
Contents
Acknowledgements vii
Introduction 1
1 Planning for effective history teaching 5
2 Carrying out meaningful assessment 25
3 Teaching source skills 47
4 Inclusion 65
5 Using ICT to enhance the quality of teaching and
learning 87
6 Teaching emotive and controversial issues in
history 111
7 Developing students' interest in history outside
the classroom 125
References 143
Resources 147
Index 171
= also available online 8
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgements
In order to draw on good practice in a number of educational
contexts, I have discussed many of these ideas with several
current and retired history teachers, and the contribution of the
following individuals to my research is much appreciated: my
colleagues in the History Department at The Manchester
Grammar School (MGS); Lucy Merlo, Specific Educational Needs
Coordinator at MGS, who kindly reviewed the chapter on
accessibility and made several invaluable suggestions; the D13
History set (2009/10) for their fascinating insight into the appeal
and uses of history; Caron Walker, Head of History at Baines
School, and Toby Miller, Head of History at Fallibroome High
School, who both agreed to be interrogated about their
respective departmental policies; Nicola Goodwin and Sarah
Kay Garside, who both did successful PGCE placements at MGS
and provided some useful ideas on creating databases; and Glynn
Wales from the History PGCE Department at Durham University,
who kindly agreed to trial some of the ideas with his trainees. Of
course, responsibility for any errors of fact, judgement or
pedagogy is mine alone!
I should also express my sincere gratitude to the plethora of
editors who have provided advice, support and forbearance since
work on the book began: Christina Garbutt, Melanie Wilson and
Ania Leslie-Wujastyk.
Finally, I am most grateful for the love, indulgence and
encouragement of Rebecca, Alice, Mollie and Rosy Smith.
Introduction
Is history on the decline?
Anyone reading the newspapers over the last few years would
have come across ample evidence of the decline of history as a
major subject in the secondary curriculum. Firstly, the Con-
servative Party obtained data under the Freedom of Information
Act which suggested that up to 5 million pupils of school-leaving
age had missed out on the opportunity to study history to GCSE
since 1997, with one-third of pupils not taking the subject up to
the age of 16 in 1998.
Then, a report by the Historical Association, Findings from the
Historical Association survey of secondary history teachers published in
September 2009, appeared to add weight to the Conservative
Party's fears about the future of the subject. Based on a survey of
over 700 teachers, it claimed that `many children receive little or
no history education after only two years of secondary school',
that 1112-year-olds spend less than an hour a week learning
history in a larger number of academies, and that many
maintained schools report a fall in the time allocated for the
teaching of Key Stage 3 (KS3) history.
According to the report, the main reasons for these trends
appear to be:
. Schools adopting a more thematic, humanities-style approach
. A small number of schools delivering a skills-based curriculum,
rather than one built around subjects
. An increasing number of schools establishing a `collapsed' KS3
curriculum, where pupils are allowed to make GCSE choices at the
end of Year 8. Whilst history is obviously one of the subjects which
can be chosen to study at GCSE, the factors affecting take up at KS4
1
come into play a year earlier where the KS3 curriculum is condensed
into a two-year course. This will also undoubtedly have an impact
on the kind of history experienced by pupils in Years 7 and 8.
Teachers will be forced either to ignore large sections of the
Programme of Study or to offer a very superficial treatment of the
various units.
. History is regarded as a difficult subject, with a lot of content to
revise.
. Managerial decisions to restrict the time devoted to foundation
subjects.
The report also establishes a link between this decline in
curriculum time and the falling popularity of the subject at
GCSE, where their research supports the figures released under
the Freedom of Information Act. Over a period of 14 years, the
number of students taking the GCSE history examination has
fallen from approximately 40% in 1995 to 30% in 2009.
A common factor in causing the fall-off in numbers is
increased competition from subjects perceived to be èasier',
such as PE, or ICT, and from qualifications such as the BTEC
offering the equivalent of three or four GCSEs. The recent
introduction of diplomas is likely to exacerbate the problem, as
less able pupils are pushed towards vocational options, and
schools have to coordinate their timetables with neighbouring
schools to help deliver some of the diploma courses.
By way of contrast, the status and popularity of history in
independent schools remains high. The Historical Association
report stated that 97% of independent schools teach history as a
discrete subject in Year 7 (compared to 72% of comprehensives
and 59% of academies). Most students in the fee-paying sector
will sit a GCSE examination in history, and take-up after age 16
is also healthy. Why the difference with the maintained sector?
. More students from independent schools will apply for competitive
analysis-based degree courses. History provides an ideal grounding
for subjects such as Law.
. The perceived difficult of the subject is an attraction for some pupils
within the independent sector.
. Typically, a narrower curriculum is offered, even when broad-based
curriculums such as the International Baccalaureate are followed.
Competition from other subjects will therefore be less intense.
. The narrower curriculum ensures that pupils are guaranteed more
history in their curriculum than their counterparts in the state
2 The History Teacher's Handbook
sector. In some cases, there was evidence that the amount of time
being devoted to history in the independent sector was double the
amount provided elsewhere.
What do pupils think about history
(and why this is important)?
The irony of this, however, is that other indicators suggest that
history is actually in very rude health. A recent Ofsted (2007)
report highlighted the quality of teaching performed by history
teachers, noting that 80% of lessons observed were either
excellent or good (compared to an all subject average of 72%),
whilst recent research by Harris and Haydn (2008) highlights the
positive impression which the subject makes on young people.
Their survey of over 1700 pupils in Years 79 discovered that
not only was history a very popular subject, it was the most
popular àcademic' subject (perhaps inevitably, creative subjects
such as PE, art, design and ICT came top), but that its popularity
had increased since previous studies. Its popularity was largely
attributable to how it was taught. The study does not discount the
importance of who is teaching it, and what is being taught, but
most of the evidence pointed at the teaching approaches as being
the critical factor. Unsurprisingly, the majority of respondents
expressed a preference for àctive' learning approaches, with
role-play/drama and debate the most preferred options. This
supports the research carried out by Hattie (2008), outlined later
in the book, that whole-class interactive methods have the
greatest effect on pupil performance. Although it is difficult to
establish a concrete link between active teaching methods and
the popularity of the subject, Harris and Haydn's research
demonstrates that, when taught well, active approaches make
a significant difference to pupil attitudes. If pupils like the
subject, then one can assume that they are more likely to be well
motivated and focused on academic success.
Why do I need this handbook?
The key point about this and other research into pupil attitudes
and performance is that the role of the teacher is vital to pupil
enjoyment and performance. Pursuing active approaches is no
Introduction 3
guarantee of success, if they are done spasmodically or executed
poorly. The primary function of this book is to provide history
teachers with a broad range of strategies to keep active learning
approaches at the forefront of their work. Each chapter combines
elements of recent research with `road-tested' classroom techni-
ques to suggest how you can make your classroom a dynamic
and productive learning environment. Advice is given on all
aspects of history teaching, from how to plan for successful
outcomes and ensure meaningful assessment is carried out, to
exciting ways to examine evidence and develop pupil interest
outside of the classroom. The chapter on making effective use of
ICT to teach history tackles one of the biggest challenges for
teachers today: how to ensure new technologies are exploited to
improve learning, without allowing the technology to detract
from the history being taught. ICT has huge potential for making
history exciting and active, but, like any other resource, it has to
be used correctly. Standing in front of a PowerPoint presentation
for half an hour, or setting the pupils off on a website hunt for
the whole lesson, can be as demotivating as providing a list of ten
questions from a textbook and telling them to get on with it!
Like all teachers, historians have an increasing responsibility
to make the subject accessible to every child. Chapter 4 on
inclusion outlines strategies which are designed to make it
relevant and accessible to pupils with a range of specific
educational needs, which also includes pupils whose first
language is not English and those who are regarded as being
gifted and talented.
Planning for effective
history teaching
Bad planning often leads to poor-quality lessons, which in turn
are a primary cause of poor behaviour. Whilst good planners can
make highly effective teachers, planning by itself cannot trans-
form someone into a superstar in the classroom. This chapter,
therefore outlines the qualities of successful teachers and
attempts to demonstrate how careful attention to how pupils
are going to learn is highly likely to improve both the quality of
learning and the level of behaviour.
What is effective teaching?
In order to plan for effective teaching, it might be worth taking a
moment to consider what effective teaching looks like. To
someone joining the profession, and starting to consider what
constitutes effective teaching, there is probably an expectation
that a universal consensus has emerged, resulting in several key
principles underpinning the teaching tablets of stone. Whilst
differences in emphasis do exist between educationalists, the
three measures of effective teaching provided by Hay McBer
(2000) offer the clearest guide to effective practice.
^ Professional characteristics
Hay McBer argues that the way that the teacher goes about his
job, the image he presents to his pupils, the manner in which he
approaches difficult situations, and his overriding set of values
have a significant impact on his ability to be an effective
practitioner. His research points to strengths in five areas being
required of all excellent teachers:
5
1
. professionalism (respect for others, confident, supportive and
challenging, creates trust);
. thinking (analytical thinking, explaining cause and effect, and
conceptual thinking, being able to identify themes over a period of
time);
. planning and setting expectations (constant desire to see pupils
develop, researching pupil strengths and weaknesses,
demonstrating initiative to remediate quickly);
. relating to others (ability to empathize, being able to influence
others, teamwork);
. leading (driving pupils towards their and teacher objectives, passion
for learning, holding pupils to account, and flexibility).
This emphasis on teacher values and aims has had an impact on
other studies, whilst failing to have a significant bearing on either
Ofsted or the National Curriculum.
Hay McBer's findings were supported in an independent profile of 15
award-winning teachers by TES (2009). Using techniques usually
deployed in business psychology, the study analysed their personalities,
motivations and behaviour to identify seven habits that make them
effective classroom practitioners. The seven habits they displayed were
that they:
. build confidence amongst their students;
. are not afraid to make difficult decisions;
. develop others (students and colleagues);
. are good communicators;
. are non-conformists;
. thrive in the company of others;
. see the bigger picture.
Each of these fit neatly into Hay McBer's typology of professional
characteristics, as they describe deep-seated patterns of beha-
viour that inform teachers' approach to the different situations
which they are likely to face in a classroom on a daily basis.
^ Teaching skills
In a meta-analysis of over 500,000 studies on `what works' in the
classroom, Professor John Hattie (2008) of Auckland University
identified the following strategies as having the biggest effect on
pupil performance:
. whole-class interactive (restricting the amount of teacher talk, with
a variety of active tasks, such as graphic organizers, role-play, pair
discussion, and regular feedback);
. feedback (delivered by the teacher during a lesson, with an
emphasis on formative methods, and constructive comments on
more formally assessed work it can also be delivered effectively
through peer evaluation);
. high expectations (setting challenging, but achievable tasks).
Teaching skills and professional characteristics are closely
linked. Hay McBer argues that whilst skills can be learned,
characteristics are more deeply embedded in an individual, and
inform the approaches adopted by a particular teacher. So, if a
teacher placed a great emphasis on individual responsibility, his
teaching style might feature an emphasis on pupil self-evalua-
tion, with pupils taking greater responsibility for their learning
^ Classroom climate
The features of an effective learning environment are a key
factor in creating a desire to learn. Hay McBer outlines nine
`dimensions' which are essential components of an effective
learning environment (see Figure 1.1).
Why is it important to plan?
Implicit in the typology of an effective teacher is the require-
ment to plan. Whether the teacher is attempting to challenge
pupil misconceptions, create exciting lessons, or establish a
purposeful learning environment, it is impossible to have a
positive impact on pupil progress without prior consideration of
both objectives and approaches. It is tempting for less
experienced colleagues to look at their battle-hardened collea-
gues' apparently casual approach to curriculum implementa-
tion and lesson preparation, and attempt to ape it. However,
this temptation needs to be strongly resisted. Whilst it is good
practice to review your teaching no matter what stage you are
in your career, experienced teachers are more likely to have a
clearer idea of the resources available and the learning needs of
their pupils, and to have developed better time management
skills allowing them to give the appearance of preparing a
lesson òff the cuff'.
Planning for effective history teaching 7
Figure 1.1 The dimensions of an effective learning environment (Hay McBer,
2000)
Haydn et al. (2001) provide a more refined explanation, and
suggest four principal reasons why it is important to plan:
^ Keeping to your primary objective
Faced with the many pressures of being a trainee or newly
qualified teacher (NQT), it might be easy for a history teacher to
lose sight of the primary objective: teaching about the past.
Starting to teach history brings with it so many demands a need
to absorb curriculum structure, learn new periods of history, and
possibly different types of post-14 and post-16 assessment, on top
of every new teacher's inevitable concern over behaviour
management that an initial goal of teaching sequences of
stimulating lessons is reduced to a sequence of unconnected
exercises in filling a period. The consequences of such an
approach are not only related to pupil underperformance; the
teacher is likely to place himself under even greater stress if he is
Clarity of
lesson aims
The classroom
is warm, clean
Ordered
and welcoming
environment
The classroom is Clear standards
an interesting of behaviour
and stimulating and work
place
Opportunities
for Fair treatment
participation of all pupils
Pupils feel Pupils feel
safe supported
constantly stumbling from one lesson to another, which could
well lead to additional problems with behaviour in the classroom
and potentially, with the head of department.
^ Covering all the ground
Placing greater emphasis on planning may help inexperienced
and experienced teachers overemphasizing historical content in
a lesson. Whilst meaningful exploration of the key processes
needs to be placed in an appropriate historical context, if they are
to have any academic value at all, there is a very real danger of
the narrative dominating a lesson, if planning is not carefully
thought through. History teachers need to take a medium- and
long-term perspective to ensure that all the concepts and
processes are covered throughout the year, and that there is an
opportunity to develop these skills and processes across the key
stage.
^ Personalized learning and differentiation
Linking back to the qualities of an effective teacher, unprepared
lessons frequently take a more directed instructional or didactic
form than ones where attention to the pupils' precise learning
needs has been paid. Good medium-term plans should have the
flexibility to be amended in the light of new information. So,
where it becomes clear that pupils are struggling with particular
concepts, the scheme of work can be refined to meet their
particular needs.
^ It's a statutory requirement
Finally, placed in the context of a teacher training or induction
programme, longer-and short-term planning is a statutory
requirement. The standards required to gain Qualified Teacher
Status include:
Q10 Have a knowledge and understanding of a range of teaching,
learning and behaviour management strategies and know how to
use and adapt them, including how to personalise learning and
provide opportunities for all learners to achieve their potential.
Q13 Know how to use local and national statistical information to
evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching, to monitor the
progress of those they teach and to raise levels of attainment.
Q15 Know and understand relevant statutory and non-statutory
curricula, frameworks, including those provided through the
National Strategies, for their subjects/curriculum areas, and other
relevant initiatives applicable to the age and ability range for
which they are trained.
Q22 Plan for progression across the age and ability range for which
they are trained, designing effective learning sequences within
lessons and across series of lessons and demonstrating secure
subject/curriculum knowledge.
Q23 Design opportunities for learners to develop their literacy,
numeracy and ICT skills.
Q24 Plan homework or other out-of-class work to sustain learners'
progress and to extend and consolidate their learning.
Q25 Teach lessons and sequences of lessons across the age and ability
range for which they are trained in which they: (a) use a range of
teaching strategies and resources, including e-learning, taking
practical account of diversity and promoting equality and
inclusion; (b) build on prior knowledge, develop concepts and
processes, enable learners to apply new knowledge,
understanding and skills and meet learning objectives; . . . (d)
manage the learning of individuals, groups and whole classes,
modifying their teaching to suit the stage of the lesson.
Q26 (b) Assess the learning needs of those they teach in order to set
challenging learning objectives.
Q29 Evaluate the impact of their teaching on the progress of all learners,
and modify their planning and classroom practice where necessary.
Once qualified, there is still a formal requirement to
demonstrate proficiency in planning. In order to obtain Newly
Qualified Teacher Status, to move beyond Threshold, and even
achieve Excellent teacher status, planning is one of the key areas
assessed (see Table 1.1, p. 11).
How can I improve my long- and
medium-term planning?
Long-term planning usually refers to the approach taken to cover
an entire key stage. Without careful thought about how the
different units fit together, there is a real danger of creating a KS3
curriculum that lacks cohesion, fails to develop the key historical
skills, and impedes the development of secure chronological
understanding.
Table 1.1 Planning skills required for Newly
Qualified Teacher Status
Core Post-threshold Excellent
C26 Plan for progression P7 Be flexible, creative E7 (a) Take a lead in
across the age and and adept at designing planning
ability range they teach, learning sequences collaboratively with
designing effective within lessons and colleagues in order
learning sequences across lessons that are to promote effective
within lessons and effective and practice.
across series of lessons consistently well- (b) Identify and
informed by secure matched to learning explore links within
subject/curriculum objectives and the and between
knowledge needs of learners, and subjects/curriculum
which integrate recent areas in their
C27 Design developments, planning.
opportunities for learners including those
to develop their literacy, relating to subject/
numeracy, ICT and curriculum knowledge.
thinking and learning
skills appropriate within
their phase and context.
C28 Plan, set and assess
homework, other out-
of-class assignments and
coursework for
examinations, where
appropriate, to sustain
learners' progress and to
extend and consolidate
their learning
Source: http://www.tda.gov.uk/teachers/professionalstandards/standards/
skills/planning/core.aspx
QCDA's Innovating with History website (http://curriculum.
qcda. gov. uk/key-stages-3-and-4/subj ects/key-stage-3/
history/index.aspx) provides a long list of features which ought
to guide long-term planning, but I have outlined what I regard as
the ten most important below:
1. Maintain historical enquiry at the heart of the units.
2. Ensure that all the major themes, events and regions are included.
3. Include a variety of resources.
4. Make provision for use of ICT to enhance opportunities for the
effective teaching of history.
5. Consider history's role in the curriculum: what cross-curricular links
are included?
6. Identify areas where history's link to citizenship can be explored.
7. Use an appropriate blend of overview and depth, ensuring
overview knowledge supports depth and vice versa.
8. Provide a means to ensure historical knowledge, skills and
understanding are built up in an organized, systematic and
rigorous way based on learning that has already taken place.
9. Include a range of approaches to teaching and learning including
experiences outside the classroom.
10. Inspire pupils and motivate them to continue studying history.
In practice, there are several issues a department needs to
consider when constructing a new scheme of work for history at
KS3. These include:
. the time available for the subject, including homework;
. how to ensure continuity from KS2;
. how to ensure coherence and progression in knowledge, skills and
understanding across the key stage;
. what time to allocate to each of the six studies (Britain 10661500,
Britain 15001750, Britain 17501900, a European study before
1914, a world study before 1900, a world study after 1900) in order
to achieve breadth and balance across KS3;
. whether to structure the long-term plan in a broadly chronological
framework or whether to use the flexibility of the revised
programme of study to devise a different framework;
. how to plan an appropriate blend of overview and depth, ensuring
that overview knowledge supports depth and vice versa;
. the implications of decisions for resources;
. use activities and resources, including ICT, that involve pupils and
enable them to take increasing responsibility
In theory, one of the biggest challenges is ensuring the right
blend of overview and depth, so that pupils gain a suitably
detailed insight into a period, whilst being able to place it into a
broader historical, or geographical context. Several factors
conspire to make this task more difficult, including the limited
curriculum time devoted to history, and the extremely broad
scope of the National Curriculum. There is a danger inherent in
the diverse units within the National Curriculum of providing a
series of fascinating isolated enquires, but failing to provide the
necessary linkage to create a coherent overview of a period.
Work done by Michael Riley, Director of the Schools History
Project has informed much of what has been written on this
topic. He attempted to reconcile the need for depth and breadth
through the development of his `big stories and big pictures'
approach (Riley, 1997). This involved teachers incorporating
overviews into their schemes of work, to accompany depth
studies. This could involve providing a broader European
context, for example when looking at changes in religion under
the Tudors, or moving beyond well-trodden political effects to
examine social or economic circumstances at the time. In this
case, a study of the feudal system could support an enquiry into
kingship during the Middle Ages.
According to Riley, the chief advantages of using overviews
are that they provide support for lower-achieving pupils,
allowing them to see how `smaller stories' can fit into bigger
ones, whilst providing opportunities for more able pupils to make
links to other aspects of the period.
Riley's ideas have been developed in a series of articles in
Teaching History, but his basic model offers a practical and
effective way to deliver historical overviews, whilst teaching a
depth study. Strategies for implementing this approach could
include the following:
. Teaching the overview first in order to set the scene or to stimulate
interest in the depth study to come. By framing the overview as a
hypothesis, the pupils could attempt to tackle the issue through
smaller in-depth enquiries, and assess the validity of the original
hypothesis in an end-of-unit assessment. One method for engaging
pupils' interest in a hypothesis is to use a range of source material
which is clearly supportive of a particular viewpoint. When I teach
the First World War to Year 9 pupils, I focus on the popular view of
the war as being all about mud, machine guns and misery. By
assembling a sequence of video clips, photographs and war poems
into a short film, using Microsoft Movie Maker, I ask the pupils to
note down what impression of the war they get from the different
images. They then email me their thoughts, and I input them all into
a Wordle document. This amazing web-based software (http://
www.wordle.net) reshapes a body of text into graphical forms,
highlighting commonly used words or phrases. The benefit of using
Wordle for the overview is that it will emphasize the key elements of
the hypothesis. In this case, words such as `slaughter', `rain', `mud',
`trenches', `death' should dominate, providing us with a clear focus
for our enquiries about the war.
. Building up multiple thematic overviews across several depth
studies. Pupils could be referred to the different themes throughout
the depth studies, and a synoptic task could take an overall view of
the different themes. For example, a series of units exploring the
origins and features of revolutions could also compare the role of
common factors, such as individuals or economic problems.
. Different groups focusing on separate depth studies, as part of an
exploration of a bigger overall enquiry. Through presentations to
the rest of the class, or structured group work, they work together
to construct the overview. This approach can also be used to
construct an initial overview, as outlined in the first bullet point.
When I introduce new topics at A level, I sometimes ask pupils to
compile a glossary of the major figures or concepts which they will
encounter during their study. After each pupil has completed their
short task, they have to peer-review each other's work. As this is
usually tackled on the school's Virtual Learning Environment, it is
relatively straightforward to edit each other's work.
. Outlining the context in which an event takes place. The `Meet the
King' lesson outlined below as an example of short-term planning
provides one example of how this approach could be used to
support Year 8 pupils in their introduction to Henry VIII and his
break with Rome.
As teachers move from long-term to medium-term planning,
they need to pay greater attention to prior learning, the role of
the enquiry within the long-term plan (and overview), the
expectations of pupil performance on that unit, and specific
resources required to create inspiring and challenging lessons,
and support out-of-class activities. It will also be necessary to
outline the focus of each lesson within the unit.
Figures 1.2 and 1.3 are templates for constructing both the
overview and depth elements of a medium-term plan, and
comments are provided for guidance.
Main enquiry It is important to frame this as an open question, allowing the opportunity for argument and study of
interpretations
Overview of the unit A brief summary of what the unit will focus on, key concepts and processes to be considered, and length
of time allocated to its study.
Rationale for the unit Identify where the enquiry fits into the Programme of Study, as well as the broader historical, conceptual
or geographical context. Any links to cross-curricular themes or citizenship should also be highlighted.
Expectations of pupil progress Typically, a plan of this kind will include a variation on the following format:
At the end of this unit, most pupils will be able to:
Some pupils will be able to:
Some pupils will have progressed further, and will be able to:
Assessment strategies How will you monitor progression through the enquiry?
Prior learning Link to previous units, learning approaches, processes, concepts or vocabulary
Important vocabulary If specialized words or phrases are likely to impede the understanding of the content feature, draw up a
list in advance
Resources List textbooks, video clips, websites. It can save time later on, if these are classified under different
headings, related to sections of the unit
Figure 1.2 Constructing the overview of a medium-term plan
8
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Key questions National Curriculum Lesson focus Learning Suggested Out-of-class
concepts/ processes outcomes resources activity
These are the mini- Refer specifically to the Outline the starter/ How pupil Refer to textbooks, You may include
enquiries used to National Curriculum, eg. main tasks/plenary understanding websites, worksheets, possible
answer the chronology/critical reflection of each lesson is likely to be timelines etc. homework
overarching unit Give careful thought to how This is the stage in assessed, e.g. It might be a good tasks, perhaps
enquiry. you can cover most of the the planning process through posters, idea to identify crossing
key concepts (chronological where you will need role-play, mini which resources different key
understanding, cultural, to take into account whiteboards, likely to be used questions. Links
ethnic and religious diversity, the different clearing written have not yet been to accompany-
change and continuity, needs of your pupils. responses created. This will ing websites, or
cause and consequence) and Have you tried to act as a prompt likely field trip
processes (historical enquiry, use a variety of and, hopefully, possibilities
using evidence, communicating teaching strategies prevent last minute could also
about the past) within the to support different scurrying around! figure here
enquiry. learning styles or
specific educational
Within the broader context of needs?
the KS3 plan, you will have to
demonstrate how you will map
pupil progression across each
of the concepts and processes.
Figure 1.3 Constructing a medium-term plan in depth
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What should my lesson plans look
like?
Successive Ofsted reports have outlined what an effective lesson
plan should look like. The 2001/02 subject report for history
praised one lesson where `carefully crafted lesson structure
which ensured that they understood what was required of them'
(Ofsted, 2002), and the 2007 report History in the Balance (Ofsted,
2007) identified, amongst other features, the main criteria for a
successful lesson plan:
. use effective teaching methods that encourage pupils to take
responsibility, capture pupils' imagination and engage them;
. make effective use of support staff who themselves fully understand
the purposes of the work;
. use activities and resources, including ICT, that involve pupils and
enable them to take increasing responsibility;
. question skilfully and effectively to assess pupils' progress and
extend their thinking and understanding;
. enable discussion and debate amongst pupils;
. assess pupils' work effectively and systematically and use the
information to plan to meet individuals' needs.
The Assessment Reform Group (1999) provides a detailed
summary of how effective planning needs to involve several
assessment strategies. These include sharing learning goals with
pupils, helping pupils to know and to recognize the standards
they are aiming for, involving pupils in self-assessment, and
providing feedback which leads to pupils recognizing their next
steps and how to take them.
In a profile of `what History teachers do in the classroom',
Husbands et al.'s (2003) observations of real classroom activity
supported Ofsted's findings on key characteristics of successful
short-term lesson planning. The dominant feature of the lessons
which they observed was the use of effective questioning by the
teacher. Effective questioning is one of the core teaching skills
outlined earlier in the chapter, and is an important tool for
moving pupils on, assessing understanding, challenging precon-
ceptions, and providing a focus for the lesson as a whole.
Effective teachers try to use a range of questioning techniques:
. challenging questions which require higher-order thinking such as
analysis, evaluation or synthesis;
. clearly expressed, open-ended questions which allow a range of
responses and provide an opportunity for the teacher to gradually
hone in on more precise issues;
. changing the wording of the question to assess different levels of
understanding;
. changing the focus of the question whole class, individual pupils,
pairs.
A further feature of the lessons which they observed was a
mix of independent activity and teacher-led instruction. Hattie is
very clear in stressing the importance of whole-class interactive
approaches, where pupils are set tasks or problems, but with
clear guidance and structure from the teacher. Examples of this
type of independent activity could include, for example:
. graphic organizers, such as comparison tables or flow diagrams;
. think, pair, share activities;
. role-play;
. card sorts;
. source evaluation;
. living graphs.
Finally, the importance of stressing and sharing the learning
goals was found to be critical. These goals either took the form of
concepts or processes to be developed, usually linked to content-
driven outcomes, or also incorporated broader educational
objectives, such as literacy, numeracy, or citizenship. It is
tempting for trainee teachers and NQTs to cram a large number
of objectives into a single lesson. After all, don't we all want to
make greatest use of the time available to us in a lesson?
However, you have to consider how much is achievable in a
single lesson, and, more importantly, how much the pupils are
likely to remember when they leave the classroom, or even a few
hours later. There is an apocryphal tale of a football manager
trying to demonstrate the futility of giving complex team talks
immediately prior to a match. To do so, he gave every player a
`key fact' to remember, and, at half time, he asked each of them
what their `key fact' was. The failure of most of the players to
remember their fact seemed to prove his point. Now the
strategies deployed in a classroom to enhance the quality of
learning will be far more productive than simply issuing a mere
detail, but the basic argument is valid: it is important to focus on
what is achievable and likely to make an impact. It is therefore
perfectly acceptable to focus on a single objective, and certainly
do not attempt to achieve more than three.
Most teachers will include the outlining of lesson objectives,
or learning outcomes, in their starter activity, usually by linking
that lesson's work back to work covered in previous lessons. This
is good practice, as pupils travelling to history from French or
maths frequently need reminding about the last thing they
covered in history, and they will need reintroducing to the key
enquiry they are working towards.
The danger in this approach, however, is that starters become
formulaic, and pupils disengage even before you have finished
sharing the objectives with them. How you start your lesson
probably requires more thought than any other aspect; if the
pupils are not inspired to work, or do not know what they are
working towards, then all your hard work preparing tasks for the
remainder of the lesson will come to nought. The `Meet the King'
lesson outlined in Figure 1.4 uses the announcement of a special
guest and a quick change into royal clothing to get the pupils'
attention, but you do not have to don different outfits to engage
their attention. Other methods could include the following:
. Recall tennis. Ask the pupils to draw a straight line down a scrap of
paper. This is the `court', with the line representing a `net'. In pairs,
pupils have to alternately provide three points each from the
previous lesson, writing on either side of the `net'. The first pair to
write down six points between them win. Pupils, especially boys,
love a competitive element in a lesson, and this task provides a
quick link to previous work.
. Video clip. This can work well if you do not provide any
introduction. The pupils could then be asked questions about the
clip, in order to try to guess its significance. If you are
technologically capable enough, you could previously edit the clip
to replace the dialogue from the clip with your own soundtrack. You
could then ask the pupils what they thought was taking place, or
what the people in the clip were saying or thinking. Most history
departments enjoy a good range of documentary-style videos/DVDs
and history-based movies. Using a clip from Oliver Stone's Platoon
could be a good introduction into the reasons for the USA's
withdrawal from Vietnam, whilst YouTube and Google Video will
provide a fertile hunting ground for teachers eager to acquire a
more esoteric collection of video clips.
. Play music/video as the pupils enter the lesson. One of my most
effective starters is used to begin a GCSE unit on Nazi Germany. As
the pupils enter the classroom, a clip from Leni Riefenstahl's
documentary about the 1936 Berlin Olympics plays on the
whiteboard (this can be downloaded at http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=MRttjfprkXU&feature=related). I use a section at the start
when the classical figures become alive, and the Olympic torch
travels across a map of Europe from Greece to Germany. It is a great
way to settle the pupils, get them curious about the topic, and to
subsequently discuss the messages being transmitted in the clip.
From this point we can ask what type of regime would want to
present itself in this way, and how could they come to power.
Straight into the Weimar Republic we go. . .
Playing music can be a good way to help pupils really get a feel
for the topic they are studying. Even my Year 13 pupils are not
immune to the effects of the Platoon soundtrack as they enter a
lesson exploring the failure of the US ground war in South East
Asia!
. Art. I often use art as a way into a new topic. Before the pupils enter
the classroom, I distribute a picture from the period which they are
about to study, and a small piece of scrap paper. Once they are
settled, I ask them to draw a small face on the paper. After they have
done this, I tell them to carefully rip out the face from the paper,
and place it on any character in the picture. From this point, I tell
them, they are that character. I then question them on what they
can see, hear, smell, feel. All of this is done to give them a
(superficial) feel for the period, and it often provides a fun way in tot
the topic. Pupils use it as an opportunity to make comparisons
between the society portrayed in the picture with modern-day
living. More able pupils could also be asked to comment on the
usefulness of the source to a historian studying that period. In this
way, they begin to evaluate its strengths and weaknesses.
. Puppets. I once read an article which suggested using puppets to
represent historical characters in a retelling of an event. This sounds
like a great idea, but I have not yet summoned up the courage to
either risk the wrath of my daughters for taking their princess puppets
into school, or the likelihood of humiliation in front of my hard-nosed
Year 8s as I outline the story of Elizabeth and Mary, Queen of Scots!
The examples above represent but a small range of possible
starters. In the context of the lesson, the starter is merely the
hook to get the class interested. The skilful teacher then has to
manage the transition between the starter and the first task, the
first task and the second task, and the second task and the
plenary. Throughout the lesson, the pupils need to know where
they are going and the purpose of the route which they are being
taken along. Regular reference to, and informal assessment of,
the lesson objectives is a useful way to achieve this.
Trying to incorporate all of these features into a single lesson
plan is a daunting task for many teachers, but especially for those
starting in the profession. Whilst the development of a medium-
term scheme of work will have mapped out a macro-approach,
the teacher has to consider how to turn the stated aims of the
longer enquiry into a single lesson. The example in Figure 1.4
suggests how this can be achieved.
Tasks
1. Try to develop engaging starters for lessons on the following topics:
. The causes of the Wall Street Crash
. The social effects of the Industrial Revolution
. The Treaty of Versailles
. The reputation of King John
. Henry VIII and the English Reformation
2. Review the section on Michael Riley's use of overviews. Consider
different ways in which you can incorporate a `big picture' into your
existing KS3 curriculum, and one of the key enquiries within it. Try to
use different ways of providing an overview. Will you use the
chronological context, or perhaps a more specific theme, such as the
role of individuals? In the light of your work, reflect on how the
schemes of work might have to be amended in order to teach the
overview more effectively.
Name: Neil Smith
Class: 8P
Number of pupils: 27
Number of pupils with SEN: 3
Length of Lesson: 40 minutes
Main enquiry: Why did Henry VIII create his own Church?
Previous learning: England in 1500
Lesson objectives:
Pupils will be able to provide an overview of what the young Henry VIII was like.
Pupils will develop ICT presentation skills to communicate about the past.
Pupils will develop chronological understanding of early Tudor England.
Content, processes
and concepts
addressed
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Pupil activity Teacher activity Resources Time:
Starter Listen Explain that a special guest `Meet the King' handout, 5 minutes
is due to visit the class today, outlining the pupil
who is going to help us activities for the first
understand what young Henry task
was like. . .hide behind desk, Use computer to play
don gown and plastic crown `Greensleeves' whilst
Seamlessly transform into the `transforming' into
young Henry VIII Henry
Task 1: In the role of newspaper Respond to questions 15 minutes
reporters at a special Prompt group, when
royal press conference, they seem to be running
they question Henry out of ideas
about his personality,
interests, family,
aspirations, attitudes
towards kingship. Note
down responses provided
by the king. The
responses will inform
their homework
Task 2: Through pair question Remove royal garb and 10 minutes
and answer, pupils share return to teacher mode
their observations on the
young king
Effective questioning to
move them on does not
provide the answers, forces
the pupils to think
Peer
assessment
AfL in action!
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Pupil activity Teacher activity Resources Time:
Plenary Pupils use mini Whole class review of the Whiteboard to reinforce 10 minutes
whiteboards to identify main points about young key points
most important Henry. (link back to lesson
characteristic of Henry's objectives). Discuss what
personality people might want to know
about Henry, and whether we
can trust what he said in the
press conference
Homework Write a newspaper article Worksheet on how to
about the new king produce a newspaper
in Microsoft Word
Provision for Provide sheet with main
SEN (indicate points about Henry VIII
type, e.g. at the end of the lesson.
dyslexia, G&T) Variety of task.
Forcing pupils to come up
with the questions, and
allowing them to decide
which features about
Henry to write about,
provides challenge for
more able pupils
Figure 1.4 Constructing a lesson plan to meet the needs of longer term enquiries
Review of whole-
class understanding
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Carrying out meaningful
assessment
This chapter aims to equip teachers with the necessary tools to
assess their pupils' understanding of history in an effective
manner. It combines a mixture of theory, recent educational
advice, and tried and tested methods to outline an extensive
array of useful strategies.
What is assessment and why is it so
important?
In simple terms, assessment is concerned with gauging how
much an individual knows or understands about a particular
topic or unit of study. However, within this very general
description, one can distinguish between two forms of assess-
ment which, whilst superficially exclusive, can be mutually
supporting.
Most traditional concepts of assessment are based on formal
tests designed to provide a final judgement on performance,
usually for an external audience such as parents, examination
boards, universities, employers, and government departments.
These are known as summative assessments. Examples of these
include end of key stage level descriptor-based assessments,
GCSEs, A levels, the IB and Pre-U. In short, written summative
assessments provide the most widely used method of determin-
ing a pupil's competence in history at key transition points.
The other form of assessment provides a more fluid link
between teaching and learning and assessment. Formative
assessment aims to inform both teacher and pupil about the
quality of learning, and the ways in which the subject is being
delivered on a more frequent basis than traditional summative
2
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means, and in a more informal manner. Whilst summative
assessment could be described as assessment of learning,
formative assessment is commonly labelled as Assessment for
Learning (AfL) as it seeks to involve the pupil to a much greater
extent in evaluating their own progress, and requires the teacher
to adopt a more flexible approach to amending their teaching in
the light of their assessment of pupils' progress within and
between lessons. The information provided to pupils in formative
assessment tends to be more varied too. With a greater focus on
helping to improve, greater emphasis is placed on comments
rather than grades or marks, acknowledging the importance of
raising self-esteem amongst pupils and presenting them with
information which they can understand and act upon.
Of course, the two forms of assessment are not quite as
exclusive as the two descriptions above might suggest. In
practice, all teachers use end-of-module tests to inform their
planning and priorities for teaching subsequent topics, whilst
effective reviews of tests in class enable pupils to identify their
own areas for development.
Why, then, has so much attention been directed towards
forms of assessment in recent years? Why is it so important?
^ Assessment raises standards
Successive Ofsted reports (for example, Ofsted 1998, Section 5.6)
testify to the main role of assessment in the curriculum: to raise
standards. By providing a means to track pupil progress and to
make diagnostic judgements on their strengths and weaknesses,
assessment is a key tool in improving the quality of learning and
teaching. A meta-study of existing assessment and learning
undertaken by Black and Wiliam (1998b) found that implement-
ing formative strategies could result in an increase of up to two
grades at GCSE for individual pupils (Assessment Reform Group,
1999).
For teachers, assessment provides an effective means to
evaluate their own teaching. Whether using formative or
summative methods, it allows them to evaluate whether the
material is sufficiently challenging for the more able pupils and
to identify which pupils need further support. It also enables
them to identify which areas or skills need further attention.
Careful analysis of data from GCSE or A-level modules will
identify areas for future attention, such as source skills or
knowledge and understanding.
^ Personalized learning
Related to the previous point, assessment is a crucial feature of
the personalized learning agenda. It is probably the most
informative and accurate tool for giving information in indivi-
dual pupil performance, and thus enables the teacher to set
targets for pupils, rather than classes. The research by Black and
Wiliam referred to above suggests that meaningful assessment
can improve grades. The introduction of the Assessing Pupil
Progress (APP) strategy attempts to put these ideas into the
practice, with its intention to help teachers fine-tune their
understanding of pupils' needs and tailor their planning and teaching
accordingly.
^ Learning to learn
A further way in which assessment contributes to the persona-
lization agenda is by helping pupils learn how to learn. Receiving
any kind of feedback on progress can assist pupils decide which
learning strategies are most effective for them, such as visual,
auditory or kinaesthetic, and force them to take greater
responsibility for monitoring their own performance.
^ A motivational tool
Assessment can also perform a critical role in motivating pupils to
both succeed and perform badly. When pupils do well in
assessments, or when feedback is positive and constructive, with
clear suggestions for improvement, the confidence of the learner
and their motivation to succeed will develop. Where feedback is
overly critical, or focuses primarily on grading, it will not be too
long before a pupil becomes demoralized and therefore at greater
risk of failure.
^ What and how to learn
Pupils can also gain a greater insight into what is important to
learn, as well as how to learn from various forms of assessment.
In the same way that teachers benefit from analysing which
aspects of a course require further attention, so too can pupils
appreciate whether areas such as content or skills need to be
focused on. This is something that pupils often find difficult, and
they can struggle to identify areas of development in terms more
specific than general references to `sources' or èssay writing'.
Carrying out meaningful assessment 27
^ The external audience
Formal examinations also provide useful data for an audience
beyond the classroom. Subject leaders can compare how their
students are performing in comparison to other subjects, and in
comparison to previous cohorts. Recent statistical innovations
such as Edexcel's `Resultsplus' have placed a huge amount of
information at the fingertips of heads of department, and
facilitate quite detailed analysis of examination results.
In an age where league tables are the primary reference point
for comparing different schools, assessments can allow parents,
local authorities and central government to make judgements
about the performances of different schools. In this way, they
perform a (sometimes contested) evaluative function, as outside
agencies use them to make their evaluation of the success or
otherwise of a particular school.
What are the features of good
assessment?
In order for assessment to be most effective, it has to be
performed effectively. Failure to do so could result in the
accumulation of useless information about the performance of
pupils and teachers, and seriously undermine the confidence of
learners. Scott-Baumann et al. (1997), Phillips (2002) and, more
recently, Ofsted (2003) have outlined the main criteria of
effective assessment. Some suggestions are provided in Figure
2.1.
^ Assessment for Learning and history
The key texts for any teacher wanting to understand the
development of the AfL agenda are those authored by Paul
Black and Dylan Wiliam: Inside the Black Box (1998a) and Working
Inside the Black Box (2002). Their study of over 250 research
papers and development of practice-based research have proven
to be hugely influential in changing the way in which teachers
view and use assessment.
AfL is chiefly concerned with bridging the gap between testing
and teaching, and aims to incorporate greater assessment of pupil
understanding within lessons, as opposed to relying on conven-
tional summative forms of assessment. A further difference is
Clear objectives Informs, but does Variety of forms Feedback is Consistency and Part of the
not dictate planning meaningful reliability teaching process
. Do the pupils . Are you able to . Do you make . Do you provide . Do you use mark . Do you regularly
know why they amend your provision for a written schemes to assess
are being teaching in the different learning comment? work? understanding
assessed? light of styles when during the course
assessment assessing pupils? . Do you identify . Are they based on of a lesson?
. Are they aware of evidence? what has been NCLevel
the assessment done well . . . Descriptors and/or . Are formal tests
criteria? departmental seen as part of a
. And how the marking policy? normal teaching
. Are the goals work can be unit?
realistic and improved? . Do you use multiple
achievable? assessments to make
your judgement?
Figure 2.1 Features of effective assessment
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that AfL should be seen as a process, rather than an event or
procedure. The ultimate goal is for pupils to become more
independent in their approach, developing strategies for asses-
sing their own practice, which, in turn, should make them more
effective learners.
The four key principles underpinning AfL are as follows:
1. Pupils will learn more if they understand the purpose of their
learning.
2. Pupil peer and self-assessment is a critical tool for improving
performance. Pupils will learn more if they are aware of their own
progress towards the stated objectives.
3. Pupils will learn more if they know how to close the gap between
their present achievements and the desired learning goals.
4. Teachers will be more effective if they adopt formative methods of
assessment (i.e. future teaching takes into account prior pupil
performance). They can thus identify common errors made by the
pupils, and any difficulties which they may be having with the work.
Assessment therefore becomes an ongoing process, and a
central part of the teaching within a lesson. Necessarily it also
becomes less formal, appearing organically in the same way that
a starter, discussion, main task and plenary would. Figure 2.2
provides an example of how a typical lesson might operate,
integrating a range of AfL strategies.
Providing opportunities for peer assessment and class discus-
sion are useful ways to gauge levels of understanding throughout
the class. However, for class discussion to work most effectively,
teachers have to give considerable thought to the type of
questions they ask. The purpose of these discussions is not simply
to monitor the grasp of key facts, but to assess a deeper
understanding of the material, and to prompt pupils to reflect
on their own thought processes themselves. Black and Wiliam
(2002) give examples of questioning techniques provided by
teachers who participated in their practice-based research
project. These included the following:
. Not allowing pupils to put their hand up after a question has been
asked. Everyone is expected to be able to contribute, so that the
discussion does not revolve around a small number of people in the
class. Online random name generators, such as that found at
www.classtools.net, add an element of fun to the selection process!
. Allowing increased thinking time after asking the question.
Stage Feature Activity Assessment purpose
in lesson
Starter 1. Recap work from previous lesson on In pairs, pupils alternatively list six Identify who does and does not
outbreak of WW1. main reasons why the war started. Class understand the work from the previous
2. Share lesson objectives with the discussion follows, where gaps in pupil lesson
class: what the pupils should hope knowledge are dealt with.
to achieve by the end of the lesson. Teacher is sharing the criteria for
These may also be written on the Use stimulus material and teacher success with every pupil
board, and the teacher may also exposition.
differentiate expectations.
Teacher reminds group of assessment
criteria, published on the classroom
wall, and stuck into the exercise book.
Activity Pupils carry out task Teacher discusses work with pupils. For the pupils who displayed green or
May choose to choose a `traffic light' amber cards, they remain engaged and
strategy. . .asks pupils to hold up a on task, whilst those who held up red
`green' card if pupils are comfortably cards will gain and insight into how
working towards the task's objectives, they can improve, and hopefully,
àmber' if they are basically fine, but become more confident in their ability
need a little clarification, or a `red' to progress
one if they need help reaching the
task's objectives. Where there are
causes for concern, teacher discusses
the issue and provides suggestions
for further progress.
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Stage Feature Activity Assessment purpose
in lesson
Plenary Assess progress towards learning Teacher reminds class of lesson Pupils encouraged to participate i
objectives objectives. n their own learning and that of their
In pairs, pupils assess each other's peers.
work. Teacher distributes a sheet with
assessment criteria, and space for Reminder of assessment criteria and
pupils to write 2 points for `what was lesson objectives.
done well' and 2 points for `how it
could be improved'. Alternatively, the
teacher could ask the pupils to identify
their own criteria for success. A
discussion of the different criteria could
then inform the bulk of the class
discussion at the end of the lesson.
Pupils given time to reflect on their
learning, with brief class discussion
Figure 2.2 Integrating AfL strategies into a lesson plan
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. Although teachers might experience a little uneasiness at first,
especially if there are no responses, every pupil is given the
opportunity to consider a response, which in turn benefits the
whole class, and should result in more developed responses being
provided. Where there is access to learning response systems (or
voting pods), the teacher can insist on a response from all pupils
(most recent versions of these pods allow text input), and to
establish a time frame which gives all pupils sufficient opportunity
to consider their response.
. Greater attention to the type of question being asked. By moving
away from closed recall questions, and towards broader, enquiry-
based questioning, the discussion relates more closely to the
objective of the lesson, and forces the pupils to think beyond a
simple, singular response. It will also encourage more participation
if there is no single answer to the question.
. Prompting pupils to explain the reasoning behind their response
helps the teacher make an assessment of the depth of
understanding, and to provide an additional challenge to able
pupils.
. All of the above are essential to the creation of a supportive
learning environment. This is necessary to give all pupils confidence
in their ability to contribute, sustain their motivation to succeed,
and maintain their enjoyment in the subject. This can further be
enhanced when pupils actually have the confidence to get things
wrong, knowing that they will not get instantly corrected or
admonished. This might require the teacher to refine their own
approach, to the point where they become more concerned with
drawing out ideas from the whole class rather than getting the
correct answer to a series of quick fire questions.
. Feedback should not be driven by the need to match pupil
responses to the Level Descriptors. Not only will this turn the
discussion into a mechanical process where the ebb and flow of
historical debate is reduced to a checklist of targets and standards,
but it will also potentially dent pupil aspiration. As the editorial in
Teaching History 131 (Counsell et al., 2008) explains very clearly,
history is not about moving sequentially and consistency up a
ladder of progression. Pupils develop some skills before others, and
progress in some areas more rapidly than others. In this way,
overemphasis on levelling throughout every lesson could actually
undermine the very benefits AfL is designed to create.
Some practical examples of how formative assessment can be
carried out using the formats of old television shows is provided
in Figure 2.3. This is taken directly from my web-based collection
of teaching ideas `What Went Well?', which can be found at
http://whatwentwell.blogspot.com/ (you need to have a Google
account or be signed up to blogger.com to view it).
70s throwback
Recreating lost classics of 70s TV is a neat way to use mini
whiteboards, and assess understanding. . .
1. Mr and Mrs. Divide the group into pairs, each partner has to write
down what the other one thinks is the answer to a particular
question. Assuming that the class does not have telepathic
powers, what you are trying to do is to elicit a range of reasons/
results for discussion . . . if the pair offer different responses, you
can discuss which is the strongest reason/result.
2. Blankety Blank. Divide the class into 2 teams . . . one member of
each team comes to the front, and is asked a question. Every
member of the team has to write down what they think is the
correct answer/explanation etc. The team member at the front has
to select someone from his team to provide an answer . . . a point is
awarded if the two answers match.
3. Family Fortunes. The teacher has a range of possible responses to a
broad question (e.g. why did the USA go to war in Korea?),
arranged in hierarchy of importance, on a PowerPoint slide. The
class is divided into teams of 4 . . . each team has to discuss which
response to write on their whiteboard . . . they have to consider
which is likely to be the highest ranked response on the slide.
Teams get a point if their answer is in the list, and a further point
for the highest ranked response amongst the teams, and 5 points
in total for getting the top answer.
Figure 2.3 Novel ways to use formative assessment
Of course, AfL principles should also underpin the approach to
marking pieces of work produced by pupils. In the first instance,
the features of assessment included in the lesson above will also
be present when doing formal marking: pupils should be familiar
with the purpose of the task; assessment criteria should be
shared; when pupils are producing an extended piece or work,
the teacher may decide to allow pupils to produce drafts, or
perform a `progress review' on their own or another pupil's
work.
When the work is graded, the teacher should aim to be
consistent with his own standard of marking for all pupils, and to
also be as consistent as possible with the standards and methods
of marking of his colleagues. In this respect, the development of a
departmental marking policy is an essential strategy. Figure 2.4
provides a generic marking policy produced by the History
Department in a high-achieving school in Manchester. A copy of
this is displayed in each history classroom, and an A5 version is
stuck into every pupil's exercise book.
As well as publishing its assessment criteria, this particular
history department distributes advice on how to improve
performance to every pupil (Figure 2.5).
At my school, the department also encourages pupils to take
responsibility for their own progress in different ways. Pupils in
KS3 and KS4 record their marks on a sheet in their books (like
that in Figure 2.6). The purpose of doing this is to inculcate in
pupils an instinctive desire to monitor their progress during the
course of a year, so that they can see for themselves when they
are not working to their full potential. This particular document
could be easily amended to include individual targets, and written
comments by the pupil on their progress at a regular interval.
MONITORING YOUR PROGRESS IN HISTORY
Years 79 (ages 1114)
How will I be assessed?
Most pieces of work completed in class or for homework will be graded on a
scale of 110, with 10 being the highest. A summative comment will also be
provided, which will suggest ways in which you can make improvements to
your work in future. Typically, your marks should be interpreted as follows:
910 (A) Outstanding in every way. Full answers are provided, providing
very good range and depth. There may be evidence of further
research. Consistent performance at this standard should result
in an A grade on your Reports.
68 (B) Answers suggest a good understanding of the material, but all
aspects of a question may not be fully appreciated. You may not
have completed each part of the task. Consistent performance at
this standard is likely to result in an B or C grade on your Reports.
15 (C) Work may be largely incomplete, contains serious errors, or
shows signs of being rushed. You should expect to repeat any
work which falls into this category. Consistent performance at
this standard should result in a U on your Report.
Figure 2.4 Sample marking policy
8
How can I improve my performance or further develop my interest in
history?
In the first instance, you should always speak to your history teacher. In most
cases, pupils lose marks because they may:
. Fail to answer all parts of a task
. Fail to focus on the question set
. Fail to include sufficient detail
. Offer a narrow range of points when explaining the reasons for or
results of an event
. Where evaluation of sources is required, answers may not consider
fully consider the reliability or usefulness of a source. Own
knowledge may not be integrated with the source, or the answer
may be imbalanced.
. Spend insufficient time preparing their work
Avoid all of these and look forward to consistent outstanding achievement
in history!
Figure 2.5 Sample advice on improving performance
How am I doing?
Plot your progress during the year by ticking the appropriate box each time
you receive a mark.
Task Nature of task 910 68 15 How could I
e.g. source exercise, improve my
extended writing work?
(include total
possible marks, and
your actual mark)
Figure 2.6 Pupil self-assessment template
8
Earlier in the chapter, I mentioned that the two main forms of
assessment, summative and formative, were not as exclusive and
their definitions might suggest. One way in which this can be
illustrated is by presenting how this same history department
encourages Year 11 pupils to review their performance in GCSE
`mock' examinations (Figure 2.7). Whilst these formal, written
Evaluating your performance in the `mocks'
Section A: How well did you do?
Paper 1 mark:
Paper 2 mark:
Overall %: Grade:
Previous examination %:
Section B: Breakdown of your marks
Question-by question analysis: briefly analyse how each of your answers for
Papers 1 and 2 could have been improved
Section C: Assessing your performance
1. Would you say that your result is
a) what you expected to achieve
b) a surprise
c) what you wanted to achieve
d) below your expectations
e) above your expectations
2. If you circled d) for question 1, which of the following statements
best explains your under-performance
a) lack of understanding overall
b) difficulty with Paper 1 content
c) difficulty with Paper technique
d) difficulty with Paper 2 content
e) difficulty with Paper 2 technique
f ) lack of revision
3. Which areas of content do you feel most uncertain about?
PAPER 1
PAPER 2
Figure 2.7 Pupil self-assessment template for post examination review
8
examinations are set primarily to assess understanding of units
completed thus far, they can also serve an invaluable formative
role if the post-examination feedback is carried out appropri-
ately.
In this case, the pupil would be required to reflect on their
performance in comparison to the previous summative assess-
ment, carried out at the end of Year 10, and to focus on the areas
for development for each question. Finally, section C invites the
pupil to summarize their performance on the paper, and to
consider which skills or topics of content require further
attention in the period leading up to the GCSE examination.
When pupils move up to the sixth form, the benefits of using
formative methods arguably increase, as pupils become more
aware of their strengths and weaknesses, and more incentivized
by the prospect of achieving a place at university. It is good
practice at the start of the course to provide both a copy of the
syllabus or departmental scheme of work, and the mark scheme.
At this level, mark schemes tend to progress through a series of
skills which a student can be expected to demonstrate in their
response. For a `traditional' essay, therefore, a levelled mark
scheme might include:
L1 Irrelevant or inaccurate material.
L2 Predominantly descriptive or assertive.
L3 Most of the response tries to answer the question. However, some
narrative elements might also be present, or the range of
argument may not be extensive.
L4 About 70% of the answer has a good analytical focus, there is
good range and development and a targeted conclusion. Some
awareness of different viewpoints.
L5 First-rate analysis, with impressive range and depth and a clear
sense of a debate.
The role of self-evaluation and peer assessment is also extremely
valuable at this level too (see Figure 2.8).
Implicit in Figures 2.32.6 is the need to assign a grade or
mark to each piece of work. Whilst the relationship between
Level Descriptors and pupil progression will explored in more
detail in the next section, it is worth taking a moment here to
discuss the concept of `comment-based marking', i.e. assessing
work without reference to numbers, letters, or levels.
Black and Wiliam (1998a) argue strongly for greater use of
comment-based marking, pointing to the negative effect which
A LEVEL SELF-EVALUATION SHEET
Name ____________________________________
Essay title _____________________________________
Mark ___________________
1. What suggestions were made to improve your essays when you
received your last piece of work? How far have you managed to
incorporate these suggestions into this essay?
2. Look at the Mark Scheme. Do you understand why your answer has
been given a particular Level and Mark?
3. Comment on how far your answer contained each of the qualities of
a successful A-level answer. These can be identified as:
. Each paragraph begins with your argument, is followed by a
brief explanation, then relevant supporting detail, and finally
relates back to the question
. You focus on the stated factor for half the answer, before offering
alternative explanations
. The conclusion targets the question, and offers links and
hierarchy
4. Summary
Briefly describe what the main strengths and weaknesses of your answer
were. What will you need to do in order to improve your mark next time?
Figure 2.8 Essay self-evaluation template
providing a mark and a comment has on pupil performance.
Where both are given, pupils tend to ignore the comment, and
thus miss out on the advice on how to improve their work.
Understandably, teachers may be reluctant to omit marks,
particularly when there is pressure from senior managers to
regularly submit data on individual pupils.
The argument for only writing a comment gets to the heart of
AfL: it is focused on using assessment to raise performance, by
empowering the pupil to take greater responsibility for their own
progress. Removing the grade forces the pupil to pay more
attention to the comment, and, hopefully, to incorporate the
8
suggestions into their next piece of work. Some teachers may still
want to grade tasks, but keep the mark for their own records, and
with the introduction of APP in 2010 (see below), teachers may
feel that they will have to level a large number of tasks in order
to make their judgement on a pupil. Even so, for the majority of
work which a pupil completes, the research suggests that a
written comment is more meaningful than providing a mark or
grade.
For the comment to have the desired effect, several features
need to be in place:
. It needs to go beyond the type of reinforcing statement which may
have accompanied marks in the past.
. It needs to identify strengths of the work, such as where the pupil
has managed to meet particular assessment criteria.
. It also needs to provide practical advice on how the task could be
improved. In order to maintain the confidence of the pupil, it is
good practice to offer three positive comments, and one tip for
improvement.
. Black and Wiliam (2002) suggest that the full benefit of comment-
based marking can only be achieved when time is provided in the
lesson to reflect on the comments on the last piece of work.
Identifying whether pupils have taken on board the comments can
be done in a variety of ways. If there is time, they could be asked to
rewrite the piece, taking into account the suggested improvements.
With an extended piece of writing, they could be asked to complete
a self-evaluation sheet similar to Figure 2.8, which requires the
student to go back to the comments before writing the next task.
AfL is at the centre of the government's plan to improve
standards in schools. The Department for Children, Schools and
Families (DCSF) laid out its assessment strategy in 2008, and
proclaimed its belief that assessment or learning is `central to
effective teaching and learning' (DCSF, 2008: 2). The document
states that the department's aims for AfL are:
every child knows how they are doing, and understands what they
need to do to improve and how to get there. . ..;
every teacher is equipped to make well-founded judgements about
pupils' attainment, understands the concepts and principles of
progression, and knows how to use their assessment judgements to
forward plan, particularly for pupils who are not fulfilling their potential;
every school has in place structured and systematic assessment systems
for making regular, useful, manageable and accurate assessments of
pupils, and for tracking their progress;
every parent and carer knows how their child is doing, what they need
to do to improve, and how they can support the child and their
teachers.
(DCSF, 2008: 4)
In order to achieve this, teachers are going to have give much
greater thought to short- and long-term planning. In the short
term, they will need to decide on a range of learning objectives
which need to be met, the activities which are best suited to
meeting them in a lesson, the range of assessment strategies
which will be deployed to evaluate progress towards these
objectives, and the recording of pupil achievement. This will, in
turn, inform the objectives for future lessons, and the planning
cycle will begin again.
In the longer term, departments will have to consider how the
key concepts and processes in the Programme of Study (PoS)
should be covered during the course of a key stage, and the
different forms the assessments will take.
^ Assessing progression
One of the biggest challenges facing history teachers is measuring
progression in pupils' historical thinking without becoming fixed
to the Level Descriptors a practice which would, as stated
above, severely damage any attempt to create a fluid, dynamic
learning environment, and most likely result in flawed assess-
ments of the pupils' strengths and weaknesses. This final part of
the chapter examines different approaches to measuring pro-
gression, and concludes with a summary of APP: the three letters
certain to strike fear into every teacher during the course of
2010/11.
Once upon a time, assessment of history focused on first-order
(or substantive) concepts, which dwelt on terms such as
parliament, king, noble, and church. Underpinning this approach
was a belief that knowing more was the same as being better. The
main problem with this approach was that it was not distinctly
historical; all subjects require the accumulation of knowledge.
By 1991, with the advent of the National Curriculum for
History, a more sophisticated approach was introduced. Instead
of concentrating on the `what' of history, the NC shifted the
focus to the `how'. Second-order concepts, such as cause,
change, and empathy, which relate to the process of actually
doing history, dominated the structure which was devised to
assess historical understanding. Assessing pupil progression
would now be based on understanding the ways that history
was done, rather than measuring how much someone knew
about the past.
Since then, nationally applied criteria have dictated how
history departments have to assess their pupils. Although there
have been important changes within the structure of the
mechanism, a system based on Level Descriptors is still deemed
the most effective way to gauge levels progression within history.
At the end of each key stage, every pupil is given a Level,
representing their progress over the course of that key stage.
Given the range of concepts which feature within the subject,
attributing a single level to a pupil is no easy task, and the great
strength of the NC Levels is that they help the teacher gain a
general sense of how a pupil is doing at that particular transition
stage. This, in turn, is helpful to pastoral staff and school leaders,
trying to put together a picture of how cohorts are doing in
different subjects, and how individual pupils are doing across the
curriculum. It also provides a neat summary for parents as to
how their child is doing, in different subjects, which may
influence their subject choices for the next stage in their
education.
Whilst the NC model of progression does have its uses, both
individual components and indeed the construct itself have come
under intense criticism, most notably from Lee and Shemilt
(2003). Whilst they accept that the Levels allow teachers to make
`best fit' judgements about a pupil's overall level of historical
understanding, they challenge the principle underpinning the
hierarchical Level structure, arguing that children do not
progress at the same rate in each of the different concepts. Their
research found that a pupil might demonstrate excellent
awareness of causation, but may struggle to evaluate evidence.
The NC does not make provision for such subtle distinctions,
instead assuming that all aspects of conceptual understanding
progress in tandem.
By way of alternative, Lee and Shemilt advocate an
alternative approach to assessing progression. Teachers need to
identify progression through each of the second-order concepts
separately. Only in this way can different rates of progression
through each concept be recognized and responded to. In order
to do this, teachers have to construct levels of progression for
Stage 1: Little understanding of causation. Pupils do not recognize
links between actions or events and consequences.
Stage 2: Some recognition of links between causes and effects. Likely to
identify single cause, and to state that one type of cause just
leads to the same type of consequence.
Stage 3: Awareness that events have a multitude of causes.
Stage 4: Able to confidently distinguish between type of cause. Able to
distinguish between intended and unintended cause.
Stage 5: Able to explain how causes interact, and to identify most
significant causes.
Stage 6: Able to construct a clear hierarchy of cause and consequence.
Figure 2.9 Model of progression for assessing understanding of causation
each concept which are not strictly hierarchical and not linked to
age. An example of such a model of progression is provided in
Figure 2.9.
Teachers therefore need to plan to develop pupil under-
standing of the different concepts across the key stages, and the
different units. Assessment of the concepts needs to be built into
existing schemes of work, so they do not appear as an artificial
`bolt-on'. This is likely to involve graduated build-up, perhaps
starting with the establishment of a secure grasp of the narrative,
before introducing smaller tasks related to the concept being
assessed, and culminating in an extended task. This task need not
be a formal written assessment, but, as Fullard and Dacey (2008)
demonstrate, a range of activities can be used to assess under-
standing.
^ APP and the future of assessment
Assessing Pupil Progress (see, for example, Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority, 2009) is an attempt to bridge the gap
between the two most common forms of assessments carried out
in schools: those carried out on a daily basis in the classroom, and
those performed on a more public stage at transition points in
pupils' educational career (e.g. KS3 levelling, GCSE, AS levels).
By introducing the notion of `periodic' assessments, teachers will
be able to compare the performance of their pupils against
nationally established criteria, and hopefully gain a clearer
insight into areas of the curriculum or particular skills where
individual pupils may have weaknesses. In short, the intention is
to create a more rigorous strand to AfL, where hard evidence is
used to support learning. As far as day-to-day assessment is
concerned:
. learning objectives should be made explicit and shared with pupils;
. peer and self-assessment should be used;
. pupils should be engaged in their learning and given immediate
feedback.
Period assessment requires:
. a broader view of progress across subject for teacher and learner;
. use of national standards in the classroom;
. improvements to medium-term curriculum planning.
Finally, transition assessment should involve:
. formal recognition of pupils' achievement;
. reports to parents/carers and then teacher(s);
. use of external tests or tasks.
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (2009) believe that
the introduction of APP will develop `teachers' confidence and
expertise in assessment by providing a common framework for
sharing and discussing the evidence they have of learners'
progress'.
Although history teachers will not have to grapple with APP
2010, their colleagues in English, Science, MFL and ICT have
already integrated it into their assessment programmes. The
experiences of these subjects offers some clues as to what
historians are likely to face when APP comes on stream for them.
At the time of writing, no draft materials for history had been
published, but experiences from the APP History pilot are
outlined in Teaching History (December 2009).
Following on from the implementation of a new National
Curriculum in 2008, many teachers will be concerned by the
àrrival' of new assessment focuses and levels. The 2009 pilot was
based upon three Assessment Focuses (with links to NC Key
Concepts):
AF1: Thinking Historically (KS3 Key Concepts: Chronology; Diversity;
Change; Causation)
AF2: Exploring Interpretations (KS3 Key Concepts: Significance;
Interpetations)
AF3: Historical Enquiry (KS3 Key Processes: Enquiry; Evidence;
Communication).
At first glance, the suggested programme for performing APP
does little to alleviate fears that teachers are likely to be placed
under a huge amount of pressure. However, experiences of
teachers across those subject areas where APP has already been
introduced suggest that, after a period of adjustment, teachers
found it reasonably straightforward to internalize levels and
Assessment Focuses, whilst the overall benefits of assessing pupil
progress in this manner seemed to outweigh many concerns
about added teacher workload.
The process of carrying out APP is divided into six steps:
1. Over a period of time, decide on the outcomes to be assessed and
generate evidence of pupils' attainment from day-to-day teaching
and learning.
2. Review an appropriate range of evidence. This should include
different types of task, and include classroom contributions.
3. Highlight assessment criteria for which there is evidence.
4. Use the pupil's developing profile of learning to decide upon a level
and sub-level.
5. Moderate assessments.
6. Make any necessary adjustments to planning, teaching and
intervention.
The guidance recommends that, in order to gain the most
accurate picture of pupil progress, teachers use a variety of tasks
spread over the course of several months: written tasks, role-
play, group discussion, video productions, etc. This should also
have a motivational impact on the pupils. If they are aware that
èverything counts', then they will see each lesson as an essential
part of the process of improving at history, and hopefully
appreciate the rewards of seeing all of their contributions
formally validated.
Tasks
1. Perhaps working with a colleague, choose one of the following
second-order concepts, and devise a model of progression for KS3
pupils. Decide the process by which you will research and construct
the model, then provide a summary of the different levels. You may
also want to read relevant articles from Teaching History, such as
Oliver Knight's in issue 131, June 2008 or the whole of issue 115,
June 2004. (http://www.history.org.uk/resources/
secondary_resources_12.html)
Empathy
Causation
Change and continuity
Evidence
2. Select one class that you teach to experiment with different types of
formative assessment. Introduce comment-based marking for a
whole topic, and evaluate the impact it has had on pupil
performance. Are they more motivated, or do they prefer receiving
grades? Is there evidence that pupils are starting to incorporate your
suggestions for improvement into their work? One way to monitor
the results of this experiment is to keep a brief diary, where you can
record the effects of the strategy.
Teaching source skills
Using historical sources
^ Why should I use historical evidence in my teaching?
Until the early 1970s, most history teaching was driven by first-
order concepts, i.e. what happened, when it happened, and who
made it happen. History was a study of events, and the
complicated, interesting stuff was left to undergraduates and
professional historians.
However, a gradual process, which saw such Piagetian notions
of academic capability rejected, has seen history teaching evolve
to a point where second-order concepts such as cause and
consequence and interpretation are placed on an equal footing
with knowledge and understanding. The 2007 National Curri-
culum identifies ìnterpretation' as one of the key concepts
which ùnderpin the study of history', whilst `historical enquiry'
and ùsing evidence' are two of the three key processes, defined
as `the essential skills and processes in history that pupils need to
learn to make progress'. `Historical enquiry' relates to using
evidence, as pupils are expected to select and deploy evidence to
test their own hypotheses.
Apart from a statutory requirement to teach evidence, why
should we devote so much of our time teaching it?
The most fundamental reason is that it can be highly
enjoyable. Rather than receiving someone else's take on the
past, whether it be the teacher, textbook author or documentary
maker, pupils can begin to practise `real' history, and can make
judgements about historical events based on the evidence at their
disposal. Evidence work is, therefore, at the centre of what
historians do to construct a picture of what happened, why and
with results. Pupils can only really understand the furore
47
3
surrounding Cromwell's actions in Drogheda and Wexford in
1649 by looking at documentary evidence from the time
chronicling not only the reactions from both sides, but also the
rules of engagement used at that time.
From a historical perspective, it is not possible to build up a
picture of the past without considering the nature, origins and
purpose of evidence. The earlier approach, taking `history as a
story', fails to equip pupils with the tools required to consider
multiple and conflicting versions of the same event, thus making
it difficult for them to understand what did indeed take place. It
also assumes that historians know everything there is to know
about events in history and that there is an agreed version of `the
truth'. Any casual study of a Year 8 textbook will demonstrate
the fallacy of that belief.
Being able to handle large amounts of èvidence' is also one of
the generic life skills which history helps to develop within the
school curriculum. No matter what the occupation, people
frequently have to process, analyse and evaluate conflicting
information, and the perception of history as being predomi-
nantly an èvidence-processing' subject partially explains why
source skills are an important feature of the National Curriculum.
^ What are the most effective ways to use evidence in
my lessons?
Perhaps a key point to make here is that historical sources can,
and should, be used within most lessons. Even where the focus is
not source skills, they can still be effectively included to
illuminate sections of the lesson or to illustrate contemporary
attitudes to an event.
However, this section focuses on three specific uses of source
material: to introduce a lesson or topic; to test hypotheses; and to
be integrated into extended pieces of writing.
Sources as ìnitial stimulus material'
Rob Phillips devotes a whole chapter of his book, Reflective
Teaching of History 1118, to what he terms ìnitial stimulus
material' (Phillips, 2002). By this he means the use of sources to
engage pupil interest, to create an enquiry or hypothesis, and to
outline aims and objectives. The chief advantage of this approach
is that it creates something `known' in the pupils' mind which
can be referred back to in future lessons.
For example, if a class of Year 10 pupils were about to start an
exploration of the causes of the October 1917 Revolution in
Russia, the enquiry could start with a short clip from Eisenstein's
1922 masterpiece, Oktober (if you cannot obtain a copy, the
desired clip can be found at http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=x0QAjpeosgU), which shows the main assault on the Winter
Palace. After showing the clip, ask the class a series of open
questions, designed to assess understanding of what they have
just seen and to link into the main themes of the enquiry. Such
questions might begin with:
. What have you just seen?
From there, the questions will push the pupils to develop their
thinking about the clip. . .
. Do you think that this was a significant event?
. Did it appear to be a well-supported event?
. Could you tell who may not have welcomed the event?
. Were there any clues as to the attitude of the film-maker to the
event?
The next stage of the lesson would be to demystify the origin of
the source and its links to the topic. As a means of establishing the
lines of enquiry, the teacher could ask the class to come up with
their own key questions. In this case, the goal of the teacher might
be to lead the pupils to a broad enquiry testing the hypothesis that
the Bolshevik Revolution was a product of a popular uprising.
A slightly different approach could see the pupils enter a room
with the source already playing, or presented on the screen. As
mentioned in the previous chapter, one of my most effective
starters to a topic occurs at the start of the Year 11 course on Nazi
Germany 19301939. The pupils enter a darkened room, with
the introduction to Leni Riefenstahl's Olympia playing on the
screen. The pupils are quickly engrossed by the morphing of
classical statues into athletes, and the journey of the Olympic
torch from Greece, across Europe, to Berlin, where the footage
switches to the opening ceremony. As with the Oktober clip, my
first question is open and general: `what have you just seen?'.
Gradually, I get to the point where I want to know what kind of
images are being presented by the film-maker, why she would
want to do this, what the images say about the regime which
hosted the Games. This leads to the first main enquiry focusing
on the Nazi rise to power.
Teaching source skills 49
One of my newer experiments with sources as stimulus
material involves a nursery rhyme, `Little Jack Horner':
Little Jack Horner sat in the corner
Eating his Christmas pie,
He put in his thumb and pulled out a plum
And said `What a good boy am I!'
Whilst it does not lead into a large topic, it provides a way into
a mini-enquiry based around the dissolution of the monasteries.
The introduction is very simple; I ask the class if they know what
the nursery rhyme is about. As hardly anyone can provide a
correct answer, I then ask them to think about the language of
the source, whether it should be taken literally, or whether there
is anything in it which might be representative of something else.
After allowing a few minutes for several valiant interpretations, I
explain the origins of the rhyme. `Jack' is supposed to be the
steward of the Bishop of Glastonbury, who was instructed to take
a bribe to Henry VIII consisting of 12 title deeds to various
manorial estates. This was to prevent the King closing down the
last remaining abbey in Somerset, Glastonbury. According to the
story, the steward stole one of the deeds, hidden in a pie, before
ratting on his bishop to the King. This is the point when I ask the
pupils to draw up their own enquiry questions, which are
reviewed and filtered in the plenary session. Subsequent lessons
focus on the origins of the dissolution, reaction from Henry's
opponents, and the fate of the monks, nuns and buildings (when
it makes perfect sense to bring back `Little Jack' to remind the
pupils about one such building). This stimulus could also be used
to launch a big enquiry into the English Reformation, as it throw
up something strange, new, yet likely to arouse the curiosity of
the pupils and stick in their minds.
Phillips provides a handy hints list to make the use of stimulus
material more effective. These include the following:
. Maintain an air of mystery about the source. By not providing much
in the way of provenance, you can enhance the curiosity of the
pupils, and further guarantee their interest in the enquiry.
. Plan your questioning in advance. Questions have to be both
realistic (in the sense that they are accessible to all the class) and
likely to lead the pupils towards the lesson's objectives.
. Do not overestimate the extent of prior knowledge or
understanding of the source.
. Use a range of sources as stimulus material. Films, photographs,
portraits, oral accounts, reading from a novel or diary, are just some
of the types of source which can deliver an effective stimulus effect.
It is tempting to overlook the use of a textbook, but most modern
books contain a wealth of fascinating source material.
Sources as evidence
As indicated earlier, using sources as pieces of historical evidence
not only humanizes the subject, but also allows pupils to model
the work of professional historians. In the process, they also get
the opportunity to develop a range of skills including commu-
nication, observation, deduction, interpretation, and question-
ing.
There are several important ways in which you are likely to
use evidence, The first is analysing its utility. Assessing the
usefulness of a source is a popular and valuable task at Key Stage
3 and GCSE, but it is important to bear in mind that a source's
utility will vary according to the purpose for which it is being
assessed. Therefore, a copy of a trench map might be more useful
than a music hall song when trying to explain why Britain found
it so hard to break the stalemate on the Western Front, yet the
music hall song would be probably be more useful when
examining what life in the trenches was like for British soldiers.
When analysing utility, it is important to consider both the
content and provenance of the source. Figure 3.1 provides a
template for introducing source utility tasks.
The danger with this approach is that it takes the attention of
the pupil away from the source and towards the table. Whilst the
exercise is a practical way to develop source skills, it is to be
hoped that pupils will be encouraged to engage more directly
with the actual sources over a longer period of time. One way to
help this come about is to photocopy the original source and
write targeted questions either on the photocopy or at the side.
With my Year 8 pupils I always use the `Ditchley portrait' of
Queen Elizabeth I (by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger; this can
be viewed in the National Portrait Gallery, or on their website,
http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait.php?Lin-
kID=mp01452&page=2&rNo=10&role=sit) as part of our inves-
tigation into how successfully she tackled the problems which
faced her during her reign. In the margins, I have written
questions asking the pupils to both describe what they can see in
the portrait, and comment on the significance of certain aspects
of the portrait (e.g. the different weather conditions portrayed).
How useful is source À' to a historian studying the lack of a
breakthrough on the Western Front 19151917?
Strengths of the source Limitations of the Conclusion
for a historian studying source to a historian
the lack of a breakthrough studying the lack of
on the Western Front a breakthrough on
the Western Front
Source A Content Provenance Content Provenance
What does Add a brief What
it tell you comment doesn't it
about the whether you mention
reasons for can `trust' the which you
the lack of source know is
a break- (NB even important?
through on unreliable
the Western sources can
Front? still be
useful. . .)
Figure 3.1 Source utility template
This leads into a discussion about the uses of this source to
historians assessing Elizabeth's reign, and how far we can trust
this as a piece of evidence.
The second way you are likely to use evidence is in evaluating
its reliability. It is probably fair to say that the study of historical
evidence has moved on from a time when detection of bias or
evaluation of a source's reliability was the main feature of source
work. This is undoubtedly a good thing, as it illustrates the
increasing skill level of pupils in handling evidence (i.e. their
awareness of `bias' is built into more sophisticated tasks such as
cross-referencing or study of source utility), and represents a step
away from a slightly reductionist approach to source work,
characterized by an obsession with the reliability of a source.
Instead, the twin concepts of bias and reliability are used to
gauge different attitudes amongst people in the past, and as a
way of discriminating between pieces of evidence in broader
enquiries. The first use, examining attitudes, is one which is most
often overlooked when students analyse reliability. Coming
across something they regard as unreliable, they can be quick to
dismiss its worth to a historian, ignoring the key point that
seemingly ùnreliable' pieces of evidence are invaluable as
evidence about attitudes at a given time.
Good practice when looking at the reliability of sources in the
classroom suggests that (a) the provenance, (b) the content of
the source, and (c) the pupils' own knowledge of the period
being studied need to be analysed in order to make a compre-
hensive judgement. To cover all these areas, you might want to
implement the following question structure:
. What is its nature? Is it a photograph, memoir, novel? What is the
balance of fact and opinion? Does it use lots of adjectives to
exaggerate its viewpoint? Will the nature of the source affect your
judgement about its trustworthiness?
. What is its origin? Who produced it? What do you know about
them? When was it produced? Is that date important? What else
was happening at that time which might have influenced the
attitude of the author?
. What was its purpose? Why was it made? Who was the intended
audience? Was it for public or private consumption? Was the
intention to inform, entertain, educate, or indoctrinate?
The third use of evidence involves cross-referencing sources. If
historians want to build up as complete a picture as possible as to
what happened in the past, they need to consider different pieces
of evidence. If they only look at a single piece of evidence, there
will be no guarantee that this source is accurate, or provides a full
account. Cross-referencing is therefore an important historical
skill, in order to evaluate the reliability of other sources, and to
piece together bits of evidence to make up a credible version of
past events.
At a basic level, pupils can be asked to identify areas of
disagreement between two similar types of sources, before
moving on to a greater number and variety of sources as they
become more adept at performing this type of exercise.
There are different ways in which they can be helped to
develop this particular skill. Figure 3.2 provides a template for
such development.
A more conventional and more detailed approach would
require the pupil to analyse what each source had to say about
specific features of a period. This method can help older students
make sense of more complex sources, as it provides a clear focus
for their research, and allows for a more straightforward
comparison of content. Figure 3.3 provides a template for this,
using the different accounts of Pope Urban's proclamation at
Clermont in 1095 as an example.
How far do sources A and B agree with source C about the role of
Hitler in attracting voters to the NSDAP 19301932?
A B Conclusion: which
source is closest to
C? Refer to the
provenance to
explain why
C Agree Disagree Agree Disagree
Figure 3.2. Source cross-referencing table
What did
Urban say
about. . .
Atonement Jerusalem Protecting Coming to the
for sins Christians assistance of
from infidels Emperor
Alexius
Fulcher of
Chartres
11001106
Robert the
Monk
c.1106
Baldric
of Dol
11081110
Guibert of
Nogent
c.1108
Figure 3.3 Comparison of content
For teachers who really want to experiment with cross-
referencing, role-play and hot-seating can be used to add a bit of
colour to the enquiry. One of the best forms of role-play I have
come across was the Ènclosure Game', a fully resourced unit
which allowed pupils to follow the effects of enclosure on a
village over a period of 50 years. Within the game, every pupil
was allocated a character, with background notes, and a certain
amount of land in the village. The focus for the early lessons was
a debate over whether the village should enclose. Over time, the
effects of enclosure on the different villagers meant that attitudes
and lives of the villagers changed. This was a useful evidence task
as it allowed the pupils to explore the different attitudes of real
characters from the past, and to compare and contrast their
differing perspectives. In this way, they were able to explain how
far enclosure was beneficial to most people in the countryside.
Although the game is now unavailable, the theory behind it is
straightforward enough to adapt to most periods of history.
Hot-seating differs from this type of role-play activity, as it can
involve the pupils either coming to a lesson fully briefed and
ready to be a figure from history, or coming to the lesson
prepared to interrogate someone (the teacher?) about the
attitudes of a figure from history. With both role-play and hot-
seating, the activities should lead into a discussion of why the
various characters held those viewpoints, and whether any
common ground existed.
One further tip is to encourage the pupils to see that sources
rarely agree with each other completely. They should demon-
strate this in their answers by using phrases such as `there is
partial agreement', `they agree with each other to an extent', or
`for the most part they agree, but there are key differences'. . .
The final use of evidence is in helping to answer a bigger enquiry
question. Evidence can be used to support an argument at KS3
right through to A level. With younger pupils, you might ask
them to assess how far a piece of evidence supports a particular
viewpoint. Adding a greater range of sources, with conflicting
perspectives, makes the task more complex to the point where a
GCSE question might ask: `Germany was defeated in World War
I because of the entry of the USA into the war. Using the sources
and your own knowledge, say how far you agree with this
statement.' This question requires the pupil to use the sources to
support and challenge a statement, and make fairly simple
judgements about the trustworthiness of a source. Pupils always
find it tricky linking the content of the source both to their own
Sources which Own knowledge Comment on Links to other
agree with the which illustrates reliability sources?
statement points raised in
the source
Conclusion
Figure 3.4 GCSE-style evaluation table
knowledge and to other sources. However, being able to perform
these skills is likely to be rewarded by very high marks.
To help pupils prepare for a task of this kind, an èvaluation
table' can help them structure their response (see Figure 3.4).
For pupils in the 1618 range, they may be asked to use a
range of primary and secondary sources to evaluate a particular
interpretation of events. The added challenge at this level is not
only to skilfully integrate the sources into an argument, but to
recognize the interpretations which each source supports.
Greater credit is awarded for the ability to cross-reference
sources as well. For example, Ùsing the sources and your own
knowledge, assess how far the development of an arms race was
responsible for the origins and continuation of the Cold War
19451960'. A question like this requires students to do an awful
lot with the source material in a short period of time, and they
should be encouraged to really engage with it. They could use
different coloured pens to link the source to others which it
either agrees with or challenges, and relevant supporting
contextual knowledge should be scribbled in the margin next to
it. Students can be afraid to `deface' an examination paper, but
they will evaluate its content more effectively if they take the
time to annotate it before writing their response.
^ What are the pitfalls of using evidence in my
teaching?
Ironically, given its importance to the subject, doing source work
can be laid open to the charge of not doing `proper' history. After
all, when the focus is on processes, rather than historical content,
pupils could be learning about anything. In order to avoid this,
and to ensure sources are used effectively, you should be aware
of the following common flaws in teaching historical sources:
1. Making a false and meaningless distinction between primary and
secondary sources. Too often in examinations, pupils assess the
reliability or utility of a source simply through reference to the time
it was produced, `he was there at the time, so it must be more
reliable' and ìt is written by a historian, so it must be accurate' being
two of the most common generalized statements produced by
some pupils. When they do this, pupils are forgetting the key
principles of good evidence work, outlined above.
2. Providing inaccessible material. If pupils cannot understand the
language, or fail to pick up on the subtleties of a cartoon, then they
will not be able to evaluate it. It is the teacher's job to make the
evidence accessible to the audience for which it is intended. Provide
a glossary, amend the language in the text, draw attention to less
obvious elements in a picture anything that will enable the pupil
to understand and analyse its true meaning.
3. Do not detach the sources from their historical context. Encouraging
students to generate stock phrases such as ìt's a photograph of the
event, so it must be reliable' or, conversely, `the photographer will
have decided what to include and what to leave out of the picture,
so we cannot trust his version of events' removes any element of
history from the task. Instead, pupils should be encouraged at all
times to relate the content of the source and provenance to what
they know has happened.
4. It can be tempting for teachers to devote too much time to looking at
a source in isolation, rather than using to pursue a particular enquiry.
Whilst it is tempting to spend hours decoding Lenin's April Theses line
by line, the benefit to the pupils might be less than you would like to
think! One of the main themes of this chapter is that evidence work
has to have a purpose, and the pupils must know why they are
looking at a particular source, and how it fits into the bigger enquiry.
Without this focus, the quality of source analysis is likely to be
superficial, and interest in the material will not be sustained. Above
all, without reference to context or an enquiry question, the pupils
will not be doing challenging history, just doing more sources.
Given that history at GCSE requires students to be proficient
in using sources, and that the questions tend to isolate singular
methods of looking at sources (i.e. utility, cross-referencing,
reliability), it is more difficult for teachers to avoid teaching
source skills separate from the rest of the course. If they do not,
then they risk underpreparing their classes for important
external examinations; if they do, they may risk demotivating
pupils through repetition of mechanical procedures. In order to
send the students into the examination with the skills to tackle
source papers, whilst keeping them interested, you need to
maintain a focus on the enquiry-based approach, albeit with
greater reference to evidence throughout the enquiry. If the
source skills appear integral to the unit, and are presented in a
variety of ways, the pupils should retain their interest in the
subject and achieve their desired grades in the examination.
^ Where can I access sources on the web?
Internet Medieval Source Book
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html
Internet Modern History Source Book
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook.html
Medieval images (provided by University of Leicester)
http://picasaweb.google.com/leicmrc/Leicmedres#
National Archives Education Service
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/
default.htm?source=ddmenu_research3
Èyes on the Prize' (accompanying site to PBS series)
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/eyesontheprize/
Cold War International History Project
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/
index.cfm?fuseaction=topics.home&topic_id=1409
The Cold War Files
http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/
index.cfm?fuseaction=home.flash
First World War http://www.firstworldwar.com
Trenches on the Web http://www.worldwar1.com
National Portrait Gallery history section
http://www.npg.org.uk/learning/digital/history.php
Online version of the Bayeux Tapestry
http://members.tripod.com/~mr_sedivy/med_bay.html
Life of an industrial worker during the Industrial Revolution
http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers2.html
BBC WW2 People's War
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/
BBC Special Operations Executive online exhibition
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/soe_gallery.shtml
Seventeen moments in Soviet history
http://soviethistory.org/
Cuban Missile Crisis Film Archive http://www.teachers.tv/video/2531
Teacher's site to accompany CNN/ BBC Cold War series
http://cgi.turnerlearning.com/cnn/coldwar/cw_start.html
Digital History (US resources) http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/
Interpretations
^ What are interpretations?
It is not difficult to confuse historical evidence and interpreta-
tions. After all, we tend to include `secondary sources' in the
general category èvidence', whilst historians obviously rely
heavily on the available evidence whilst constructing their
interpretations. However, as the National Curriculum makes
very clear, as a teacher you have to be able to distinguish
between them, and present them to pupils in different ways.
So, how do we distinguish between them? The most
important distinction lies in the way that they are created.
Whereas evidence is often created without consideration for its
future historical value, and tends not to be the product of an
extensive research process, interpretations deliberately represent
the past in a certain way, depending on a range of historical
sources, and contemporary attitudes to influence its creation.
Our use of evidence and interpretations differs too. We use
sources as part of broader enquiries, and within that process we
have to evaluate their reliability and use as evidence for tackling
that enquiry. Interpretations, however, are evaluated not so
much for what they have to say about the past, as for what they
can tell us about how and why they were created. So, whilst
sources will be used to answer a question, we will look at
interpretations to understand why different historians have
answered that question in different ways. As an illustration, an
enquiry into whether King John was a bad king would not be a
valid topic for the study of interpretations as it will involve
original sources, as well as historians' perspectives. However, if
the enquiry was focused on how historians have judged King
John, then it would be a study of interpretations.
^ What are the most effective ways to teach
interpretations?
Clearly, there is not one single way to teach interpretations.
However, the following is a basic model for delivering a unit on
interpretations, which is based on my experience and the work
of Haydn et al. (2001) and Phillips (2002).
. Start by explaining the purpose of studying interpretations. You will
be looking at history in a slightly different way: studying why
someone has presented their take on the subject in a certain way,
rather than examining what happened and why. In the process,
pupils will learn about the work of historians and that fact there is
more than one way of thinking about the subject. They should also
see that interpretations of past events or individuals frequently
change over time.
. The next stage should involve providing the pupils with background
about the topic. As with other forms of evidence, pupils will only be
able to conduct meaningful investigations into interpretations if
they can make comparisons with what they know actually
happened.
. So that they can gain an understanding of the subjective nature of
the subject, ask the pupils to write their own short interpretations of
the event under consideration. A follow-up discussion could
compare interpretations and outline the process they used to create
their version of events.
. You could then present them with a wide range of interpretations,
of different types and perspectives. This is a great way of presenting
the different methods people use to present history, and reinforcing
the earlier point about the changing nature of interpretations. A
good starting point is to provide several types of interpretation on a
topic and ask the pupils at first to identify the viewpoints which
agree with each other. This can lead into a task exploring why they
might agree/differ. (Figure 3.5 outlines possible types of
interpretation which can be used.)
What types of interpretations could I use?
$ Historical novels
$ Old textbooks
$ Films (e.g. Cromwell, Elizabeth, A Man for All Seasons, The Lion
in Winter, Restoration, JFK, The Green Berets. The Internet Movie
Database at http://www.imdb.com/ is a handy source of
information about writers, directors, etc.)
$ Historical TV documentaries
$ Paintings
$ Poetry (poets such as Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon
present a very slanted view of the First World War)
$ Music (folk songs often deal with historical events. http://
folkmusic.about.com/od/toptens/tp/Top10Protest.htm outlines
10 relatively modern classics)
$ Children's history books
$ Museums (perhaps incorporate a field visit into the study)
$ Preserved battlefields sites and castles
$ Websites (the potential perils of relying too much on
Wikipedia could be explored by evaluating their page on the
Industrial Revolution. I'm not suggesting that it is flawed in
any way, but it could prove a useful exercise in interrogating
commonly accepted interpretations of historical events: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution)
Figure 3.5 Types of interpretation
. Exploring why sources might have similar or different viewpoints
requires the pupils to ask questions about the different
interpretations. This could be presented as a list of questions,
questionnaire style, or in a grid. Suggestions for questions are
provided in Figure 3.6. You will have to provide further information
to make this work. Background notes on authors, glossaries to ease
accessibility, and possibility notes on the time when the
interpretations may all be required.
Figure 3.6 Asking questions about interpretation
. The pupils should, by now, have sufficient information at their
disposal to explain the differences between the interpretations, and
why the interpretations have developed over time. You could
develop this stage of the unit by asking them to decide which of the
interpretations is the most credible.
. If you want a task which assesses understanding of interpretations
and how they are constructed, you could choose one of the
following:
. Present one interpretation, and get the pupils to challenge its
version of events. (Extra credit should be given to those who can
go beyond the conclusions of the interpretation, and explain its
flaws through reference to the factors which might have
influenced the author.)
. Write a letter to a director criticizing his version of a particular
event.
. Produce a proposal for the Department of Culture for the
development of a new museum about the suffragette
movement. Explain what interpretation you intend to present,
What do you know
about the author?
who produced it?
what is the background
and relationship
to the issue?
Who was the Why was it produced?
intended audience? has this affected
was it for the general the nature of the
public, or a particular interpretation?
group of people?
Interrogating
interpretations
What do you know about
What is the balance the period in which the
between fact interpretation was produced?
and opinion? were the attitudes and
values of the time important
in influencing the
interpretation?
How believable is What did the author
the interpretation? use to create the
how does it compare interpretation?
to your own knowledge can you trust
of the period? his source?
and the type of resources which might feature.
. Match the author to the interpretation.
. `Spot the fact' in an interpretation.
. Role-play around different interpretations. This could work as a
fictional TV panel show. Each `guest' represents a viewpoint and
is interrogated by other members of the class (the audience)
about their perspective.
. Use a free animation package such as www.xtranormal.com to
create an animated dialogue between two fictional historians
. Use a more sophisticated presentation package such as
www.prezi.com to either present evidence to support an
interpretation, or to present a summary of the main
interpretations.
Tasks
1 After you have taught a unit on interpretations, it might be
worthwhile reviewing your approach. Your review might focus on
the following issues:
. How much background knowledge did you provide?
. When and how did you provide the background knowledge?
. Were the interpretations suitable for the task, the pupils' age,
and ability range?
. How did you manage progression through the unit? Did you
provide sufficient guidance on questioning the interpretations?
. Was your method of assessing progression suitable?
. In summary, how could you improve your approach to
interpretations in future?
2 Devise a standalone ICT-based task where pupils have to engage
directly with a source to assess its usefulness. Assuming the pupils
are pursuing an enquiry into the collapse of the Russian monarchy in
February 1917, choose a visual image from http://
uk.images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?_adv_prop=image
&fr=mcafee&va=february+revolution+1917&sz=all, and copy it into
a PowerPoint presentation. Ask the pupils to insert and fill two
textboxes to identify the strengths and two for the limitations of the
source's content. They should then add a final textbox where they
comment on the provenance of the source.
Inclusion
Inclusion refers to all pupils having the opportunity to access and
achieve in meaningful educational contexts, irrespective of
learning need. A number of factors have contributed to the
growing importance of inclusion to teachers, including immigra-
tion, incorporation of more pupils with special educational needs
(SEN) into mainstream education, and a renewed focus on a
more personalized approach to education. There is a statutory
responsibility on schools to respond to different educational
needs by setting suitable learning challenges, responding to
pupils' diverse learning needs and overcoming potential barriers
to learning and assessment for individuals and groups of pupils.
This chapter concentrates on three groups of pupils, whose
particular needs require teachers to develop suitable intervention
strategies in order to help them fulfil their potential. These
groups are: pupils with special educational needs; those who
have English as an additional language; and gifted and talented
pupils. In each case, I outline the impediments to learning, and
consider the lessons of theory and recent experience to offer
practical steps to help these pupils.
Pupils with special educational needs
The relationship between history and SEN has not always been a
happy one. When increased focus was placed on meeting the
needs of pupils with learning difficulties, history lagged behind
other subjects when it came down to resources, methods of
teaching, and even the accessibility of the National Curriculum
Attainment Targets. Even today, when there has been consider-
able progression in the teaching of history to SEN pupils, parental
confidence in schools' ability to support SEN pupils is not
encouraging (TES, 2009).
4
65
^ What are the barriers to learning history for pupils
with special educational needs?
The first barrier is the nature of educational need which a pupil
might have. Your school is likely to have a special educational
needs coordinator (SENCO), and you should always consult this
person if you have any concerns about a pupil who has an SEN
or you suspect has a so far undiagnosed SEN.
Although you will not be expected to have a detailed
knowledge of different learning disabilities, the main ones which
you will encounter in the classroom are:
. Dyslexia. Dyslexia is a disability which leads to people to develop a
very different way of thinking and learning. Although dyslexics may
display very strong signs of being creative, or orally fluent, they tend
to struggle with concentration, organization, following instructions,
sequencing, spelling and processing.
. Dyspraxia (or developmental coordination disorder). Dyspraxic
children struggle with coordination of their movement, but will
usually have further related problems, including heightened sensory
awareness, reading at speed, and expressing themselves verbally in
a clear and coherent fashion.
. Attention deficit (hyperactivity) disorder. People with ADD/ADHD
tend to be energetic and imaginative, yet they will also have a short
attention span and be very talkative, disruptive, socially clumsy,
aggressive, inconsiderate, or restless.
. Autism. People with autistic spectrum disorders show signs of
having difficulty developing relationships with others, and can
appear to be badly behaved.
. Asperger's: this is a form of autism, defined by three areas of
`difference'. These result in sufferers struggling with social
interaction, picking up on non-verbal forms of communication, and
empathy.
Until the early 1970s, the main barrier to learning was
thought to be the child itself. Whilst all children were thought to
struggle with àdult' concepts such as change, continuity and
causation, the particular difficulties faced by SEN pupils were
thought to be insurmountable. However, as educational theory
moved away from Piategetian models, greater emphasis was
placed on the environment in which children learned as
obstructing their progress. The barriers outlined are those that
exist solely within the classroom.
Accessing the material
The primary issue preventing pupils from accessing historical
materials is language. Whether they are reading passages in a
textbook, considering historical sources, or listening to teacher
exposition, the complexity of historical language impedes
progression right from the start. History is a literate subject,
and teachers will, perhaps unknowingly, present concepts and
processes to pupils without appreciating how difficult they may
appear to some pupil in their class. For example, teaching the
clash between Charles I and Parliament is likely to involve some
discussion of the `divine right of kings', and the subtle distinction
between power and authority which it encompasses. Similarly, a
study of religious life in the Middle Ages presents enormous
challenges to a pupil with an SEN, with its emphasis on quite
abstract concepts such as beliefs and traditions.
The nature and extent of writing in a textbook can also create
problems. The need to provide a degree of contextual informa-
tion about a period or event often results in the production of
text-heavy resources. When the text can also be littered with
reference to the type of concepts outlined above, the difficulties
multiply.
Haydn et al. (2001) suggest that poor teaching methods are
one of the largest obstacles to good learning amongst SEN pupils.
These include overuse of `teacher talk', especially when there is a
large amount of new material or highly complex language is
being used. Pupils with short attention spans may therefore find
it difficult access those parts of the lesson where the teacher is
explaining the most important parts of a task, thus preventing
them understanding what is required of them.
Communicating their historical understanding
Phillips (2008) outlines the difficulty which a need for secure
conceptual understanding creates for SEN pupils' ability to
communicate effectively, either on paper or verbally.
The most common way for pupils to demonstrate under-
standing will be on paper, yet written tasks, especially extended
written tasks, are often the most problematic for SEN pupils. For
some, the issue will be linking what they have read or heard to
what they have to write, resulting in chunks of a response which
appear to be copied directly from the textbook. Others may find it
difficult to analyse or explain events, offering instead a narrative
account. Even those who are able to adopt an analytical
framework can struggle to develop arguments because they
Inclusion 67
cannot identify the appropriate supporting evidence. As a result,
their responses tend to be assertive and lacking sufficient depth.
^ How can these barriers be overcome?
In spite of these barriers to learning, the Qualifications and
Curriculum Development Agency website strongly asserts the
benefits for SEN pupils which can be accrued from studying
history. History presents opportunities to:
develop knowledge and understanding of the sequences, routines and
chronological patterns that make up their world
. develop an understanding of their personal history alongside
understanding about events in the world and what shapes them
. develop knowledge and understanding of how people lived in
other times and how those times were different from today
. experience a range of representations of the past
. use a range of evidence to find out about the past.
(http://www.qcda.gov.uk/1891.aspx)
Before setting foot in the classroom, a teacher will have both
legal and school-based obligations regarding their treatment of
SEN pupils. The Disability Discrimination Act and the SEN code
of practice already include a duty on schools to cater for children
with additional needs, whilst the policy of individual schools will
also affect what procedures the teacher will have to follow.
For example, a teaching assistant (TA) may already have been
assigned to a pupil with SEN. If so, the teacher needs to ensure
that he understands the role of the TA in the classroom, and that
the TA is aware in advance what will be expected of her in each
lesson. The school may also have devised an individual education
plan for the SEN pupil, which the teacher should be aware of and
able to incorporate into his planning.
Whilst learning disabilities are complex, and do not manifest
themselves in exactly the same way in every sufferer, teachers in
all subjects can make the learning experience of SEN pupils less
daunting by performing certain simple and general tasks:
. Allow the use of a laptop, if desired. Discuss how work will be
presented to you: email; homework area on the network; or printed
off?
. Ensure all instructions are delivered clearly, and presented on the
board.
. When on task, check the progress of certain pupils regularly.
. Any homework tasks need to be presented on the board at the start
of the lesson, allowing plenty of time for pupils to write them down.
If necessary, a printed version could be given to pupils with poor
organization or literacy skills.
. Make good use of handouts. Possibly even hand out additional
notes as background.
. Vary the nature of activity. As a rule, short tasks are better for many
SEN pupils, but any pupil will easily become bored if expected to so
the same thing every lesson.
. Maintain the same opportunities and high expectations for every
pupil in the class.
Within the context of a history lesson, possible solutions for
making the subject more accessible for SEN pupils might include
the following.
Accessing the material
The role of the teacher is central to the success of any of these
strategies. In the first instance, Phillips (2008) emphasizes the
importance of effective planning. Does the teacher know who
the SEN pupils are in the class? Does he know the nature of the
condition and the recommended strategies for overcoming it? If a
TA is involved, does she have the scheme of work, lesson plan
and textbooks? Has the TA been consulted about the type of
activities and resources to use in the lesson?
Cunnah (2000) provides several strategies for tackling the
language issue in history lessons. In the first instance, she
suggests that teacher talk is kept to a minimum, and is clear and
precise. Where pupils have short attention spans, or struggle to
decode verbal and non-verbal forms of communication, this is
absolutely critical. As Husbands (1996) writes, `the way teachers
talk . . . is of crucial importance to the way pupils learn'. History
teachers frequently use abstract terms and concepts, and this can
cause tremendous difficulty for some young people. One strategy
to alleviate the problem is to provide relevant, interesting
examples to illustrate the point being made. In this way, the
pupil should have something tangible to relate to the concept
being discussed. For example, an explanation of patriotism
during the First World War might include reference to battalions
of footballers or postal workers formed to encourage recruitment.
Having explained the term, and provided an example, teacher
should then revisit this material later in the lesson, in order to
assess and reinforce understanding.
Inclusion 69
Encouraging greater use of `pupil talk' through group work,
pair work, role-play or class discussions is an effective way to
reduce the amount of teacher talk in the lesson, and to
encourage pupils to become more familiar with the language of
the subject. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a group exercise
which allows pupils to discuss their ideas and to enhance their
grasp of historical language. The exercise is entitled Èlizabethan
Elizabethan Speed Dating
Stage 1: Research
. Divide into groups of six.
. Each person will randomly select a character to be during the
lesson.
. Read the information about your chosen character.
. The Èlizabeths' need to form a group and discuss what questions
they are going to ask each of the suitors. Focus on the main
qualities which would have to be present in a future husband of
the Queen.
. The contenders need to discuss the qualities which they need to
demonstrate to the Queen.
. Arrange your desks so that each of Elizabeth's suitors is sitting
facing her.
Stage 2: The speed date
. Èlizabeth' has to meet each of her suitors, and ask the same
questions to each one.
. She only has 2 minutes to spend with each suitor, before moving
on to the next candidate. You will be told when to move onto the
next person.
. Èlizabeth' will have to listen carefully to the responses if she is to
reach a verdict on whom, if anyone, she should marry. After each
response, she should record her observations on the grid provided.
Stage 3: Group discussion
As a group, discuss the relative strengths and weaknesses of each
suitor. Each person in the group should complete their copy of the
`Suitors Grid'. After everyone has completed their grid, come to a
group decision on who the best candidate for marrying Elizabeth was.
Your list of six options should include the five candidates and `None of
the above: Elizabeth would be better off not marrying'
Figure 4.1 Encouraging `pupil talk'
Speed Dating', and the lesson objective is to decide who was the
most suitable choice of husband for Elizabeth I. As part of the
lesson pupils would have to consider a range of criteria such as
religion, popular attitudes and foreign policy, thus reinforcing
earlier work done on Elizabethan England. Pupils are given a
background note, and a brief biography of each contender for
Elizabeth's hand in marriage. With a strong emphasis on peer
learning and assessment, the exercise supports pupils who may
have difficulty reading large chunks of text, or listening to a
teacher. In the process, it allows the pupils to articulate and
debate their own ideas, whilst giving every pupil the opportunity
to succeed.
Reading textbooks and worksheets can also inhibit accessing
the subject. Teachers can support learning by providing
previously highlighted copies, using a larger font size for their
worksheets, and by distributing additional materials as needed,
such as glossaries, links to websites, or podcasts. Where possible,
provide a greater range of images. These could be augmented by
textboxes, or call-outs, so that the text/image is not presented in
such a way to deter further enquiry or make the material
completely inaccessible.
Perhaps the most important thing a teacher can do is to create
and sustain a positive learning environment. Constant encour-
agement, use of wall displays, support for pupils, and use of a
variety of exciting approaches are all necessary to help learners
access history. Children need to feel that their work is valued,
and that you have very high expectations of them. Most of the
research on pupil performance suggests that the biggest
contributor to pupil performance is teacher feedback, and
experience suggests that this is even more significant when
teaching pupils for whom history lessons can be a very
challenging environment.
Communicating their historical understanding
The difficulty for SEN pupils is that barriers are erected at two
stages in their learning. At the accessing stage they are expected
to process content and develop an understanding of the subject.
Then they have to communicate this understanding in ways
which require a sophisticated grasp of language, structure and
historical understanding. The challenge for the teacher is to
ensure that pupils do not become frustrated because they cannot
demonstrate their understanding of the subject, developed
during the accessing stage.
Inclusion 71
The key to solving this problem is to implement a differ-
entiated strategy. The two main ways of differentiating are by
outcome or by task. In the first case, pupils will perform a
common open-ended task, and the teacher will differentiate by
grading responses at different levels. Differentiating by task
involves pupils looking at common topics, but communicating
their understanding in a different fashion. Questions may be
shorter, require less content, and are therefore more accessible to
pupils with learning difficulties. With a structured exercise,
questions might get increasingly difficult, thus allowing all pupils
the opportunity to demonstrate what they are capable of.
Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses. Whilst
differentiation by outcome theoretically allows all pupils to
reach the top levels, in reality it can simply reinforce expecta-
tions of poor performance, whilst differentiation by task limits
opportunities for pupils to demonstrate their full abilities, and
frequently results in tasks which have no historical merit at all.
Cunnah (2000) argues strongly for teaching with a wholly
inclusive approach at its core, achieved using à full range of
teaching approaches that allow the opportunity to meet the
range of pupil needs'. Differentiation has a place, she argues, but
it has to be supported by a belief that àll children can learn' and
a positive learning environment.
In practical terms, this means differentiating in the support
provided rather than by the type of task or expectation of pupil
performance. At the communication stage, this support can come
by allowing pupils to access word-processing facilities, or creating
tasks where the response is provided in pictorial form. For some
tasks, pupils may be allowed a free choice as to how they present
their finished work. In an article for Teaching History, entitled
`Does differentiation have to mean different?', Richard Harris
(2005) explains why it is necessary, and how it is possible, to
motivate pupils and cultivate their curiosity rather than using
more primitive methods of teaching lower ability and SEN pupils.
In a landmark pamphlet for the Historical Association,
Christine Counsell (1997) stresses the importance of extended
writing as a means of performing `joined up' historical thinking.
By completing such a task, pupils will be forced to àcquire
knowledge and to question that knowledge', and, as a
consequence, develop their ability to èmpathise and explain'.
They will also be able to work towards one of the three historical
processes identified in the National Curriculum: to `present and
organise accounts and explanations about the past that are
coherent, structured and substantiated, using chronological
conventions and historical vocabulary'.
Of course, producing extended writing is difficult for many
pupils, particularly those for whom reading, writing, processing
and organizing are major issues. Counsell outlines a series of
useful ideas for tackling extended writing in an inclusive
manner. Central to her work is the need to provide additional
guidance and structure for lower ability and SEN pupils. This can
come in the form of:
. An organization chart (useful for acquiring information about a
topic). This helps the pupil begin to think about selection and
relevance of material. Figure 4.2 shows an example.
Did Charles I deserve to be executed?
Yes No
Actions before the Civil War
Responsibility for starting the Civil War
Role during the Civil War
Behaviour after the war
Additional points
Figure 4.2 Organization chart for considering the issues around the
execution of Charles I
. Prompting questions (useful when preparing the answer). Questions
such as `Can you think of an example?' and `When did this event
take place?' can help pupils distinguish between the general and
specific, and stress the importance of developing an argument by
explaining and illustrating it.
. Writing frame (for the final piece of extended writing). This helps to
present the importance of organizing ideas into an analytical
structure. You may wish to provide starter sentences for paragraphs,
or simply provide suggestions what should be explored in each
paragraph. This can even be used for GCSE or A-level students, in
order to emphasizing the need to maintain a focus on the question
set, to offer a good range of points, and, most importantly, to
analyse rather than describe. A partial example where this has been
used for an AS essay is provided in Figure 4.3.
Inclusion 73
How far had conditions for blacks improved in
America by 1955?
The most important way that condition for blacks had improved was
through the overturning of the `separate but equal' principle in the
1954 Brown case. This case was important because ______________
__________________________________________________________
A further way that conditions for blacks had improved was through
the federal recognition of the need to end segregation. This was
demonstrated ______________________________________________
In conclusion, conditions for blacks had partially improved, particu-
larly where _______________ was concerned. However, serious
problems still remained, with _______________ being the most
significant. This was so critical because _________________________
__________________________________________________________
Figure 4.3 Writing frame
From a planning and assessment perspective, these tasks allow
the teacher to make relatively straightforward judgements on
pupil progression. As a pupil is able to write more confidently, so
the teacher can reduce the support provided, and create new
challenges for them.
Gifted and talented pupils
^ How do we define a `gifted and talented' pupil?
In her article written for a Teaching History special edition on
Teaching the Most Able, Deborah Eyre, Director of the National
Academy for Gifted and Talented Youth (NAGTY), provided her
own definition of gifted and talented. It is a `term used to
describe children or adults who we think have the capacity to
achieve high levels of expertise or performance' (Eyre, 2006).
^ How do we identify gifted and talented historians?
There are contested notions concerning how to identify gifted
historians. On one level, teachers can use data from assessments,
especially where there is some comparability with a national
standard, such as GCSE examinations. However, this may
exclude certain pupils, who whilst gifted in the subject, are not
able to demonstrate their talents in examination conditions. It
could also be argued that it would unfairly skew the identifica-
tion procedure towards pupils who attend well-resourced schools
with a strong emphasis on examination performance.
Another, more objective method would be to identify a set of
criteria against which young historians could be measured. Here
again, there is a problem. Attempts to devise a common set of
criteria have provoked considerable disagreement. Haydn et al.
(2001) refer to four attempts to categorize able pupils, whilst
even government-created bodies struggle to agree, with QCDA,
on the one hand, and NAGTY, on the other, disagreeing quite
considerably on what makes for an able historian. In 2005,
NAGTY convened a history think tank to explore how best to
cater for the needs of gifted and talented historians. The report
identified the following characteristics of gifted historians
(NAGTY, 2005):
. the ability to develop their own àrchive' of knowledge and
concepts and the ability to use this to frame and develop questions
. an awareness of the nature of historical interpretation and the
ability to historicize representations and constructions of the past,
in the light of a range of considerations (such as purpose,
provenance, audience, context)
. an understanding of `presentism' the inevitable human tendency
to see the past in terms of the present and of the problems and
opportunities that this creates
. the ability to cope with the unfamiliar (contexts, periods, cultures)
and the ability to use historical imagination to engage with, and
attempt to understand, it
. the ability to read actively and critically to read for purpose and to
consider the purposes of the authors and documents that they read
. a willingness to hypothesize, to test and develop ideas and to take
risks
. the ability to master, to develop and to experiment with analytical
and historical vocabularies and the enjoyment of communicating
historical ideas and theories.
However, the QCDA criteria relate much more closely to the
attainment targets. So, where the three key processes in the NC
are `historical enquiry', ùsing evidence', and `communicating
about the past', the QCDA criteria are grouped under `literacy',
`historical knowledge', `historical understanding', and ènquiry'.
Whilst in NC terms there is a certain logic to these criteria, for
Inclusion 75
teachers trying to move a student far beyond the requirements of
the NC, they could appear too restrictive. One could also argue
that the QCDA criteria do not seem consistent in their ability to
stretch very able historians. The ability to ùse subject-specific
vocabulary confidently', would not be the preserve of a gifted
historian, nor would `be[ing] intrigued by the similarities and
differences between different people's experiences, times and
places and other features of the past'. The advantage of the
NAGTY criteria, as Phillips (2008) points out, is that they are
rooted in definite historical processes, and are therefore specific
to the needs of the historian. They also acknowledge that
particular historical skills cannot necessarily be broken down
into 25 small pieces, as QCDA attempts to do.
^ How do we meet the needs of gifted and talented
historians?
In spite of their disputed criteria, QCDA offers useful general
guidance on how teachers can create a learning environment
which meets the needs of gifted students. It does not require a
huge leap of imagination to see how these could be adapted to
serve the purpose of a gifted historian. In their words, the key
roles of teachers in this learning environment are to:
. value learners' own interests and learning styles;
. encourage independence and autonomy, and support learners in
using their initiative;
. encourage learners to be open to ideas and initiatives presented by
others;
. encourage connections across subjects or aspects of the learning
programme;
. link learning to wider applications;
. encourage the use of a variety of resources, ideas, methods and
tasks;
. involve learners in working in a range of settings and contexts as
individuals, in pairs, in groups, as a class, cross-year, cross-institution
and inter-institution;
. encourage learners to reflect on the process of their own learning
and to understand the factors that help them to make progress.
(http://www.qcda.gov.uk/2010.aspx)
In order to cover a range of history-specific strategies, I have
subdivided the ways to meet the needs of gifted historians into
two categories: those which are classroom-based; and those
which take place outside the classroom.
In the classroom
For many teachers, under pressure to meet the needs of SEN
pupils, conventional learners, those with English as an additional
language, as well as those identified as gifted and talented, the
easiest way to differentiate is to either tack a couple more
questions onto an exercise or to provide some additional reading.
There is such tremendous pressure on teachers where inclusion
is concerned that it is understandable if the temptation to think
`more equals challenging' prevails. The obvious danger with this
strategy, however, is that, as primarily a focus on content, it fails
to provide a test of those higher-order skills that the gifted and
talented should possess. It also fails to meet the exclusive needs
of the gifted student, and can provide just another question to be
answered for the speedy student.
NAGTY's approach is to start with the teacher. In order
effectively to meet the needs of gifted historians, NAGTY believes
teachers must first of all display three qualities:
1. Teachers must be confident in their subject knowledge. This requires
a knowledge of how history works, its processes and concepts, as
well as the subject matter.
2. Teachers must be risk-takers and innovative.
3. Teachers must be passionate historians, inspirational in the
classroom, and able to challenge their students' thinking.
With this in mind, and the suggestions of NAGTY and QCDA,
the following list of activities should offer the gifted historian a
more challenging classroom experience:
. Test pupils' understanding of the topic by varying how you want it
presented. Create tasks which require visual representations of the
past, for example a cartoon strip explaining the causes and
consequences of Thomas More's quarrel with Henry VIII. In
subsequent tasks invite pupils to decide for themselves how they
want to present the work. Ask them to explain why they chose that
particular medium.
. Using a word-processing package, ask pupils to reorder a passage of
narrative so it offers instead a causal analysis of an event.
. Provide opportunities for pupils to devise and pursue their own
enquiry questions. For example, introduce the First World War by
Inclusion 77
presenting a picture of soldiers stuck in mud in Passchendaele. Ask
pupils first to place themselves in the picture and suggest the
impact which the environment would have had on the different
senses of a soldier in that picture. Then ask the class what questions
they would want answered to find out more about that scene. After
the class have provided their list of questions, in groups, they could
distinguish between `big' and `small' questions, and in the process,
develop their own enquiry to focus on for the First World War.
. Introduce the notion of counterfactual history to pupils. Whilst post-
16 pupils may feel comfortable reading the more academic texts on
counterfactual history, younger historians will still be challenged by
dealing with the `what ifs' of the period they are studying. Some
questions almost write themselves: what if Harold had not been
killed at Hastings in 1066? What if Henry VIII had not fallen in love
with Ann Boleyn? What if Charles I had won the Civil War? What if
Hitler had been killed during the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923?
. The idea of testing understanding through the creation of
hypotheticals could be tackled in another way. Ask pupils to create
`conversations in history' between two figures from different
periods. One example of this I have used with a set of very able Year
11 pupils was based around a fictional television show called Àfter
Dark', which hosted an interview between Stalin and Gorbachev,
with the purpose of examining in more detail the similarities and
differences in their approach to the Cold War, and the different
factors that influenced their respective foreign policies. Pupils work
in pairs, with each pupil adopting the identity of one of the Soviet
leaders. Their initial task was to write a list of questions which they
leader would want to ask their counterpart. The eventual discussion
not only consolidated their understanding of the origins and
conclusion of the Cold War, but also forced the pupils to make links
and comparison between the different periods in which Stalin and
Gorbachev ruled.
Pupils could also be asked to prepare a treatment for a
proposed movie set during the period they are studying. An
example of one which I have used with Year 9 pupils looking at
the growth of the railways is provided in Figure 4.4. Pupils were
given an abridged extract from a newspaper article (Garfield,
2002) which described the opening of the LiverpoolManchester
railway, and a sheet outlining the task.
SMITH PRODUCTIONS
We take great pleasure in presenting to you our proposal for a new
feature film about the opening of the LiverpoolManchester Railway.
This event took place on 15 September 1830, and featured many of
the important people of the age, all gathered together to witness an
occasion marvellous even by the standards of that revolutionary age.
The accompanying treatment includes
. A title for the proposed film
. A brief outline of the story (approx. 60 words)
. Description of the principal characters (William Huskisson, Duke of
Wellington, fictional bystander? etc.)
. The legacy of this momentous, yet tragic occasion
Figure 4.4 Example movie proposal
Historical simulations can be an effective way to probe pupils'
understanding of context and motivation. An obvious topic for
such a lesson would be one where a historical figure or group
was presented with different options, which would allow the
pupils to investigate the possible consequences of each option.
President Kennedy's dilemma of how to react to the location of
Soviet missiles on Cuba in October 1962 lends itself to this type
of task, and is supported by the number of textbooks which
outline his options but, critically for the task, do not provide
possible consequences. Of course, to make the task more
challenging, the pupils could devise the alternative courses of
action for themselves.
When using historical sources, do not include the provenance.
Invite the pupils to consider when it was produced, and by what
type of figure. This forces the pupils to think deeply about the
type of language, message, and purpose of the source.
Each of these suggestions places emphasis on open-ended
tasks, where pupils have to think beyond and behind the history
presented to them. They have to consider why historians have
formed their particular judgements, and be able to evaluate them
critically. Like the strategies outlined for teaching SEN pupils,
these suggestion rely primarily on creating a dynamic learning
environment which allows the needs of a particular group of
pupils to be met, whilst providing opportunities for the whole.
Inclusion 79
Beyond the classroom
These activities, in some ways, only create the conditions in
which pupils can begin to develop a curiosity for what goes on
`behind the scenes' in history. Understandably, given the need to
cater for a wide range of needs, teachers can only offer so much
in the context of a normal lesson. However, opportunities to go
further with gifted historians present themselves in out-of-class
activities. These can be via history societies, debates, extended
essays, Oxbridge preparation, old-style Advanced Extension
Award questions (which, with their broad focus, can easily be
adapted for KS3 and KS4 pupils).
A vital element to meeting the needs of the very able historian
is developing their ability to see the links between the history
they have studied and the environment around them. This
provides two further challenges: to consider what historical sites
can tell us about attitudes and beliefs in the past; and to
investigate how history is presented to the general public in the
modern age.
Teachers therefore need to devise plans to take their history
out of the classroom. Chapter 7 provides a detailed look at how
teachers can develop the historical interest of pupils outside the
classroom, and includes both a wide range of methods and a list
of interesting sites for pupils to visit.
Pupils with English as an additional
or second language (EAL)
Meeting the needs of pupils whose first language is not English
may well be an intimidating prospect for teachers, particularly
for those who are just embarking on their career in the
classroom. However, with a report in the Times Educational
Supplement (Roberts, 2005) suggesting that more than 10% of the
educational population classified as having EAL needs, it is
something that most teachers will have to deal with at some
point in their career.
In a subject like history, where comprehension of (sometimes)
large amounts of written text and class discussions is necessary
before getting down to the serious business of actually `doing'
history, these problems are exacerbated. One of the most
challenging lessons in my career began with a Korean pupil
arriving unexpectedly in a Year 10 class at the start of the
autumn term. She spoke very little English, and had decided to
study only scientific subjects for GCSE. She chose history,
however, as she believed it would help her improve her
understanding of English language. During the course of the
next two years, she worked ferociously to master the subject, and
achieved a B grade. However, for many EAL pupils, coming to
terms with history is not so straightforward, and it is essential
that teachers are aware of the different barriers to learning which
may exist, and the strategies which can be deployed to overcome
them.
^ What are the principal barriers to learning for EAL
pupils?
. There may be little prior experience of formal schooling. This means
that basic literacy skills, even in their first language, may be lacking.
. Minimal social opportunities within the school where they are in a
small minority. Where a pupil is the only person from a particular
ethnic or linguistic background, their sense of isolation within the
classroom will be increased.
. Little understanding of English language. Where pupils have
differing levels of English, teachers also need to diversify their
approach to account for any differences which may exist.
. Cultural isolation. The structure of the curriculum may not provide
access to content which is either familiar or accessible.
. Diagnosing actual levels of understanding is very difficult when
language issues prevent meaningful access to the subject. This
subsequently limits the teacher in planning for suitable progression,
and may fail to challenge pupils if their individual needs are not
being catered for.
. Opportunities to work in pairs or groups, or participate in whole-
class discussions, will be severely limited.
. Lack of formal support within the school. Where there is no
provision for additional help either inside or outside the classroom
from a dedicated assistant, the ability to understand and participate
will doubtless be restricted.
. Broader `settling-in' issues. The ease with which a young person can
adapt to a new education system will depend to a large extent on
her life beyond their classroom. In addition to the obvious
difficulties associated with moving to a new area or country, some
children have further problems to contend with, particularly those
seeking asylum or for whom there is no support network in place in
the local area.
Inclusion 81
^ What strategies can be deployed to make history
accessible to EAL pupils?
The report on Education for All (Department of Education and
Science, 1985) challenged the prevailing notion that EAL pupils
were best served by being withdrawn from mainstream lessons.
Instead, it argued that inclusion in lessons, accompanied by
appropriate planning and collaboration between teachers and
language specialists, would lead to greater progress. The
inclusiveness argument has held sway since then, although in
recent years many schools have established exclusive induction
programmes, which take place outside of lessons, to speed up the
process of learning English. However, whichever approach is
adopted, the DCSF (2007) stipulate that the priority at all times
must be `to ensure that all young people can achieve their
potential, whatever their ethnic or cultural background and
whichever school they attend'.
Several sources provide generic advice on how to teach EAL
pupils. The QCDA (http://www.qcda.gov.uk/resources/
5040.aspx), the National Association for Language Development
in the Curriculum (NALDIC; see http://www.naldic.org.uk/), the
Times Educational Supplement (O'Grady, 2000), and most local
authorities (see http://www.naldic.org.uk/ITTSEAL2/support/
LEAwebsites.cfm) outline a range of strategies (see also http://
www.ealteacher.com/). A summary of the main points is
provided below:
. Allow the use of first languages when the cognitive challenge is
likely to be high, or pupils are still developing proficiency in
English
. Try to learn a few key words in the first language, such as a greeting,
colours, places and the numbers 110. This should make the pupil
feel more at home in your classroom, and allow you to make a
connection to them. Perhaps encourage the class to learn these
words too.
. Allow a period of settling-in time, so that the pupil can observe
school life in a new country. Perhaps appoint a `buddy', preferably
someone who speaks the same language, to help them during
lessons and around the school.
. Use visual images such as photos, diagrams and charts to
accompany the work. Link this to key words used in the lesson.
. Seek advice from the SENCO or specialist EAL assistant when
planning activities.
. Do not be afraid to correct informal language structures in order to
emphasize the structure of language and key phrases.
. Where possible, provide dual-language texts.
. The school should encourage, where possible, active involvement
by parents and the local community.
Alongside these measures, history teachers can implement
further strategies to develop levels of understanding amongst
EAL pupils. The Department for Education and Skills (DfES,
2002) document, Access and Engagement in History: Teaching Pupils
for whom English is an Additional Language, should be the first
point of reference for all teachers encountering EAL pupils for
the first time. Whilst sections of the content repeat the generic
advice outlined above, the document does provide some useful
strategies specific to history:
. When teaching bias, prepare a list of phrases or words which might
be used to support a particular viewpoint. Ask the pupils to include
as many of the correct phrases as possible. Figure 4.5 provides a
brief example of how this might work in practice.
Was Henry VIII a great king?
Write a report giving your view on Henry VIII. The following phrases are
provided to help provide bias to your report
Yes No
Defeated rebels Executed lots of people
Created Church of England Selfish and greedy
Took bold decisions Didn't care who he hurt to achieve
his goals
Tried hard to make England Largely irrelevant to great
a great power monarchs of Europe
Bankrupted the country
Figure 4.5 A list of prompts to examine different points of view
. Make use of ICT where possible. This allows pupils to work at their
own speed, and to gain assistance with translation.
. Drama can be an effective medium for developing understanding of
written material.
. Use a listening frame and provide a `buddy' when watching video
clips. Provide the pupil with a list of features to look out for, and
Inclusion 83
specific questions to answer. Allowing them to work in pairs with a
`buddy' should make it easier to follow the clip and to pick out the
desired information.
. Deploy directed activities related to text (DART) activities to help
develop reading skills, as well as assessing understanding. Examples
of such tasks could include sequencing, prioritizing, linking cause
and effect, and identifying similarities and differences.
. Provide vocabulary lists for either a series or individual lessons. Ask
the pupil(s) to look up the translation in a bilingual dictionary. For
example, a lesson examining the origins of the Second World War
might include a vocabulary sheet containing the following words:
power; dictator; nationalism; fascism; appeasement; remilitarization;
communism; democracy; peace; army; arms.
. The teacher could assess the understanding of these terms by
providing a list of meanings, and asking the pupil to provide the
correct definition or historical term.
. History departments might want to consider how effectively the
choice of topics meets the needs of pupils. Is there a case for
introducing new topics in order to ease the transition for pupils
from diverse ethnic backgrounds?
Tasks
1. Consider opportunities for using role-play with your groups. This is
often seen as a time-consuming and historically questionable
activity, but it frequently makes the subject appear more accessible
for pupils with special educational needs. Try to avoid topics which
are naturally exciting, and thus provide an obvious choice for an
activity of this kind. Remember, it is those topics that are hardest to
make interesting that often provide the greatest challenge to pupils.
Think about how you will present the task, and the range of
resources which you will present to the pupils. How will they be
organized? What guidance will you give them on writing and
performing the role-play? How will you assess the task?
2. As a way of challenging gifted and talented pupils, develop an
exercise which includes elements of counterfactual history. This
could be presented in the form of an adventure game, where the
pupil is presented with a series of questions based around historical
events, and has alternative courses of action for each one. In this
way, the pupil is able to consider the main causes of key historical
events, whilst evaluating the larger notion of inevitability in history.
A typical question, therefore, may look something like this.
Issue: Why did the invasion of Normandy in June 1944 succeed?
(i) You are Rommel, Head of Army Group B. You have at your
disposal, a whole army in the Pas de Calais. Do you (a) reinforce
your forces on the Normandy beaches with these troops, or (b)
keep in them in the Pas de Calais in readiness for the
anticipated invasion `proper'?
If you decided (a) go to question (ii), if you decided (b) go to
question (iii).
(ii) Your movement of troops has been hampered by Allied air
attacks. Only half of the men make it to Normandy without
suffering injury or death, whilst the Allies have gained a
foothold around all five landing zones. Do you (a) commit
these remaining troops into battle immediately, in an attempt
to drive the Allies back into the sea, or (b) move them to
defensive positions further east protecting the routes to Paris?
(iii) You appear to have been deceived by the Allies. The troops in
the Pas de Calais are sitting twiddling their thumbs whilst the
main invasion gathers momentum in Normandy. Upon
realizing your mistake, should you keep them where they are or
move them to protect Paris?
Inclusion 85
Using ICT to enhance the
quality of teaching and
learning
These days, no self-respecting teacher can claim to be at the
cutting edge of teaching and learning without easy access to a
computer. Equally, no school wishing to promote itself to
prospective parents can do so without highlighting the pre-
ponderance of interactive whiteboards, data projectors, wireless
laptops and learner response systems scattered throughout the
school and used on a daily basis by every child who is fortunate
enough to be part of the wonderful cyber-community.
In short, computer technology has progressed from being the
once-a-year treat to occupying a central part in the delivery of the
school curriculum. This chapter outlines the broader educational
benefits of using ICT in the classroom, and provides a variety of
practical ways in which it can be used most effectively to enhance
the quality of teaching and learning in history.
Why use ICT to enhance teaching
and learning?
The strongest argument for using ICT to support existing good
practice is that, according to the research, it makes a positive
difference to pupil performance. Becta, the government agency
responsible for ensuring the most effective use of ICT in
education, makes grand claims for the positive effects which
technology can have on whole-school performance and the
quality of individual learning in particular (Becta, 2008).
The main benefits of using ICT in the classroom can be
summarized as follows:
87
5
. It provides variety, and therefore allows pupils with different
learning styles to feel that their needs are being recognized and
catered for. Although the scientific case for the existence of learning
styles is unproven, most surveys of pupils suggest that variety of
approaches within and across lessons is extremely effective
(Younger and Warrington, 2005).
. The interactive nature of ICT-based tasks, twinned with a very visual
approach to learning, can help pupils remain motivated and
engaged with a task.
. It provides more opportunities for independent learning. Whether
conducting web-based research, or downloading an article hosted
on a virtual learning environment, computers enable students to
carry out extended learning away from the classroom. For those
students aiming to go into further or higher education, working in
this way helps them develop important research skills required in
the next stages of their education.
. It provides opportunities for pair work and peer assessment. Asking
pupils to work as `pilots' and navigators', where one pupil provides
the information, and the other inputs it, with only the power to veto
an idea, is a great way to ensure pupils understand a task. Providing
online forums for pupils to discuss features of a topic creates
opportunities for higher-order thinking and peer assessment.
. Investing in ICT is a very clear symbol of a school's commitment to
improving levels of pupil performance, and can have a positive
impact on pupils' attitudes toward the school.
. Using word-processing packages helps overcome literacy problems,
especially when there is a large amount of text already provided.
Research for the DfES has also highlighted the advantages of using
ICT with pupils with special educational needs (Harrison et al., 2002).
. Technology presents teachers with the ready means to develop
cross-curricular links, and to reinforce skills developed in other
subject areas. An obvious way for humanities subjects to
incorporate numeracy into their teaching is through the use of
databases.
. Critically, pupils increasingly prefer to work in this way. Many exploit
the potential of ICT in their leisure time, through communications or
gaming, and absorb much of their information during a typical day
from mobile phones, PDAs or computers. This would therefore
suggest that they might find it easier to absorb material in a
classroom from similar devices rather than the usual media.
. Using ICT to support learning has been proven to improve pupil
performance across the curriculum (Harrison et al., 2002).
. Although not every teacher would welcome it, and there is an
obvious need for prudent behaviour, technology extends support
for pupils beyond the classroom, and even beyond the school day.
In some schools, it is common practice for pupils to email staff
about homework tasks, or for teachers to operate an Àsk the
Expert' online forum, where pupils can post questions about
aspects of their course, and receive detailed feedback from the
èxpert'.
There are, of course, drawbacks to using ICT. Perhaps the most
significant is cost. With laptops costing upwards of 200,
projectors around 500, and a class set of learner response pods
nearly 2000, any school wanting to exploit the potential of this
medium needs to have significant funds at its disposal. The
rapidly evolving nature of this technology compounds this
problem. There will always be a danger that whatever a school
decides to invest in will be out of date by the time most of the
staff know how to use it. Some schools attempt to `futureproof'
their ICT investments by constructing five-year plans. Keeping
abreast of new technologies through links to local universities is
another way to maintain awareness of likely developments.
Researchers at Manchester Metropolitan University have estab-
lished a digital network called CREATE, to enable teachers,
lecturers and academics to follow new areas of mutually
beneficial areas of research.
This brings us to the issue of staff training. Although most
teachers might claim to be proficient in knowing how to use a
computer, how many are able to make the most of its potential to
develop the quality of learning? A DfES report on the impact of
ICT found that where levels of è-confidence' were high, there
was a positive impact on pupil learning (Prior and Hall, 2004),
suggesting that well-trained, proficient staff were an essential
factor in making ICT effective as a learning tool. If you want to
use ICT effectively in the classroom, you need to get trained up!
A major criticism of technology in classrooms is that it can too
easily lead the lesson, rather than support it. Indeed, there is a
real danger that a `computer lesson' is regarded by the pupils as a
treat, or a play activity, so that the objective of the lesson
becomes ùsing the computers'. Again, research suggests that
technology enhances learning only when normal good practice is
also present (Hattie, 2008). For example, interactive tasks such as
producing a video have a significantly greater effect on
performance than more passive activities such as web-based
research or computer simulations. Overuse of computers at the
Using ICT 89
expense of more traditional methods of teaching can also be
detrimental. ICT is but one tool in a teacher's armoury, and
ideally should be deployed when it can do things which would
otherwise be difficult or impossible to do.
Enhancing the study of history
through the use of ICT
If the argument for using technology across the curriculum
appears a strong one, can an equally persuasive case be made for
history teaching in particular? Ofsted certainly thinks so. Its
History in the Balance report (Ofsted, 2007) is clear in its view that
use of ICT enhances the quality of learning throughout the key
stages.
The new National Curriculum for History actually stipulates
that all pupils should use ICT from Key Stage 2 `to research
information about the past, process historical data, and select,
categorise, organise and present their findings'. The programme
of study says that this is ìntegral to their learning and [will]
enhance their engagement with the concepts, processes and
content of the subject'. This marks a significant break with the
1990 NC, where the use of ICT was included as only one
approach to delivering the subject.
The requirement to use ICT can be explained by four factors:
1. ICT is one of the functional skills included in the NC to prepare
pupils for life beyond school. Pupils are therefore expected to `to
find, select and bring together relevant information, develop,
interpret and exchange information for a purpose, and apply ICT
safely to enhance their learning and the quality of their work'.
2. A recognition that more schools are using technology to deliver
history and other subjects (Ofsted, 2000, 2004)
3. Concern about the use of computers by history teachers. Ofsted
(2004) indicated that approximately one-third of departments were
using them in an unsatisfactory fashion. This view was supported by
a DfES report on the impact of new technology on levels of
attainment.
4. Although history features prominently amongst subjects using ICT,
the difference in grade improvement between schools with high
and low levels of use was negligible. (Ofsted, 2004). By requiring
teachers to use ICT in specified ways, the NC aims to improve both
the quality of learning and the ways in which the subject is
delivered.
5. A belief that using technology creatively leads to more stimulating
lessons and improved levels of learning.
This final reason leads us into an exploration of the various ways
in which using ICT can enhance the delivery of the key historical
processes.
One of the most enjoyable and effective ways in which ICT
can enable pupils to investigate and reflect critically on historical
questions or issues, is through the use of discussion forums.
These enable pupils to discuss features of a topic, using either
existing knowledge or as a result of targeted research. Forums
offer something different in that they create a framework for
debate which can be carried out outside the classroom, and can
broaden the range of participants beyond the normal class.
In an early experiment with online forums, the History
Department at The Manchester Grammar School invited lec-
turers from Cambridge University to contribute. Nowadays it can
be quite difficult to stop members of the department throwing
their two-pennyworth into what are supposed to be pupil
discussions! Evidence from my own teaching suggests that pupils
tend to write greater quantities, and display stronger signs of
higher-order thinking, than they would otherwise do in a similar
task carried out on paper. The value of using a forum (see Figure
5.1) over a traditional class debate is that it affords the luxuries of
consideration and reflection. Unlike a class debate, pupils have
time to construct their submission, and are able to evaluate the
quality of previous entries before writing their own. In the
process, each contributor will hopefully have any misconcep-
tions about the event corrected, and will be able to add
something to the whole class's level of understanding. Martin
(2008) suggests that there is a spillover from work done in this
fashion into more formal assessment tasks, with a particular
benefit to be found in developing both knowledge and under-
standing, and powers of argument.
A great way to consider notions of relative significance is by
constructing a simple graph in a word-processing package, and
providing pupils with a list of factors arranged in separate text
boxes on the next page. The pupils are thus able to visualize the
relative importance of different factors, and, if necessary, make
changes to their original work with little fuss. This type of
exercise lends itself to ICT as it prevents the need for
Using ICT 91
Tudor Fame Academy: who was the best
Tudor monarch 14851603?
In order to reach your decision, consider the state of the kingdom
they inherited, the problems they faced, and how they left the
kingdom when they died.
Aim to write about 150 words. Who's the best? You decide!!
Figure 5.1 Sample forum exercise
How far was the war in Korea a success for the USA?
10
Defend Japan
Defend South Korea
Contain commumism
Enhance reputation of UN
Benefit US economy
Enhance US credibility
Rollback commumism in Asia
Secure Truman's position at home
0
Key: 10 the war was extremely successful for the USA
0 the war was a complete disaster for the USA
Figure 5.2 Using a word-processor to develop ideas about relative
significance
photocopying, cutting, and providing scissors, glue and every-
thing else required to make it work as a paper exercise. Figure 5.2
demonstrates how this was done as a revision exercise for Year
13 students, preparing to sit an A2 module on US foreign policy
in Asia.
ICT can help pupils access historical sources via the web, and
evaluate them. For example, the Learning Curve provides access
to an extensive range of sources covering the major areas of the
National Curriculum. Each of the sources is accompanied by
questions tailored to the NC Attainment Targets. Examples of
these tasks can be found at http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/
snapshots/snapshot39/snapshot39.htm.
An interactive whiteboard can be an invaluable tool when
considering visual sources, such as posters or portraits. As they
allow pupils to relate directly with the source material,
interactive whiteboards provide opportunities for engagement
which traditional media do not provide. A teacher might host a
painting such as the `Ditchley portrait' of Queen Elizabeth I by
Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, which we mentioned in
Chapter 3, and ask pupils to indicate which aspects of the
painting are designed to show off her successes as Queen of
England. This task could be performed by the pupils using a
photocopied version and pen, but it would lack the impact of a
large colour version, and the potential for peer assessment.
In a wide-ranging Teaching History article on the challenges of
using technology for historians, Ben Walsh (2009) provides a
further use of ICT to develop source skills. Focusing on the twin
needs to develop source evaluation skills and to treat internet
search facilities with caution, he outlines a task where students
have to contrast different interpretations of an event found on
the internet. The ability to evaluate and cross-reference source
material is an essential component of GCSE and A-level history,
yet, Walsh argues, many students are satisfied with accepting the
perspective of the most popular sites as being authentic. Walsh
provides the example of Owen Lattimore, a victim of the
McCarthy `red scare' in 1950s America, to illustrate how the
internet can be at best superficial, and at worst downright
misleading in its treatment of historical events. A further
example, from the same period, is the portrayal of Alger Hiss.
Cleared of spying for the USSR in 1949, but convicted of perjury
a year later, after evidence came to light which suggested he had,
in fact, acted as a Soviet agent since the 1930s, the question of
Hiss's guilt remains a divisive issue. Anyone coming to the topic
fresh, hoping for a nice, accurate summary of the case, might do
well to avoid the internet altogether. However, as the focus of an
exercise evaluating reliability or utility it is extremely productive.
Increasingly, pupils choose to present more in-depth explana-
tions about the past on word-processors. It is rare occurrence
indeed when one of my Year 12 and 13 students submits a
handwritten essay. The advantages for the student of construct-
ing an answer in this way are numerous. Firstly, it offers the
potential for easy editing, possibly after a draft has been emailed
to the teacher. Second, using the spell check facility can prevent
some careless errors undermining the overall impression of the
essay. Third, where a student is using a writing frame, use of
Using ICT 93
textboxes can provide a guide for how much needs to be written.
Finally, it often makes the work look more professional,
betraying a sense of pride in a job well done.
ICT allows pupils to communicate their knowledge and
understanding of history effectively. Relating back to Ofsted's
desire for history in schools to reflect how it is presented and
accessed by the wider public, many departments host their own
departmental website, or contribute to whole-school sites. The
purpose of this is to publicize the work of the department and to
support the learning of the pupils. In some cases, pupils will
themselves establish their own websites or blogs devoted to their
study of history.
ICT can also help develop the skills required to communicate
effectively. A commonly used method is through pupil-delivered
PowerPoint presentations, but increasingly webcasts and pod-
casts are being used to provide a more exciting form of
presentation. Once again, technology's ability to offer opportu-
nities to review material, and to provide a visual prompt or
stimulus, ensures that it can offer a unique approach to historical
study.
Using software packages to enhance
teaching of history
As indicated above, ICT offers a multitude of ways to enhance
the quality of teaching and learning in history. The purpose of
this section is to illustrate how the most accessible and manage-
able software programmes can be used in the classroom.
^ Word-processors
In a survey of ICT use by history teachers, Haydn (2002) found
that, after TV, video and the internet, word-processing was the
most popular form of ICT activity. Several factors contribute to its
popularity. Perhaps most importantly for teachers, it is both
accessible and easy to use. It is also very flexible and can be used
for presentational purposes as well as for a task. Material created
in a document is relatively straightforward to amend and can be
adapted to make it easier or more challenging.
It is also a highly effective tool. In the same survey, the
teachers who were interviewed stated that the word-processor
was the most helpful form of ICT for teaching history. This
reinforces an oft-quoted verdict of Ben Walsh (1998: 6) on the
power of the word processor:
It can search, annotate, organise, classify, draft, reorganise, redraft and
save that fundamental of the historian, the printed word. When we
consider these processes, and the implicit difficulties they represent for
so many of our pupils, the true power and value of the word processor
becomes clear. It is not a typewriter, it is an awesome tool for handling
information.
In the following we outline a number of practical uses of
word-processors to enhance the quality of lessons.
Source evaluation
Presented with a single source, pupils can use the highlight or
comment tools to identify aspects of the source which suggest
that it is not an entirely trustworthy piece of evidence. Text
boxes could also be used to perform the same function, especially
where a visual source is used.
They can also use the same tool to identify areas of similarity
and difference between sources. Cross-referencing is an im-
portant historical skill, and is assessed at GCSE and A level. Some
pupils rely on rewriting the sources, rather than making firm
comparisons. Using the ICT in this way could help.
Causation
After pupils have completed some research on a topic, or even as
a means of assessing understanding after completing the topic,
they could complete an exercise such as the one in Figure 5.3.
The first part of the exercise, testing pupils' knowledge of the
course content, offers a list of explanations for the outbreak of
the English Civil War, mixed up with a smaller number of red
herrings. After reviewing their previous work, the pupils need to
decide which explanations are correct, and delete those that are
incorrect. This works most effectively when pupils act in pairs,
with one taking the role of `pilot', and the other as `navigator'.
The navigator is the only one able to make suggestions, and the
all the pilot can do is work the machine and veto what he believe
is a wrong answer. This encourages co-operative working and
peer assessment.
The decision-making process then became more challenging,
as the pupils are presented with the task of identifying
similarities between the factors, and deciding which type of
Using ICT 95
THE CAUSES OF THE ENGLISH CIVIL WAR
1. Remove any statement which you believe is not a major cause of
the Civil War
& People were unhappy with religious changes introduced under
Charles
& Parliament annoyed Charles at the start of his reign by refusing to
grant him customs duties
& Parliament wanted to replace Charles as king with a foreign prince
& Charles didn't want Parliament to control the Army
& Charles wanted to abolish Parliament
& Charles married a Catholic who wanted to convert the whole of
England
& Charles refused to make ship money illegal
& Parliament feared that Charles was planning to bring Catholics
from Ireland to crush Protestants in England
& The future of the bishops lead to divisions amongst Members of
Parliament
& Charles' belief in divine right clashed with Parliament's belief in its
own importance
& The power of Parliament had steadily grown since the English
Reformation
& Parliament objected to many of Charles' advisers
& The Nineteen Propositions forced the King and his supporters to
take action against Parliament
& Ship money and coat and conduct money led to a taxpayer's strike
2. Drag and drop each remaining cause into the correct box. If
necessary, you can amend the size of each box as appropriate.
3. Write a paragraph, in the space below, explaining which factor you
believe was the most important in causing the English Civil War. To
help you make your decision, you may wish to consider which factor
is linked to several others. Use Times New Roman, font size 12.
Figure 5.3 Identifying causation
ECONOMIC FACTORS POLITICAL FACTORS SOCIAL FACTORS
(concerned with (concerned with how (concerned with living
financial matters) decisions are made and standards and lifestyles)
where power lies)
cause each factor represents. They then have to drag each factor
into one of three textboxes labelled `Political factors', Èconomic
factors' and `Social factors'.
After this second stage of the activity has been completed, the
pupils have to type a short conclusion which identifies the most
important type of cause for the English Civil War.
Organize ideas and evidence
Word-processors allow pupils to identify essential information in
large pieces of text, which they can then group or categorize, or
drag into a table (see Figure 5.4). The facility to drag text around
within a table allows a teacher to create exercises which test
understanding, whilst helping the pupil to develop their
extended writing skills (see Figure 5.5).
What was King James really like?
Source A Sir Anthony Weldon (1650)
He was so crafty and cunning in petty things . . . as a very wise man was wont
to say he believed him the wisest fool in Christendom, meaning him wise in
small in things but a fool in weightier affairs.
Source B Sanders (1650)
King James, whose wisdom in his sovereignty had esteem beyond any
contemporary.
Source C Report on England by the Venetian Ambassador (1607)
He is sufficiently tall, of a noble presence, his physical constitution robust, and
he is at pains to preserve it by taking much exercise at the chase, which he
passionately loves, and uses not only as recreation, but as a medicine. He is
Sovereign in name and appearance rather than in substance and effect.
How far do the sources suggest that James I was a good king?
Hint: copy phrases from each source into the table under the correct
heading. After you have done this, try and group together phrases which
make similar points about James I.
Positive view of James I Negative view of James I
Figure 5.4 Using a word-processor to compare evidence
Using ICT 97
FEATURE OF HOW IT WAS REMOVED EVIDENCE
COLD WAR FROM THE COLD WAR?
TENSION
Ideology Barriers between East and
West Berlin were removed/
East and West agreed on
a post-war settlement for
Germany
The Arms Race The USSR reduced its
commitments outside the
Soviet Bloc
Soviet control of The USA and USSR
Eastern Europe agreed to reduce their
nuclear arsenals
Extension of the The USSR embraced
Cold War to the Western political and
Third World economic values/The
home of communism
disappeared
Control of Communist governments
Germany in Eastern Europe were
overthrown, and the
USSR did not interfere
HOW DID THE COLD WAR COME TO AN END?
By rearranging the information in the second column, and selecting the
appropriate evidence from the timeline in your books, complete the table so
it correctly explains how the Cold War came to an end.
Figure 5.5 Using a word-processor to organize ideas and evidence
Revelatory writing
Prior and John (2000) argued that the potential to develop
historical skills using word-processors was not fully recognized
by teachers. Even if they used some of the techniques outlined
above, they felt that pupils could, through guesswork or the
process of elimination, perform the tasks without the need for
any great historical ability. Building on their work at Bristol
University, they developed a process of `revelatory writing'
which is used to augment rather than copying text.
The essence of the exercise involves three stages:
1. Researching key features of a period or individual's life.
2. Discussing a bland account of the same period/ individual, and
suggesting how to improve it.
3. Adding material to the bland account, making use of factual details,
assertions, anecdotes, interpretations. Pupils could also be
encouraged to transform the original text into something which
articulates a particular viewpoint.
According to Prior and John, this approach forces pupils to use
historical skills such as source evaluation, knowledge and
understanding, organization and selection in order to complete
the task. It also has the additional advantages of being suitable
for all ability levels, and can be easily amended to work with
audio or video material.
^ PowerPoint
PowerPoint, like word-processors, is a very flexible piece of
software. Not only is it a tremendous device for pupil presenta-
tion, it also provides opportunities for innovative teaching to
take place. Most teachers will use presentation software to either
display images or provide a structure to a formal lecture-style
lesson. However, even these otherwise traditional approaches
can be enlivened with only a small amount of creativity. Visual
images could be presented with attention drawn to particular
features, whilst lecture slides could feature embedded video clips,
downloaded from sites such as www.britishpathe.com.
When building a PowerPoint presentation, it is important to
remember that, where content is concerned, less is more. The
slides should only highlight key points, and should never simply
reproduce what you are saying. Ensure that there is a clear
structure to your presentation; use headings and key questions to
guide your audience. Remember that variety is as important in a
presentation as it is in a lesson. Try and include hyperlinks,
audio/video clips or discussion questions.
This type of software is also a tremendously exciting tool to
use with pupils. Some suggestions for using PowerPoint as a
more pupil-centred activity include the following:
. Present them with a source surrounded by text boxes. The pupils
have to place the source in context by explaining features of the
source linked to by each text box. This activity can also be used to
identify evidence of subjectivity in a source.
. Pupils can create their own work. This develops research skills, as
Using ICT 99
well their ability to select, organize and communicate. When
presented to their peers, it can also lead to a useful peer exercise.
Teachers can ask pupils to create the presentation in different
formats, such as a mind map or including audiovisual or web links.
Alternatives to conventional presentation packages are in-
creasingly available online. Web-hosted packages, such as
www.prezi.com allow users to store and present information in
innovative ways, and bring more variety to slide shows.
^ Databases
Whilst databases may not appear to be the most attractive or
sophisticated of tools, as far as developing historical skills is
concerned, they are arguably the most useful. They allow pupils
to identify trends over time, to investigate hypotheses, and to
build up a detailed picture of events, without the need to consult
a large amount of text. At a more advanced level, they invite
pupils to establish their own hypotheses, and to question the
utility of the data itself. They even empower pupils to construct
their own evidence by building up a database of their own from
scratch.
Databases lend themselves to almost any kind of historical
enquiry, and can be quite straightforward to construct. One
example is provided by Nicola Goodwin, a PGCE student at
MMU, who developed a database of First World War casualties
who had attended The Manchester Grammar School whilst on
placement there (Figure 5.6). Nicola then produced a worksheet
to accompany the database, a section of which is included in
Figure 5.7.
Other public sources of data can be found in public libraries,
and of course, on web-based portals such as ancestry.co.uk,
which provides access to censuses, parish records, court records,
details of immigration and emigration, and a huge range of other
collections.
Original source material from the Prestwich Asylum archives
held by Greater Manchester County Record Office has also been
converted into a spreadsheet, to enable pupils to trace the history
and development of mental healthcare and examine changing
attitudes and values towards the mentally ill. This can be found
at http://www.gmcro.co.uk/education/education4.htm, with
teacher materials available to accompany the data set.
Surname First Name(s) Position Unit How he Day of Month Year of Where Age at When at
died death of death death he died death school
Ackroyd Charles Winstanley Private 44th Australian Killed in October 1917 Menin Road, 23 190811
Contingent action nr Ypres
Alcock George Private 20th (S.) Taken 31st July 1916 Ve lu 190407
Bn. R.F. prisoner
Allen Frank Ernest Private 1/6th Bn. Killed in 27th May 1915 Dardanelles 20 190810
Manchester action
Regiment
Allured Will Second 6th Border Killed in 14th September 1916 France 22 190508
Lieutenant Regiment action
Almond William Corporal R.G.A. Killed in
Edmondson action Born in 1889 190406
Armstrong William Kingo Captain 1/4th Bn. Killed in 11th April 1918 26 190507
South Lancs. action
Regiment
Figure 5.6 Extract from Old Mancunians First World War database
U
s
i
n
g
I
C
T
1
0
1
This database contains information about 186 former MGS boys who died in
the First World War. You will be using the `sort' and `filter' tools to find as
much information as you can.
1. You are first going to use the `Filter' tool to identify a particular
individual.
This soldier died in 1917
He was 23 when he died
He was `killed in action'
He was a private
Write his name here:
Write three other facts you can learn about him from the database:
His name can be found in two places in the school, can you think
where?
2. The Average Soldier
Using the database, we are going to create an àverage soldier'.
(a) Use the `Sort' tool to put surnames into alphabetical order to
work out which was the most common. Choose one of the
most common names.
(b) Do the same for first names.
The name of your average soldier is:
Are the names very different to the names you have in your
class today?
(c) How old was the average soldier when they died? (Boys could
also be asked to produce a graph)
Use the `Sort' tool to find the most common age and enter
your answer here:
(d) In what year did the average soldier die?
(e) Where did the average soldier die?
Use the `Filter' tool to find out what major battles took place
where soldiers died in 1916. Choose one of these battles and
do some research to discover some extra information about it.
Write this below.
Battle Information:
3. Filling in the gaps
Charles Fry was a teacher at the school. There is a memorial for him
near the Main Stairwell. Find his record.
There are some gaps in his record. See if you can find out how old
he was when he died, where he is buried, and what R.F.A. stands for.
Use this website: http://www.cwgc.org/debt_of_honour.
asp?menuid=14
If you have time, see if you can fill in the gaps for any other records
using the same website.
Figure 5.7 Sample activities for using a database
^ Digital video
A combination of cheaper hardware and the proliferation of
web-based video clips has prompted a revolution in home video
recording and, in particular, home-based video editing. Inevi-
tably, these techniques have found their way into the classroom,
and provided another way in which new technologies can be
used to enhance learning.
Digital video can function as both an authoring and an
evaluative tool. Used as an authoring tool, pupils can produce a
commentary to be read over the top of existing footage. In this
way it acts as an alternative to producing a traditional piece of
extended writing. Pushing this task a stage further, pupils could
be given a collection of clips and be required to produce their
own documentary, deciding which clips to use, which to omit,
and what order to arrange them. Once the visual aspect of the
task has been completed, the new commentary can then be
narrated over the top.
Requiring pupils to work with digital video tests their ability to
select, organize, and prioritize. It also involves a large amount of
peer review, and therefore is a useful AfL task. It can also be used
to develop source evaluation and interpretation skills. Building
on the idea behind `revelatory writing', you could ask pupils to
create their own interpretations, for example a British propa-
ganda film from the Second World War. One of the great features
of editing your own film is that you can change the structure of
existing films, and splice footage from documentaries to create
something entirely new.
One idea for using digital video to study local history is to
interview members of the local community, perhaps former pupils
of the school. If you're lucky enough to have contacts with pupils
from the 1930s and 1940s, pupils could produce their own film
about the impact of the war on the school. Smith (2008) provides
an example of how this was done for an extended research task.
Using ICT 103
There are a large number of sites which allow free clips to be
downloaded. Some of the best include:
http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/focuson/film/
Focus On Film is a jointly funded project by The National Archives and
the South East Grid for Learning. This site presents film as a historical
source and considers its advantages and disadvantages as evidence for
the past.
http://www.timelines.tv/#
Free online resource based on documentaries written, produced and
presented by the award-winning Andrew Chater.
http://www.open2.net/creativearchive/index.html
Open University site with an extensive range of clips.
http://www.bfi.org.uk/creativearchive/titles/
An esoteric collection of films, consisting of early documentaries, silent
comedies, literary adaptations and transport films.
http://www.itnsource.com/
Large number of news clips, and silent footage from the archives of
Independent Television News (ITN).
http://www.channel4.com/4od/whatson/index.html
Provides free access to library of Channel 4 programmes, and allows
users to buy content from National Geographic and Discovery channels.
http://www.archive.org/details/prelinger
Contains thousands of èphemeral films', covering education,
advertising, industry, and amateur footage. Includes some great
examples of Cold War propaganda!
http://www.pbs.org/history/
US-based Public Broadcasting Service homepage. Features
downloadable clips and other resources from most of their
documentaries.
Whilst the prospect of filming, editing and narrating a short
film can appear daunting, in reality the process is very
straightforward. A number of teachers are already making use
of small handheld digital recorders, such as the Flip, which are
cheap, easy to use and plug directly into a computer's USB port.
Once the clips are uploaded, these can be edited using a package
such as Movie Maker, which comes free with most versions of
Windows. This uses the same principles as a Word document, as
material can be dragged and dropped into a storyboard, and a
soundtrack or commentary imported from the hard drive, or
recorded `live' over the footage.
^ Learner response pods
One of the newest developments in the use of ICT in the
classroom is the introduction of individual voting systems or
voting response pods into teaching. Whilst there are different
versions of these on the market, the principle behind them is the
same. In essence, after a teacher has either asked a question, or
displayed one on the screen, each pupil enters their response on
their pod. The responses are sent directly to a hub, and quickly
appear on the screen. Most systems now allow users to enter text
as well as numbers, thus enhancing quite considerably the range
of potential uses for the devices.
The benefits of using learner response systems include the
following:
. By providing every pupil, or pairs, with a `pod' teachers are able to
obtain a response from everyone in the class, not just those who
choose to put their hand up.
. Experience suggests that they are tremendously motivating for
pupils, especially when used for `starter' activities.
. As well as being useful for recalling factual information dates,
names, etc. they can also be used for higher-order thinking. By
using the rank-order facility, pupils can learn to analyse and evaluate
relative significance.
Using the pods does not replace pupil talk, it actually increases
both its volume and quality, as more pupils will be comfortable
about contributing if they can see their ideas area already
informing the learning which is taking place in the classroom,
and their discussions will become more reflective rather than
summative.
. Laffin (2009) outlines how voting systems can be used to enhance
role-play activities, which themselves often lead to excellent
learning outcomes. Laffin used the pods to assess the differing
reactions to government policy in the first part of Henry VIII's reign.
Her research suggested that good preparation was essential if the
exercise is to work well, which would be the case for any sixth-form
discussion or role-play. However, she also found that the pods were
Using ICT 105
`versatile, exciting and appealing'. The pupil response was also
positive, with the visual and inclusive nature of the systems proving
to be especially important.
. The pods provide immediate feedback to teachers on levels of
understanding part way through a task. If a teacher wanted to
assess how many pupils had a problem with a (conventional) task
during the lesson, he could ask them to indicate via their pods. As
the pods can be either named, or used anonymously, this should
not lead to too much embarrassment being felt by any pupil who
did not understand the material. Once again, here is an example of
new technologies performing a useful AfL role.
^ Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs)
VLEs may already be familiar to you, as most university PGCE
departments use them to share information and encourage
discussion about aspects of teaching. VLEs can be used to build
up a discreet learning community, which can access, interact
with and contribute to an online course both at school and at
home. The broad functionality of VLEs means that the teacher
can use them in many different ways to enhance learning. Most
VLEs usually include the potential to
. create discussion forums;
. host quizzes;
. mark and grade online;
. create surveys;
. upload documents;
. upload links to websites;
. create blogs and wikis;
. host message boards;
. create databases.
In schools, the most common approach is to create courses for
departments, which then develop separate pages for each year
group or module. An example from part of a course created for
an A2 unit on the US in Korea and Vietnam is provided in Figure
5.8.
VLEs therefore provide teachers with the ability to create
entire courses, either for particular topics, or to run alongside the
normal teaching schedule. In doing so, they can stimulate
additional research with uploaded materials or web links, create
online seminars using the discussion board, provide material for
Figure 5.8 Extract from a VLE course
pupils who may have missed lessons, and allow time for
reflection and review. Snape and Allen (2009) describe one
scenario where a VLE was used to create an è-book' to support
pupils studying the Crusades. The concept of the è-book' is
useful for teachers who wish to develop a standalone series of
lessons and out-of-class activities on a particular topic. In this
case, Snape and Allen uploaded various types of materials and
activities, which would eventually feed into discussion forums
embedded in each `chapter' of the è-book'. Approaching the
topic in this way highlighted the power of VLEs to facilitate
differentiation and personalized learning, whilst providing a
secure narrative context for all pupils. Participating in the forums
also made a positive impact on pupils' ability to argue, consider
hierarchy and to challenge historical interpretations. Phillips
(2008) warns of the dangers inherent in using VLEs to dump
course content without attention to presentation or structure.
The beauty of Snape and Allen's model is that it ensures that the
VLE is used constructively to display resources and to direct
learning. Like any collection of resources, the VLE will be most
effective when prior thought has gone into how it will appear to
the intended audience.
Using ICT 107
^ Mini-blogs
If you really want to embrace emergent technologies to
develop your teaching, consider the educational uses of websites
such as www.blogger.com, which can be used to host course
materials and information updates to users, or www.edmodo.
com, which works in a similar way to a social networking site,
but is designed specifically for educational uses. One way in
which I have used this site is to support Year 13 students doing
A-level coursework. I can maintain contact with the set,
reminding them of deadlines, providing new links to useful
websites, and create discussions and polls. They can also keep in
touch with the research being done by others in the group. As a
result, we can create the feel of a genuine `research community',
allowing for the sharing of ideas, and preparing them in a
different way for the next stage in their educational careers.
Finally, I can strongly recommend the website http://
www.boxoftricks.net/ an amazing compendium of web links
and ideas for using ICT in new and exciting ways.
Tasks
1. ICT audit
It is a good idea to periodically review your ability to use ICT to
support learning. By completing this simple audit, or even one you
have developed yourself, you can identify areas to target in future.
Area of competence On a scale of 110, On a scale of 110, how
how familiar am I confident am I that I can
with it? (1=not at all, use it to enhance
10=extremely) teaching and learning?
Word-processing
PowerPoint
Digital video
Databases
Area of competence On a scale of 110, On a scale of 110, how
how familiar am I confident am I that I can
with it? (1=not at all, use it to enhance
10=extremely) teaching and learning?
Individual devices,
e.g. learner response
systems/pods
VLE
Imaging software,
e.g. Paint/ Photoshop
Podcasts
Desktop publishing
The internet
2. Design a website evaluation exercise
The National Curriculum requires pupils to ìdentify, select and use a
range of historical sources, including textual, visual and oral sources,
artefacts and the historic environment, and to evaluate the sources
used in order to reach reasoned conclusions'.
With this in mind, design an exercise which aims to look at the
reputation of of a particular historical figure or event. As part of the
exercise, pupils have to select two websites which present
contrasting interpretations of the individual or event. They could
then carry out a series of investigations where the sources were
evaluated and compared. Can they find examples of factual errors?
Is there evidence of exaggeration in the language? Can they find out
anything about the provenance of the website? After comparing the
two websites, pupils could decide which would be the most useful
to a historian.
Using ICT 109
Teaching emotive and
controversial issues in
history
A controversial historical issue is one in which there are
competing values and interests, where there is a likelihood that
emotions become strongly aroused, and around which there may
be tremendous political or cultural sensitivity. Almost any topic
can become controversial if individual groups offer differing
explanations about events, what should happen next and how
issues should be resolved, or if one side of an issue is presented in
a way that provokes an emotional response in those who might
disagree.
The nature of the controversy may be in a disputed version of
what has happened or why something happened in the past. It
may also be the case that a narrative reaching to the present day
is involved, with emotive responses to the case of current
situations, and desirable ends to work towards.
It is therefore self-evident that these issues are frequently
complex, and require the teacher to be knowledgeable, fair,
impartial and sensitive in order to ensure desirable learning ends
are met.
Why should I teach controversial
issues?
1. The issues are in the curriculum. The National Curriculum requires
pupils to know and understand major events, changes and
developments in British, European and world history. This includes
coverage of issues such as colonization, immigration, genocide, and
nationalism.
6
111
2. It will help pupils make links to other periods of history which they
have studied.
Analogy is an extremely useful tool for historians, as it allows us to
place events into some kind of context. By comparing an event to
something similar in another country or in another period, historians
are able to gain a clearer sense of scale and significance.
3. Pupils find these issues interesting. For many young people, learning
about emotive issues humanizes the subject. It allows them to make
a connection between their own experiences and those of people
from the past. In the process, it allows pupils to respond to the past
in an emotional as well as intellectual fashion.
4. Young people want to know more about global issues. Exploring the
origins of controversial issues and attempts to resolve them allows
pupils to make links with contemporary issues, and the work of
organizations such as the United Nations, European Union, and non-
governmental organizations. Indeed, the NC says that pupils should
be èncouraged to make links with issues of the present day'. It also
provides a natural overlap with much of the citizenship curriculum.
5. Controversial issues can help develop thinking skills. A key aim of
the new secondary curriculum is to develop those skills required to
succeed in school and beyond. Studying history, as a subject in its
own right, can help young people acquire many of these personal,
learning, and thinking skills, and the study of emotive and
controversial issues is especially useful for making young people
become reflective, creative, effective and independent individuals.
As Kinloch et al, (2005) emphasize, history is primarily
concerned with questions; therefore studying these types of
issues provides plenty of opportunities to interpret and evaluate
competing views on the past.
What factors might constrain the
teaching of controversial issues in
history?
The TEACH report (Historical Association, 2007) identifies eight
constraints which apply to all key stages, and offers several more
which are specifically applicable to KS3 upwards.
1. The amount of time given to history in the curriculum
The issue. It is no secret that the place of history in the curriculum is
under threat. A combination of factors has led to a significant fall in
the number of young people studying the subject. A request by the
Conservative Party under the terms of the Freedom of Information
Act found that two-thirds of GCSE students did not take history in
2008. This figure was also down on the 1997 figure by almost 3%.
The introduction of diplomas in 2008 is likely to place an additional
squeeze on the numbers of pupils studying history. Simply put, if
fewer pupils are choosing to study the subject, there are fewer
opportunities to teach these issues.
The solution. Obviously, there is no magic solution beyond
continuing to explain to curriculum managers why history is
important, and ensuring that your exciting and stimulating lessons
make history a subject that young people want to study at GCSE
and beyond.
2. Playing it safe
The issue. Pressure to meet the demands of external examination
board syllabuses and to cover as much of the QCDA schemes of
work as possible can lead to schools `glossing over' emotive issues in
their push to finish the course.
The solution. Consider ways in which controversial issues could be
given greater emphasis. When planning the teaching of a topic, you
could place the issue at the heart of the course, emphasizing its
importance to the period.
3. Training
The issue. Few history teachers will be given the opportunity to
access high-quality training on teaching emotive and controversial
issues. Reductions in CPD budgets have meant greater emphasis has
been placed on providing training ìn-house', and when teachers are
allowed to attend external CPD training, it is frequently related to
KS4 or KS5 delivery.
The solution. As a department, you could devote a series of
departmental meetings to discussing how to deliver a course such
as this, using the time to outline potential pitfalls, lesson plans and
resources. You could extend this process by involving members of
other departments who also teach controversial issues. Depending
on the level of interest, it could form the basis of an àction research'
programme for a small number of interested staff.
4. Availability of quality resources
The issue. One of the central themes of the TEACH report is the link
between well-informed, confident practitioners and effective
teaching. Clearly, the lack of adequate training is one factor
undermining the development of an appropriately informed
workforce, but the relative lack of specialist materials also mitigates
Teaching emotive and controversial issues in history 113
against the teaching of emotive issues. Most resources on the
market are pitched at specific periods of history or produced for
particular topics within the scheme of work.
The solution. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that the most
effective resources are those produced either by the teacher or by
pupils themselves. You could work with a colleague to develop
resources for the teaching of a controversial issue, and exploit the
many ideas for teaching these topics provided in journals such as
Teaching History. Issue 120 is devoted to the topic of teaching
controversial issues, and includes man useful practical examples.
5. Inadequate teacher subject knowledge
The issue. Lack of security of knowledge can often lead to poor
learning and a tendency to treat all topics in a similar way, thus
denying pupils the opportunity to tackle controversial issues in a
way that brings out the range of issues and allows scope for
meaningful debate. Where the subject is taught by a non-specialist,
the issue of poor subject knowledge is even more problematic. As
Kinloch (2005) writes, the rush to integrate a study of the Muslim
world into the curriculum after 9/11 potentially created a further
problem by suggesting that Islam and the West were separate and
hostile entities.
The solution. The only way that this problem will be solved is
through teacher research. Where a non-specialist is timetabled to
deliver the lessons, the history department needs to help the
teacher become more familiar with the issues and the period as a
whole
6. Deliberate avoidance of controversial topics
The issue. The TEACH report famously stoked a huge controversy
when it claimed that a small number of schools had chosen not to
teach the Holocaust for fear of offending Muslim children. It cited
other examples where topics such as the slave trade, the ArabIsraeli
conflict and the Crusades were deliberately avoided in order to
prevent teachers causing offence to pupils and parents. A chain
email, which appeared shortly after the publication of the report,
erroneously claimed that Holocaust teaching was banned in the UK,
prompting Alan Johnson, the then Secretary of State for Education
and Skills to state in 2007 `that there are certain subjects which will
be protected in the new curriculum and that includes the
Holocaust'.
Fear of causing offence to a particular party is only one reason
why teachers may choose to avoid teaching a topic. As previously
stated, lack of adequate knowledge could also play a part, as could a
feeling the material was not appropriate for certain age groups. A
teacher may also argue that, with the development of a formal
citizenship curriculum, these types of issues are best being dealt
with through that subject, rather than in a history lesson.
The solution. Teachers need to remember that the value of teaching
emotive and controversial issues in history often outweighs any
potential risks.
7. Lack of balance
The issue. In order for pupils to gain a full understanding of the past,
it is essential that teachers do not seek to present the actions and
attitudes of differing groups in a one-dimensional manner. For
example, not all white men were willing participants in the slave
trade, and not every black slave was a powerless figure. Teachers
need to consider how their portrayal of different groups will impact
upon pupils who are members of the same race, ethnic group, or
religion.
The solution. This comes back to the need to prepare and plan
thoroughly. A teacher does not want to be in a position where the
pupils feel embarrassed or even resentful as a result of the approach
being taken. It is therefore important to recognize and identify the
differing attitudes and actions which existed within different
communities as well as between them. A teacher should also try and
avoid portraying people in the past as being inferior or stupid, and
instead encourage pupils to examine carefully the context in which
people lived.
8. Can pupils ever really understand emotive events if they were not
there?
The issue. The Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, DC, has
been criticized by some Holocaust survivors as just a large collection
of photographs (Phillips, 2008). Without the complete experience
the sounds, smells and fear of the camps no museum could ever
present a truly accurate representation of the Holocaust. This
argument can be broadened to encompass any exhibition on a
historical issue, whether it be the slavery gallery at Liverpool's
Maritime Museum or the reconstruction of a cotton mill at Styal in
Cheshire. The problem, therefore, is that if a pupil cannot get a deep
understanding of an issue, perhaps this issue should not be taught
at all.
The solution. All historians have to rely on a degree of historical
imagination when constructing their versions of the past, and the
same is true for pupils studying the subject. Although, if done badly,
this can lead to the practice of a form of historical guesswork or
superficial judgements being made, empathy is a powerful device
for bringing the past to life for pupils.
Teachers can use various means to encourage an empathetic
approach. They can create role-play exercises, use an array of
primary source material, and even use out-of-school visits.
How should I teach emotive and
controversial issues?
^ Keep pupils focused on the history
Whilst there will be obvious links to other subjects, and, indeed,
to the home experiences of some pupils, it is important for pupils
to retain a clear historical focus. Although the approach may
differ for teaching an emotive or controversial issue, the same
historical processes need to be followed if the quality of enquiry
is to be assured.
To this end:
. encourage pupils to base their statements on evidence, rather than
conjecture or prejudice
. emphasize that it is not important to adopt a fixed position on an
issue. Allow them to feel comfortable in not having to make a clear
judgement
. cultivate an inquisitive approach to all aspects of the issue. Remind
the pupils that the source analysis skills which they would use on
other sources are even more critical when considering sensitive
historical issues
^ Cut out classroom incivilities
Research by Boice (1996) identified the most common forms of
teacher or pupil behaviour that impacted on pupil performance.
The main forms of teacher incivility include dismissive remarks,
not taking pupils or their ideas seriously, and adopting teaching
styles that do not meet the needs of the learners.
The most common examples of pupil incivility include poor
behaviour, lack of preparation, lateness, and distracting other
pupils. Failure to eradicate these can create a learning environ-
ment where pupils do not feel the topic is worth taking seriously,
or are not comfortable expressing themselves.
In order to establish a more `civil' classroom environment, the
following action should be taken:
. Lay down your ground rules right from the start. Let the class know
what you expect of them in terms of attendance, punctuality and
conduct. An Oxfam (2006) paper on teaching controversial issues
provides a useful overview of what to expect from pupils:
[ Only one person to talk at a time no interrupting.
[ Show respect for the views of others.
[ Challenge the ideas, not the people.
[ Use appropriate language no racist or sexist comments.
[ Allow everyone to express their views to ensure that everyone is
heard and respected.
[ Pupils should give reasons why they have a particular view.
. Adopt a positive behaviour management strategy. If there are signs
that behaviour is deteriorating, investigate why. Are the pupils
bored? Are they able to see the relevance of the topic?
. Avoid judging responses; instead offer positive feedback.
. Use non-verbal as well as verbal means of communication. Smile, be
expressive in response to pupils' points and questions.
^ Encourage an open-minded approach
Pupils with very fixed ideas on an issue may struggle to see a
problem in a way other than `black and white'. However, one of
the main reasons for studying controversial issues is to develop
pupils' thinking skills and to recognize that people may interpret
an event or issue in different ways. It is therefore necessary to
move pupils from a position where they reject any alternative
viewpoint, or criticism of their own position, to one where they
can evaluate different evidence and interpretations before
reaching an informed verdict.
Several strategies can help pupils develop a more sophisticated
approach:
. Debates are really useful tools, especially when you ask pupils to
advocate an argument which they do not initially agree with.
. Similarly, the use of role-play can help pupils understand the
perspective of different individuals.
. Encourage the pupils to brainstorm an issue in groups. This should
allow them to experience different viewpoints in a smaller
environment, where they may be more willing to take on board new
ideas.
. Set groups a problem-solving exercise, where they have to use a
problemobjectivesolutionevaluation model. One exercise that
could lend itself to this type of activity is drawing the new map of
the Middle East before the new state of Israel is created. This would
open up a discussion on respective claims to territory, and, crucially,
the evaluation phase would force pupils to reconsider whether their
original objectives had been met. Hopefully, this problem-based
approach might force those pupils who had very definitive opinions
to think in a different way. The new National Curriculum places a
much greater emphasis on pupils devising their own hypotheses,
which are then to be tested in the light of a range of evidence. If a
teacher could encourage a pupil to regard their initial position as a
more of a hypothesis than a definite opinion, then there is a greater
likelihood that that pupil's level of historical understanding will be
enhanced.
^ The teacher needs to adopt a very clear role
The role of the teacher is vital in ensuring the success of lessons
dealing with controversial issues. However, much thought needs
to be given to how that role is to be carried out. The teacher
needs to consider the age and nature of the pupils, along with the
type of issue being taught. There is a lot to be said for the teacher
varying their approach across a series of lessons, as there is for
seeking the pupils' opinions on how you should act.
In his research into delivering citizenship lessons, Doug
Harwood (1997) identified six possible roles for teaching emotive
and controversial issues in the classroom.
. Committed the teacher is free to express his own opinions. Could
this influence the nature of discussion?
. Objective the teacher outlines all of the different viewpoints, but
does not reveal his own.
. Devil's advocate as a means of tackling preconceived ideas, or the
emergence of a consensus early in the proceedings, the teacher
adopts a contrasting position.
. Advocate this role is designed to ensure pupils consider all
viewpoints before making their decision. Combining the objective
with the committed roles, the teacher outlines the different
interpretations before providing their own opinion.
. Impartial chairperson establishing a more pupil-centred focus, the
teacher's role is restricted to ensuring all viewpoints are presented
in pupil discussions, or through the presentation of a range of
source material.
. Declared interest with this role, the teacher presents his views at
the start of the enquiry, before outlining the alternative
perspectives. In this way, pupils can identify teacher bias when
making their own decisions.
^ Use a range of teaching techniques
. Ensure that you create an exciting stimulus activity to draw the
pupils in. Short video clips, or playing music, speeches, etc. as the
pupils walk into the classroom can help engage the pupils.
. Use a good selection of visual material. Emotive images force pupils
to go beyond their instinctive reaction, and lead them into creating
their own questions about an event: why did this happen? Who was
to blame? What the consequences of this event?
. Life graphs, attitude continuums and diamond ranking exercises are
useful ways to explore values, perspectives and attitudes. As well as
helping to develop the pupils' empathetic skills, they also develop
all of the thinking skills prescribed in the National Curriculum:
processing, reasoning, enquiry, creative thinking, and evaluation.
. Class debates, and group-based enquiries allow opportunity for
discussion and listening to other interpretations.
Case studies
^ Teaching Irish history in Northern Ireland
Whilst teaching Irish history in Northern Ireland is a very
different experience than teaching it throughout the rest of the
United Kingdom, there is a strong argument to be made that the
experiences of teaching the province's recent past can be applied
to the teaching of emotive and controversial issues throughout
the rest of the UK.
History teachers in Northern Ireland are presented with a
number of problems which their counterparts in the rest of the
United Kingdom do not have to deal with.
The main issue is one of context. Simply driving around the
province illustrates the very tight connection to past events
which many people have, and the partial way in which it is
viewed in different communities. The abundance of murals and
street paintings reinforces the memory of past victories, heroes,
betrayals and tragedies.
More closely than anywhere else in the UK, history is
inextricably linked to identity, and therefore the formal teaching
of the subject will always come up against strongly held
community views on the past. As most schools in the province
are still segregated along religious lines, it can therefore be even
more challenging to present a range of interpretations to an
audience which has had one particular narrative of the past
drummed into them, whilst the pupils themselves may never
have had much, if any, exposure to different communities.
Kitson and McCully (2005) discovered that anecdotal evi-
dence that pupils struggle to shake off community-instilled
attitudes is supported by qualitative analysis. Their survey of
pupils across Northern Ireland suggested that some pupils were
likely to use source material as further evidence to support their
particular viewpoint, rather than using it to explore different
interpretations of the past.
A further issue involves the attitude of teachers in Northern
Irish schools. Kitson and McCully found some teachers reluctant
to link the past to the present, preferring instead to avoid
teaching any Irish history at all. These are described by Kitson
and McCully as àvoiders'. Another group of teachers, whom
they categorize as `containers', are willing to look at Irish history,
but are unwilling to make any link to the present. They may well
practise otherwise `good' history, but feel unable to deal with the
complexities and emotional involvement likely to arise when
something more contemporary is examined.
Where both these two groups of teachers are concerned, the
opportunities to discuss the origins of the recent conflict and to
overcome misinformed viewpoints are wasted. In an interview
with The Guardian in 2004, Kitson provided a further explanation
why the conservatism of some teachers was regrettable: Òne of
the most important roles of the history classroom can be to
enable pupils to explore controversial issues in a safe environ-
ment' (Crow, 2004).
Without wishing to preach about this issue, there is a real
danger that teachers who bypass controversial issues of this kind
are making it very difficult for young people to build any
common understanding of the recent past.
How then can Irish history be taught in Northern Ireland? The
introduction of a common Northern Ireland history curriculum
in 1991 was an important stage in providing a version of recent
history not dictated by the attitudes of the community in which
the school was based. In an attempt to overcome disputes over
the narrative of recent Irish history, the emphasis was placed on
history as a process of enquiry, with an additional aim of placing
the problems of Ireland in a global context (Low-Beer, 1999).
However, as the subject was not compulsory after KS3, pupils
were not required to study the origins and development of the
conflict.
However, recent changes to the curriculum, following the
establishment of a more settled political consensus, should tackle
both this problem, and the operation of an àvoider' strategy. The
revised Northern Ireland Curriculum stipulates that all pupils at
KS3 should be taught to Ìnvestigate the long and short term
causes and consequences of the partition of Ireland and how it
has influenced Northern Ireland today including key events and
turning points'.
The production of new teaching materials has provided
further support to the teaching of Irish history. Teachers from
across the cultural divide collaborated on textbooks which
offered an evidence-based approach to aspects of Irish history.
This approach did not omit controversial events, including
sections on the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and `Bloody Sunday' in
1972. However, its focus was not on what happened or on who
was to blame, but on how reliable the various pieces of evidence
were.
The use of an evidence-based approach is instructive as it
forces pupils to keep a keen eye on the historical processes at
work, and offers a model for teaching controversial issues in
other areas. Examples of this approach are provided by the
Ireland in Schools project at www.iisresource.org and include a
programme of study, exercises and worksheets for teachers.
One of the best resources on the website looks at under-
standing entrenched political positions in Northern Ireland by
examining the role of murals in forming identities and creating a
version of the past which informs current attitudes. In doing so,
it attempts to consider how different versions of the past have
emerged, and invites pupils to comment on the messages, form
and reliability of the murals (http://iisresource.org/Documents/
0A4_HA_Con_Issues_Worksheets_A4_Sheets_pdf.pdf).
Much of the work on teaching controversial issues, such as the
Troubles, assumes that teachers will only make links to the
present day once the history has been covered. McCully et al.
(2002) recount how one school in Northern Ireland has
attempted to invert this process. The idea built upon the Speak
Your Piece project, which considered how education and the
creative arts could make a `positive contribution in helping
young people engage with controversial social, cultural, religious
and political issues'. This project placed great emphasis on the
need to take into account contemporary attitudes before
embarking on a study of past events. As a result, it is hoped
that young people will be able to make a tighter connection
between what they study in the classroom and what they think
about events ìn the real world'.
The history department at the school decided to use the BBC
drama Rebel Hearts and feature film Michael Collins to teach the
Easter Rising. Recognizing that the topic was likely to provoke a
strong response from a predominantly Protestant pupil base, the
department deployed the `present to past to present' approach as
a way of introducing the importance of context and bias when
evaluating evidence and interpretations.
The first, and arguably most important, stage of the task
explored reactions to Rebel Hearts, which attracted controversy
from the unionist community primarily because of its author's
alleged republican sympathies. Pupils were asked to evaluate
responses from leading political figures and English and Irish
newspapers, in order to recognize the importance of provenance.
The next stage was to compare how the drama and film dealt
with key issues of the period, with the film representation of the
same events, before considering which was the most useful
source for studying the Easter Rising.
Pupil evaluations suggested that, on the whole, the exercise
had been successful in making a link between the past and the
issues of the present day, although there was some evidence of
what Kinloch (2005) has referred to as the existence of two
histories emerging for pupils; the history which they are able to
perform in the classroom, and the history they receive and
articulate in their respective communities.
^ Teaching Islamic history
A number of historians have commented on the difficulties
inherent in teaching Islamic history. The TEACH report high-
lights both the structural and practical difficulties, commenting
on the dearth of options available at KS3, and the commonly
held view that it is `too difficult, alien or complex' to teach.
Kinloch (2005) suggests that the nature of language used
provides one difficulty for history teachers. Unlike most
European histories, comparatively few Islamic histories have
been translated into English.
Kinloch also identifies a more subtle problem: not all Muslims
are happy for Islamic history to be taught by non-Muslims. For
some Muslim scholars, the study of history cannot be divorced
from its cultural and, especially, religious context. This represents
a significant departure from the purpose and processes of
Western history, and, Kinloch argues, Muslim historians there-
fore see the teaching of Islamic history as requiring a unique
methodology. A second explanation for Muslim scepticism about
non-Muslim approaches derives from a belief that Western
historians will attempt to make their study conform to one of two
distinct narratives. The first places the history of all developing
countries exclusively in the context of Western colonialism,
whilst the second dwells on Islam as the enemy of the West,
stretching from the Crusades to the current `war on terrorism'.
As a result, teaching Islamic history may reinforce existing
stereotypes and exaggerate elements of conflict.
Perhaps related to the above problems is the lack of available
and suitable classroom resources. As most teachers tend to delve
into Islamic history as part of a study of the Crusades, so most
textbooks reflect this habit. As a result, there is the possibility
that Islamic history will be dismissed as a sideshow to the study
of a European campaign. This perhaps confirms the suspicions of
those Muslim scholars who doubt the ability of Western
historians to do justice to their history.
However, even spite of these obstacles, some of which are
common to all emotive issues, there are ways to make the
teaching of Islamic history both interesting and challenging.
Both Kinloch and Ian Phillips (2008) argue that a prerequisite for
the study of the Muslim world is the acquisition of sound specific
subject knowledge. Fortunately, the development of new
resources such as the Longman textbook Meeting of Minds
(Counsell, et al., 2007) attempts to plug a sizeable whole in the
market.
The book deals directly with Islamic history in its own right,
rather than as an appendage to European history. Adopting an
enquiry-based approach, it allows pupils to examine a world of
important individuals and events without focusing on Western
colonialism or conflict. In the process, it moves away from a
singular focus on the Crusading era, and instead covers a very
broad period of history, 5901750.
Perhaps the most useful account of planning to teach the
history of the Muslim world is provided by Alison Stephen, Head
of History at Abraham Moss High School in north Manchester
(Historical Association, 2007, p. 31). Whilst her account of
teaching the ArabIsraeli conflict in a school where there is a
60% Muslim population provides a fascinating route through a
cultural minefield, the four principles for planning a unit of work
on Islamic history outlined in the TEACH report are perhaps
even more useful to teachers embarking on a programme of
study covering this subject area:
1. Focus on the positive aspects of Islamic history, such as major
achievements and their significance.
2. Help students understand complexity, for example the divergent
trends within Islam.
3. In common with other approaches to teaching emotive and
controversial issues, great emphasis is placed on a critical treatment
of evidence. In this way, pupils can move beyond any
preconceptions about the past which they may have, and begin to
understand the past from the perspective of different groups.
4. All debate and discussion should take place within a safe
environment. As well of the ground rules laid down for the conduct
of lessons within a classroom, public forums such as assemblies or
school-based VLEs provide an opportunity for pupils to explore the
varied angles of an issue in an environment where their views can
be heard.
Tasks
1. Plan a scheme of work for the teaching of the Holocaust to Year 9
pupils. Consider what your main lines of enquiry are going to be,
what source material you are going to present and the steps which
you will take to ensure the programme is implemented successfully.
2. Reflect on areas of the curriculum where the issues raised in this
chapter might apply. Do you think the TEACH report is
comprehensive enough in its coverage of historical issues likely to
prove emotive and controversial?
Developing students'
interest in history outside
the classroom
Young people learn better when they can get `hands-on'
experience for themselves. In so doing, they not only gain a
better insight into what life would have been like for people in
the past, but are also in a better position to make their own
judgements on controversies and issues. One of the most
important tasks for history teachers, therefore, is to convince
their pupils that history is not confined to a textbook or
classroom, and that historical processes can also occur in relation
to museums, galleries and other sites of historical interest.
Equally, these processes can be developed in imaginative and
exciting ways outside of conventional lessons, but within the
school context. This chapter seeks to explain how pupils' levels of
historical understanding can be enhanced by developing their
interest in the subject beyond the classroom.
Ways to develop pupils' interest in
history outside the classroom
^ History societies
One of the easiest and most rewarding ways to develop historical
interest outside the classroom is to set up a History Society in the
school. The very best societies are those which have a very high
pupil input. Ideally, pupils should run the society, host its events,
invite outside speakers, and give presentations themselves.
The focus of the society will depend on the age and needs of its
members. In the sixth form, for example, a programme of
7
125
lectures might be more appropriate to support their A-level work
or prepare students for university applications.
The Historical Association runs an annual Great Debate
competition for 1619-year-olds, with regional heats taking
place in schools. This type of exercise could provide a terrific
opportunity for sixth-formers, and you could run your own heats
through a school history society.
Lower down the school, you might want to provide a specific
focus, such as investigating aspects of local history. Researching
former members of the school who fought in the two world wars
is often an interesting way to nurture an interest in local history
whilst developing source skills and knowledge of the particular
conflict.
^ Working with other schools
An interesting and increasingly popular way to develop pupils'
interest is through inter-school collaboration. With improve-
ments in technology, pupils can even do this without leaving the
comfort of their computer suite. Using video-conferencing or
internet forums to debate historical issues enables pupils to
develop their skills in a different context.
One idea for such a collaboration could be to model the causes
of a major event, with different schools adopting the guise of
different actors in the events of the period. The teacher
constructs a series of scenarios, to which each of the àctors'
responds. This allows pupils to consolidate their subject knowl-
edge and gain insight into different interpretations and attitudes.
An example of such an exercise targeted at sixth-form
historians is provided in Figure 7.1. The reconstruction is set at
the start of the Cold War, covering the period 19451949. The
main enquiry is focused on who was to blame for the breakdown
in superpower relations during that period.
^ Visits
Sites such as castles, museums, houses and cemeteries are
examples of the broad historical environment which can be
accessed to develop pupils' level of historical understanding.
Nothing compares to a visit to the actual site of a historical event,
whether it is the beaches of Normandy or the iron foundries of
Coalbrookdale. Topics which can appear dry can be brought to
life, and pupils engaged by experiencing `real' history for
themselves. In Chapter 6, we deal with the importance of
Scenario 1 The war is nearing its end. . .the leaders of the three
powers meet at Yalta to discuss what to do about the future of
Europe
US position
Soviet response
US reply
Soviet reply
Scenario 2 Germany has been defeated. However, the three
powers have to decide what to do about its future in post-
war Europe
US position
Soviet response
US reply
Soviet reply
Scenario 3 November 1946: The Red Army remain in eastern
Europe, and communist-dominated governments have been estab-
lished in many of these states.
US position
Soviet response
US reply
Soviet reply
Scenario 4 June 1947: President Truman has announced his
`doctrine' and a programme of economic aid for Europe
US position
Soviet response
US reply
Soviet reply
Scenario 5 April 1948: unification of western zones of Germany
US position
Soviet response
US reply
Soviet reply
Figure 7.1 Suggestion for historical modelling task
Developing students' interest in history 127
creating empathy for figures in the past as a way of teaching
emotive and controversial issues, and taking pupils out to sites of
historical interest is a very useful strategy for helping young
people gain a much better understanding of attitudes and
feelings of people throughout history.
History visits do not even have to be extravagant or exotic,
indeed some of the most useful are to locations which pupils pass
on a regular basis in their own area. Whether it is a visit to a local
war memorial, cemetery, National Trust property, air raid
shelter, or statue, pupils can get a real feel for the historical
environment and the varied ways that the past has been
represented.
The remainder of this chapter dwells on the practical elements
of constructing a school visit, and provides a selection of
suggested visits to sites in the UK and beyond.
What steps need to be taken to
ensure a successful visit?
^ Learning points
. Ensure the relevance of the visit. History trips might appeal as a nice
`day out' from the classroom, but for pupils to gain much of value,
the visits need to be fully integrated into a scheme of work, with a
clear focus on historical skills. Planning for the visit therefore needs
to be part of the planning for the year, whilst the processes at work
will be of the same historical value as if in a classroom-based lesson.
. Incorporate planning for the visit into your teaching. Introduce the
historical site into lessons, and discuss the purpose of the trip. The
new National Curriculum includes historical enquiry as one of its
three assessment strands, and you might wish the children to devise
their own key questions, thus fulfilling the need `to identify and
investigate, individually and as part of a team, specific historical
questions or issues, making and testing hypotheses'.
. Make a preliminary visit. Most museums and historical sites provide
a complimentary visit for teachers planning to bring pupils. Use this
opportunity to complete a risk assessment, and to evaluate how
you are going to use the visit to inspire the pupils.
. As you would `plan for progression' in the classroom, so you should
do so on trips. The nature of the visit and the tasks which they carry
out will need to be tailored to the needs of the pupils.
. Provide a variety of tasks to complete. If the pupils are walking
round filling worksheets, they are going to get bored and will not
get the opportunity to actually look at and reflect on the site they
are visiting. Could you include tasks such as recording, comparing,
filming, drawing, photographing, evaluating, interpreting? Figure
7.2 provides an example of a task which could be carried out during
a visit to the battlefields of the First World War.
. Build on the work done during the visit in subsequent lessons.
Avoid the temptation to set the pupils a project on the places they
have visited, but instead use the sites as sources in themselves. Are
they more useful than the sources in their textbooks? Do the
sources they have seen agree with the interpretations presented in
the books?
Cemeteries
You will visit cemeteries containing casualties from Britain, France and
Germany. Each country has chosen to bury its fallen in a slightly
different fashion, and accordingly the cemeteries prompt different
responses in the people who visit them. For each of the three types,
briefly record what impression you had of their atmosphere and
design.
i British (e.g. Tynecot, Ypres)
ii French (e.g. the Ossuary, Verdun)
iii German (e.g. Langemarck, Ypres)
Figure 7.2 Example task for pupils visiting the First World War battlefields
^ Health and safety
Taking pupils out of school, particularly if the visit is a residential
one or involves travelling abroad, is a risky venture, and one
which places even more responsibility on the shoulders of
teachers. Whilst serious accidents on trips tend to be rare, a
number of high-profile cases in recent years have resulted in
more stringent guidelines being implemented by the govern-
ment. I outline below some of the things which teachers need to
take into account before embarking on any school visit. Of
course, it is the responsibility of the individual teacher to check with
their own school or local authority what procedures and
guidelines have to be followed.
Each of the teaching unions provides advice on all aspects of
health and safety at work; the National Union of Teachers Health
& Safety Briefing 2008 provides an overview of the main
responsibilities expected of teachers taking pupils out of school,
and can be found on the web at www.teachers.org.uk/node/66.
When planning a visit, teachers need to take into account the
appropriate pupil to staff ratio. The Association of Teachers and
Lecturers (ATL) recommends a ratio of 2:20 as an absolute
minimum this allows one teacher to remain with the group if
the other teacher has to deal with an emergency or problem with
a member of the group. For some potentially hazardous activities
it may be 1:5, or 1:10 or 1:12. A judgement can only be made
when all the risks have been assessed. Teachers should keep a
written record of that assessment and the reasons for the final
decision. ATL also advises, ìf in doubt, increase the number of
adult supervisors' and in mixed groups have at least one male
and one female teacher.
It is also essential for you to complete a school visit check list
before the trip. Although this might appear to be a daunting and
time-consuming task, it will, first, reduce the likelihood of as
serious problem at a later stage in your planning, and second,
help make your eventual visit an enjoyable and rewarding one.
The check list might include some or all of the following
questions:
. Do you have the school's permission to take pupils on the trip?
. How many pupils and staff will you take? Have you recorded all
details of your decision regarding staffpupils ratios?
. Do you have medical and SEN information about each of the pupils
on the trip? Have you liaised with the SENCO, school nurse and
parents about these issues?
. Do you have the DCSF, local authority, school and other guidance
on school trips? Do you need any further advice?
. Do you need to make a preliminary visit? Have you been before? Do
you know anyone else who has been to the same place? Have you
checked websites such as www.tripadvisor.com for guidance from
previous visitors to the site? Will places of interest be open when
you plan to visit?
. Have you done a risk assessment for all the activities? Does the site/
venue have its own risk assessment? Do you need professional
advice about any of the likely hazards?
. What are the travel arrangements? Have you done a risk assessment
for them? Have you planned food and rest stops?
. Have you got parental consent for each child? Have you given
parents all the essential information? What, if anything, do you need
to know from the parents (such as emergency contact numbers,
email addresses, medical, dietary details)?
. Do you have the telephone numbers and email addresses of
parents? Do you have adequate insurance to cover the trip? Consult
your local education authority for guidance in the first instance.
. Are the financial arrangements in order? What protection of
payments is in place? Do you need advice?
. Have you adequate first aid provision? Who will provide the kit? Is
there a trained first aider in the party? Do you have details of the
nearest hospitals to the destination?
. What are the emergency procedures if anything should go wrong?
Does everyone know them? Have they been understood and
practised?
Suggestions for out-of-school visits
^ United Kingdom
Imperial War Museum, London
The Imperial War Museum (IWM) is arguably the UK's most
famous, and one of its most popular, museums. It is home to
several permanent collections, covering the First and Second
World Wars, the Holocaust, the `secret war', and conflicts since
1945. The museum also contains an impressive gallery of war art,
featuring work by Sir William Orpen, Sir John Lavery, Sir George
Clausen, Augustus John, Sir Stanley Spencer, Paul and John
Nash, Percy Wyndham Lewis, William Roberts, C.R.W. Nevinson
and Eric Kennington.
Alongside the permanent exhibitions, the museum presents
also special exhibitions, with recent presentations focusing on
the art of the Holocaust and a study of children's experiences on
the Home Front.
The IWM has also opened sites elsewhere in England,
including the Cabinet War Rooms, HMS Belfast, Duxford air
base, and, most recently IWM North at Salford Quays.
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: The
changing nature of conflict and cooperation between countries and
peoples and its lasting impact on national, ethnic, racial, cultural or
religious.
Each of the examining boards offers a `modern world' GCSE which
will be relevant to the materials included in the IWM.
http://www.iwm.org.uk
Email: [email protected]
Tel.: (0)20 7416 5000
Manchester Museum of Science and Industry
Built on the site of the world's oldest surviving railway station,
the museum offers a unique historical and cultural experience.
Across its vast site, it features six main areas of interest: science
and technology; industry and innovation; energy; transport;
people; and communications. Whilst there is a distinctly
Mancunian slant to some of the exhibitions, much of the
material contained in the museum is concerned with the
evolution of new technologies throughout the UK since the
start of the Industrial Revolution.
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: The
development of trade, colonisation, industrialisation and technology,
the British Empire.
http://www.mosi.org.uk
Tel.: 0161 832 2244
Fax: 0161 833 1471
Welsh castles
Harlech Castle was built by Edward I between 1283 and 1290. It
is a fine example of a concentric castle. It played a role in
defending Edward's Welsh empire, and featured prominently in
the Wars of the Roses and English Civil War.
http://www.harlech.com
Tel.: 01766 780552
Caernarfon Castle was built on the site of earlier Roman and
Norman castles. Construction commenced in 1283 and contin-
ued until 1323, when work was brought to an end with parts of
the castle still incomplete.
http://www.caernarfon-castle.co.uk/index.html
Tel.: 01286 677617
Conwy Castle is regarded by some as being the most impressive
medieval structure on Europe, and has dominated the landscape
since 1258.
http://www.conwy-castle.co.uk/
Pembroke Castle evolved from a Norman fort into a concentric
masterpiece during the course of the twelfth century. It was later
the birthplace of Henry VII.
http://www.pembroke-castle.co.uk/
Tel.: 01646 684585
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: The different
histories and changing relationships through time of the peoples of
England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Maritime Museum, Liverpool
A great example of the local illustrating the national, this
museum uses the experience of Liverpool's port to illustrate
bigger issues such as slavery, the war at sea, the work of customs
and excise and emigration to the USA.
http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/maritime/
Tel.: 0151 478 4499
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: The develop-
ment of trade, colonisation, industrialisation and technology, the British
Empire; the impact through time of the movement and settlement of
diverse peoples to, from and within the British Isles.
Banqueting House, Whitehall
Built by James I in 1609, the Banqueting House is probably most
famous for being the site of Charles I's execution in 1649, but it
also offers fabulous architecture and the only surviving in-situ
ceiling painting by Peter Paul Rubens.
http://www.hrp.org.uk/BanquetingHouse/
Tel.: 0844 482 7777
ment of political power from the Middle Ages to the twentieth century;
the different histories and changing relationships through time of the
peoples of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.
Hadrian's Wall
The Hadrian's Wall World Heritage Site stretches 150 miles from
South Shields to the Cumbrian coast, and features museums,
remnants of forts, earthworks and parts of the original wall itself.
If you plan to take a school party, you would be advised to select
one of the `frontier experiences' on the Hadrian's Wall website
(http://www.hadrians-wall.org/plan_your_visit.aspx/Plan-Your-
Visit), which provides advice on attractions around different
sections of the wall.
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: Links
should be made to some of the parallel events, changes and developments
in British, European and world history; the different histories and
changing relationships through time of the peoples of England, Ireland,
Scotland and Wales.
Coalbrookdale
The Ironbridge Gorge museums at Coalbrookdale, another World
Heritage Site, offer a number of sites which might interest
students of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Britain. Blists
Hill is a recreated Victorian town, complete with authentic stores,
a school and a pub! Drive past Abraham Darby III's iron bridge,
constructed in 1779 and arrive at the Museum of Iron on the site
of Abraham Darby I's original foundry.
http://www.ironbridgeguide.info/
Tel.: 01952 884391
ment of trade, colonisation, industrialisation and technology the British
Empire.
Eden Camp
Sited on a former prisoner of war camp, it uses reconstructed
scenes with movement, lighting, sound, smells, even smoke
machines to present a realistic account of the Second World War
experience.
http://www.edencamp.co.uk/
Tel.: 01653 697777
Email: [email protected]
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: The changing
nature of conflict and cooperation between countries and peoples and its
lasting impact on national, ethnic, racial, cultural or religious issues.
Dover Castle
Set high above Dover's famous white cliffs, its castle has enjoyed
a rich and varied history. Visitors can discover clues as to its
Roman and medieval history, whilst its role during the Second
World War is explained through the Admiralty Walks, under-
ground hospital and Admiral Ramsay's control rooms.
http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/
dover-castle/
Tel.: 01304 211067
ment of political power from the Middle Ages to the twentieth century;
the changing nature of conflict and cooperation between countries and
peoples and its lasting impact on national, ethnic, racial, cultural or
religious issues.
Fountains Abbey
Currently owned by the National Trust, and given World Heritage
Site status in 1987, Fountains Abbey was founded in 1132 by
Benedictine monks, and dissolved by Henry VIII in 1539. It offers a
well-structured programme of activities for pupils, providing
sessions on How did the medieval church affect people's lives? and
When and why did religion first cause a problem for the Tudors? Guides
are provided by the Abbey, as well as resource packs for teachers.
http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/w-vh/w-visits/w-
findaplace/w-fountainsabbeyandstudleyroyalwatergarden/
w-fountainsabbeyandstudleyroyalwatergarden-schools_
teachers.htm
Tel.: 01765 643167
Links to National Curriculum Programme of Study: the way in
which the lives, beliefs, ideas and attitudes of people in Britain
have changed over time and the factors such as technology,
economic development, war, religion and culture that have
driven these changes.
^ Europe
Many departments offer at least one overseas history trip per
year. Faced with competition from other subjects, and a keen
desire to bring the subject to life, many history teachers feel that
there is enormous benefit to be had from short visits to Europe
and further afield.
First World War battlefields
Probably the most popular European trip is to the battlefields of
the Western Front. With the town of Ypres only 30 minutes from
Calais, and the journey down to the Somme quite manageable in
a day, schools can provide a fascinating trip for quite a reasonable
cost.
Of course, most schools organize short trips to the Western
Front primarily to support their teaching of the First World War
either at KS3 or GCSE. However, for new teachers the prospect of
building a trip from scratch is a daunting one. Whilst there are
excellent guidebooks on the market, such as the Holts series, or the
classic Coombs guide, to help visitors, I have provided an overview
of a trip which I have run on many occasions. This contains an
outline itinerary with brief notes on features of the visit.
As a battlefield trip of this kind is likely to feature at some
point in a history teacher's career, I have provided a more
detailed description of the main sites than for the other European
sites which are dealt with later in the chapter.
Ypres
Possibly one of the most innovative and engaging museums on the
Western Front, In Flanders Fields Museum (http://www.inflanders-
fields.be), approaches the study of the war from four angles. When
you enter the museum you are given the identity of someone who
would have lived or fought in the Salient. You then follow the
progress of that individual throughout the war at several
interactive stations throughout the galleries. The second theme
covers the impact of the war on Ypres and the surrounding area. A
broader history of the war is provided in the third section of the
museum, whilst a selection of war art completes the final gallery.
Virtually every one of the 250,000 men who fell in the Salient
would have left Ypres by the Menin Gate route. There was no gate
standing there in 19141918, but the exit was flanked by two
lions (now in Australia). The monument was designed by R.
Blomfield and opened by Field Marshal Plumer in July 1927. It
bears the names of 54,896 soldiers who died between 1914 and
August 1917 and who have no known grave. Since 1929 (except
19401944), every evening at 8 p.m., the Last Post has been
played in the gate.
It is possible to walk round the ramparts from the Menin Gate
to the Ramparts cemetery. Many of the graves here date from the
First Battle of Ypres in 1914. You will see the remains of concrete
pill-boxes and emplacements.
The only really authentic sector of trenches remaining in the
Salient, Sanctuary Wood is so called because when this was a
relatively quiet sector in October 1914, stragglers were gathered
together here and given a period of rest. The museum contains
many artefacts of the fighting, but the wooden stereoscopic
photograph viewers on the central table are particularly well
worth looking at.
Tyne Cot (so named by the 50th Northumberland Division) lies
just below the Passchendaele Ridge, 1 kilometre from the farthest
point in Belgium reached by Allied forces. The Germans held the
village until 6 November 1917. The Great Cross is built above the
largest of the three German blockhouses. It contains the graves of
11,908 soldiers, whilst the wall behind holds the names of the
34,888 men killed in the Salient from August 1917 to the end of
the war, but who have no known grave. Near the right-hand
bunker are the graves of two holders of the Victoria Cross,
Sergeant McGee and Captain Jeffries. Their exact location may
be found by reference to the register in the gate house.
A very great contrast may be observed between the Allied
cemeteries and the German Langemarck Cemetery. A mass grave of
24,834 men is approached through a red granite building.
Beyond, over the far side of the cemetery, stand the brooding
figures of mourning comrades. The cemetery is close to the site of
the first gas attack of the war, in April 1915.
The forward base for the Ypres Salient from 1914, Poperinghe is
surrounded by training camps, hospitals and depots. Many troops
would come back to `Pop' for rest and recreation during their
time in the Salient. The home of Talbot House (Toc H) and Haig's
headquarters for a time.
A series of cemeteries flank the road from Poperinge to Ypres.
In one, New British Cemetery Brandhoek, lies Captain N.G.
Chavasse who died in August 1917, the only man to win a
Military Cross and two Victoria Crosses, the second posthu-
mously. He was fatally wounded after an enemy shell hit his
dugout. That same dugout contained several injured soldiers
who had been rescued from the battlefield by Chavasse and
other stretcher-bearers. Nearby, in Vlamertinge Cemetery, lies
CSM John Skinner VC, DCM, of the King's Own Scottish
Borderers, whose coffin was carried to his grave by six other
holders of the Victoria Cross in March 1918.
Vimy Ridge
As you travel south from Lens, Vimy Ridge becomes increasingly
clear. It also becomes clear why it was such a vital high point for
the Germans to hold and for the Allies to take. The great barrier,
rising 61 metres above the plain, protected an area of France in
which mines and factories were in full production for Germany.
The whole of the top of the hill is now the property of the
Canadian government, and is a 240-acre memorial park.
A group of preserved trenches may be seen at Vimy. They
have been reconstructed to show the front line before the ridge
was taken. Look for pill-boxes, saps, duck boards, craters and
trench mortars. However, the most interesting aspect of any visit
to Vimy Ridge is the opportunity to visit the network of tunnels
which were dug prior to the 1917 Offensive. The Memorial is on
top of Hill 145, the highest point on the ridge, and contains the
names of 11,285 Canadians who have no known grave.
The Somme
A series of cemeteries at Serre contain the bodies of the British
and Empire soldiers killed in the most northern sector during the
Somme Offensive in 1916. A short walk along a track that
follows the course of `No Man's Land' takes us to the site of the
jumping-off trenches of the Accrington Pals on 1 July. The front
line is marked by the edge of the wood where trenches can still
be clearly seen.
Newfoundland Memorial Park, near Beaumont Hamel, is
probably the most interesting place on the whole of the Western
Front, and along with the Menin Gate, it receives the most
visitors. It is a large expense of ground containing the complete
trench systems of the JulyNovember 1916 period, three
cemeteries and three memorials. Newfoundland bought it after
the war to provide a memorial for its volunteer battalion, which
suffered so badly on the 1 July. A visitor centre traces the history
and development of both Newfoundland and the Newfoundland
Regiment.
Created by two huge charges of ammonal, two minutes before
the start of the Somme Offensive on 1 July 1916, Lochnagar Crater
measures 100 metres across and 30 metres deep.
The Thiepval Memorial designed by Lutyens was opened on 1
August 1932 and contains the names of 73,412 British and 830
South African troops who have no known grave. Behind the
memorial are equal numbers of graves of French and British
unknown soldiers. A new visitor centre was opened in 2004.
Situated in the southern sector of the Somme, the Historial de
la Grande Guerre, Peronne, offers a fascinating overview of the
fighting in that part of France. Hall 1 deals with events on the eve
of the war in the principal nations of Europe, highlighting the
sources of political tension and potential conflict and the
formation of alliances. Hall 2 (19141916) covers the opening
phases of the war from the mobilization to the German invasion
and occupation of northern France. Hall 3 covers the period from
1917 to the Armistice, featuring propaganda, economic war, new
weapons and the developing technology of war. Hall 4 covers the
peace settlements. The Audiovisual Hall examines the Battle of
the Somme as seen from contemporary documents and the
testimony of a veteran of the British army. Finally, the Central
Hall contains a collection of works by the German artist Otto Dix
that brings home the meaning of war.
Verdun
In the three-and-a-half years between the Battle of the Marne,
and Ludendorff's Offensive of March 1918, the German Army
remained on the defensive behind an impregnable line. Only
once did they come out from behind this line during this period.
They did so at Verdun in February 1916, and almost succeeded in
knocking France out of the war altogether.
Relatively few English schools visit Verdun, and those that do
usually stay in Reims, about an hour away. After leaving the
autoroute heading to Verdun, you join the road which was so
critical in Petain's plan to keep the town alive: la voie sacre e.
The Ossuary at Douaumont was built between 1922 and 1932,
and contains the remains of over 130,000 men, both French and
German. In front of the building is a cemetery containing 15,000
graves, and to the left is a Jewish memorial. At the rear of the
building it is possible to look through the ground-floor windows
and view the bones of those unknown soldiers who died on the
battlefield. Students can watch a short film about the battle in
the basement.
On the north section of the Ravine de la Dame, only two men
from the remaining seventy of 3 Company of the 137th
Regiment were left alive after heavy bombardment during the
night of 1112 February 1916. However, no trace of the missing
men could be found anywhere. It was only after the war that a
clue to their whereabouts was discovered. The trench which they
occupied, the Trench of Bayonets, was completely filled in, but
remains of bayonets were found sticking in the ground. On
excavation, a corpse was found beneath each rifle. It was
therefore deduced that the men were buried alive during the
bombardment whilst waiting to repel any German attack. Today
a rather ugly concrete shelter, provided by an American
benefactor, encloses the trench, and one bayonet can be seen
protruding from the soil.
Fort Douaumont was the largest and most important of the
series of forts built after 1871. It was equipped with flanking
parapets, concrete casemates (2.50 metres thick), a 155 mm gun
turret, a 75 mm gun turret, and two machine-gun turrets.
Guided tours of the Fort are available, and visitors are able to
walk round the impressive fortifications.
The village of Fleury was one of nine villages around Verdun
that were obliterated during the war. Small white posts indicate
the locations of the buildings that existed before the battle. On
the site of the former railway station is the Memorial Museum of
Verdun.
Normandy beaches
The Second World War is a popular topic at KS3, GCSE and post-
16. With 50 miles of coastline to explore, five landing beaches,
and a plethora of museums and attractions, the Normandy
beaches offer students of the Second World War a huge choice of
sites to visit. Some of the best include:
1. The Airborne Troops Museum at Saint-Mere-E
glise
2. Arromanches
3. Caen Memorial
4. Omaha Beach
5. Juno Beach Centre
Paris
In some ways the perfect city for a school visit, Paris has history,
culture, architecture and is very accessible from the UK. Most
schools include visits to Paris as part of an advanced study of
seventeenth- or eighteenth-century France. Key sites of histor-
ical interest include:
1. The Palace of Versailles
2. Notre Dame cathedral
3. Ho tel des Invalides
4. Muse e de l'Histoire de France
5. Conciergerie
Berlin
The proliferation of cheap flights to Berlin has meant that the city
has become increasingly popular with GCSE and post-16
students looking to extend their knowledge of the Cold War
and the Third Reich. Key places to visit include:
1. The Berlin Wall
2. The Reichstag
3. Potsdamer Platz
4. The Olympic Stadium
5. Museum Berlin-Karlshorst
Russia
Once the preserve of only the most adventurous of teachers, a
visit to St Petersburg and Moscow has become a firm fixture in
many history departments' GCSE and post-16 curricula. Offering
a combination of tsarist and communist sites, and a wealth of art
history, the two cities' highlights include:
1. The Hermitage (St Petersburg)
2. Peter and Paul Fortress (St Petersburg)
3. Museum of Political History (St Petersburg)
4. The Kremlin (Moscow)
5. Lenin's Mausoleum (Moscow)
6. Novodevichiy Convent and Cemetery (Moscow)
Tasks
1. Investigate sites close to your school. Assess how you could
incorporate a visit into your KS3/KS4 programme of study. Design a
set of resources to be used during the visit, with links to the key
processes in the National Curriculum.
2. Design a modelling exercise which could be used within your
school, or between schools. Decide on a main issue to investigate,
such as the causes of the English Civil War, and a series of stages,
where the different participants can give their opinion on events.
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Resources
Quick glossary of terms
AfL Assessment for learning.
AST Advanced skills teacher.
Attainment These define the knowledge, skills and level of
targets understanding that pupils of different abilities
and levels of maturity are expected to have by
the end of each Key Stage.
BECTA British Educational Communications and Tech-
nology agency: the UK government's leading
Agency for information and communications
technology (ICT) in education.
BT Beginning teacher: a teacher who is working in a
school as part of their initial teacher training
(ITT).
CACHE Council for awards in children's care and
education.
CAL Computer aided learning: applies to any learning
experience that has been enhanced or supported
by the use of computers.
CATs Cognitive ability tests: an assessment of a range
of reasoning skills.
CEDP Career entry and development profile: used by
all new teachers to chart their progression
through their teaching career.
CPD Continuing professional development.
CPO Child protection officer.
Core English, maths and science: as part of the
subjects National Curriculum, all pupils must study these
subjects up to Key Stage 4 (age 16).
147
CRB disclosure Criminal records bureau disclosure: it is a legal
requirement that all teachers are checked
against CRB records to determine their suitabil-
ity to work with young people.
Curriculum The range and content of subjects taught within
school.
DCSF Department for Children, Schools and Families.
Formerly known as the education and children's
services department of the DfES. Government
department that regulates all areas of education
and the National Curriculum.
Differentiation Differentiation involves teaching the same cur-
riculum to students of all ranges and abilities
using teaching strategies and resources to meet
the varied needs of each individual.
DT Design technology.
Diagnostic A form of assessment that highlights specific
testing areas of strength or weakness.
E2E Entry to employment: schemes and training
opportunities working in partnership with
schools and local authorities to provide suitable
life skills, education and training to pupils who
may have been excluded or gained very few
qualifications.
EAL English as an additional language.
EAZs Education action zones: based around primary
and some secondary schools. Support can
include: school-home support workers, extra-
curricular activity centres, homework support
groups in local libraries and so on.
EBD Emotional and behavioural difficulties/dis-
order.
EdPsyc Educational psychologist.
EMA Education maintenance allowance: a fortnightly
payment of up to 60 for students who are aged
1619 who stay on in education after they reach
the end of their compulsory schooling.
EMAG The ethnic minority achievement grant: govern-
ment money for supporting schools and local
authorities to meet the educational needs of
minority ethnic pupils.
ESOL English for speakers of other languages.
EWO/ESW Educational welfare officer/social worker: a
person responsible for ensuring pupils' regular
attendance at school and other related issues.
GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education: the
national examination that students usually take
in several subjects at age 16.
GNVQ General national vocational qualification:
courses in vocational subjects such as art and
design, health and social care and so on.
G&T Gifted and talented.
GTC General teaching council.
GTTR Graduate teacher training registry.
HMI Her Majesty's Inspector of schools employed by
Ofsted.
HoD Head of department (sometimes known as head
of subject).
HoY Head of year (group).
ICT Information and communications technology.
IEP Individual education plan: a programme of
support for pupils with a statement of special
educational needs.
In loco Means ìn place of a parent'; the legal term
parentis defining teachers' responsibility for pupils in
their care.
INSET In-service education and training for school staff.
ITT Initial teacher training: the period during which
a teacher undertakes training to achieve quali-
fied teacher status (QTS).
Key Stages The National Curriculum is divided into four
main stages:
Key Stage 1 Key Stage 2 Key Stage 3 Key Stage 4
Age 57 711 1114 1416
Year groups 12 36 79 1011
LA/LEA Local authority/local education authority: a
division of the local government with specific
responsibility for education.
LSA and LST Learning support assistant and learning support
teacher: support staff for pupils with special
educational needs, often works with individual
children in class or within designated learning
support units.
LSU Learning support unit: a department within a
Resources 149
school set up to help students with learning and/
or behavioural difficulties.
MFL Modern foreign languages.
NT National tests (formerly standard assessment
tests SATs): tests used to show your child's
progress compared with other children born in
the same month. Tests taken at Key Stages 1, 2
and 3 cover the three core subjects; English,
maths and science. GCSEs are taken at the end
of KS4.
Key Stage Age National Published
Test taken
1 7 No
2 11 Yes
3 14 No
4 16 Yes
NLS National Literacy Strategy.
NNS National Numeracy Strategy.
NQT Newly qualified teacher: a person in his or her
first year of teaching who has successfully
completed their teacher training.
NRA National record of achievement: a personalised
folder detailing a student's achievement and
attainment throughout their (secondary) school
career.
Objectives Goals, results or improvements that the decision
maker wants to attain.
Ofsted Office for Standards in Education: the organisa-
tion who is responsible for school inspections and
assess the quality and standards of education.
PANDA Performance and assessment: a report generated
by Ofsted to allow schools to assess their
performance and make comparisons with other
schools nationally.
PAT Pupil achievement tracker: a piece of diagnostic
and analytical software produced by the DCSF/
DfES to enable students' performance and
attainment to be tracked.
Pedagogy Refers to the art or science of teaching, but also
describes the strategies, techniques and ap-
proaches that teachers can use to facilitate
learning.
Performance The collected statistics for schools and local
tables authorities such as results of national examina-
tions and absence data and so on, published by
the DCSF.
PPA Planning, preparation and assessment: at least 10
per cent of every teacher's timetable should be
free for PPA time.
Programmes The content of teaching programmes laid down
of study in the National Curriculum for each subject.
PSE or PHSE Personal and social education or personal, social
and health education.
PSP Personal support plan: personalised targets to
support pupils often on the verge of exclusion
PTA Parent/teacher association.
QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, the
body that develops the curriculum and its
assessment.
QTS Qualified teacher status: qualification gained
after successfully completing a period of teacher
training needed to work in any state-maintained
school.
SEN Special educational needs: a term used to
describe a range of conditions within three main
categories: learning difficulties, behaviour diffi-
culties or physical and medical difficulties.
SENCO Special educational needs coordinator: the teacher
with responsibility for SEN pupils within a school.
SMART targets Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and
time-related: helping to monitor how targets and
goals viewed and completed.
SLT Senior leadership team.
SMT Senior management team: the leading members
of a school or education provider.
TDA Teacher Development Agency, also know as
Training and Development Agency for Schools
(formerly the TTA teacher training agency).
TLR Teaching and learning responsibilities: responsi-
bilities that impact positively on educational
progress beyond the teacher's assigned role.
VAK Visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles
model refers to the preferred learning style of an
individual and focuses on àctive' teaching and
learning strategies.
Resources 151
Education and government
Department for Schools, Children and Families (DCSF)
+ Sanctuary Buildings, Great Smith Street, London SW1P 3BT
( 0870 000 2288 : www.dcsf.gov.uk
Department for Education in Northern Ireland
+ Rathgael House, Balloo Road, Bangor BT19 7PR
( 028 9127 9279 : www.deni.gov.uk
HM Inspectorate of Education (HMIE)
+ Denholm House, Almondvale Business Park, Almondvale Way,
Livingston EH54 6GA
( 01506 600 200 : www.hmie.gov.uk
Office for Standards in Education, Children's Services and Skills (OfSTED)
+ Royal Exchange Buildings, St Ann's Square, Manchester M2 7LA
( 08456 404045 : www.ofsted.gov.uk
Scottish Executive Education Department
+ School Education, The Scottish Government, Victoria Quay,
Edinburgh EH6 6QQ
( 0131 556 8400 : www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Education
Welsh Assembly Government Education and Skills
+ Minister for Children, Education, Lifelong Learning & Skills, Welsh
Assembly Government, Cardiff Bay, Cardiff CF99 1NA
( 0845 010 3300 : New.wales.gov.uk/topics/educationand
skills
What is a LA?
In England and Wales, local authorities (LAs) are responsible for
managing all state schools within their area. Responsibilities
include funding, allocation of places and teacher employment.
You can locate your local authority via DSCF: www.schools-
web.gov.uk/locate/management/lea/fylea
What are GTCs?
The General Teaching Councils are independent professional
bodies with statutory power to advise the government on
teaching. All qualified teachers in the UK working in state
schools are required to register with a GTC.
GTC for England
+ Whittington House, 19-30 Alfred Place, London WC1E 7EA
( 0870 001 0308 : www.gtce.org.uk
GTC for Northern Ireland
+ 4th Floor Albany House, 7375 Great Victoria Street, Belfast BT2 7AF
( 028 9033 3390 : www.gtcni.org.uk
GTC for Scotland
+ Clerwood House, 96 Clermiston Road, Edinburgh EH12 6UT
( 0131 314 6000 : www.gtcs.org.uk
GTC for Wales
+ 4th Floor, Southgate House, Wood Street, Cardiff CF10 1EW
( 029 20550350 : www.gtcw.org.uk
Teacher training
Administration
Graduate Teacher Training Registry (GTTR)
Responsible for processing applications for PGCE and PGDE courses in
England and Wales, and Scotland.
+ Rosehill, New Barn Lane, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL52 3LZ
( 0871 468 0469 : www.gttr.ac.uk
Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA)
Government agency responsible for training and development of teaching
workforce.
+ 151 Buckingham Palace Road, London SW1W 9SZ
( 0845 6000 991 : www.tda.gov.uk
Training routes
Who needs QTS?
Anyone wishing to teach in a state school in England and Wales
needs to achieve Qualified teacher status (QTS). All the
training routes shown lead to QTS or equivalent.
There is no QTS in Scotland, however, new teaching graduates
are required to complete an induction year and register with the
GTCS.
Resources 153
Bachelor of education (BEd)
An honours degree course in education. Courses enable students
to study for their degree and complete initial teacher training at
the same time. A popular choice in teaching primary school
children: 34 years.
Graduate teacher programme (GTP)
Trainees are employed by a school as unqualified teachers. On-
the-job training is tailored to individual needs: 1 year.
Postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE)
Trainees spend at least a third of their time studying at a higher
education institution and two thirds on three or more teaching
placements in local schools. Teaching placements usually last
from two to seven weeks: 1 year.
Postgraduate diploma of education (PGDE)
Similar to a PGCE, but followed by students in Scotland: 1
year.
Registered teacher programme (RTP)
Training route for non-graduates, providing a blend of work-
based teacher training and academic study, enabling trainees to
complete their degree and qualify as a teacher at the same time:
2 years.
School-centred initial teacher training (SCITT)
Trainees spend more time training in the classroom and are
taught by experienced, practising teachers. Training is delivered
by groups of neighbouring schools and colleges. May also lead to
PGCE: 1 year.
Teach First
Programme aimed to encourage top graduates to consider
teaching as a career. Trainees work in challenging secondary
schools receiving teacher and leadership training, as well as work
experience with leading employers: 2 years.
Pay and conditions
How does a new teacher's salary grow?
Newly qualified teachers are placed on the main pay scale
(salary scale for classroom teachers in Scotland) at a point
dependent on relevant career experience. Salary increases by
one increment each year subject to satisfactory performance.
England & Wales: main pay scale (From 1 September 2008)
Spine Point Inner London Outer London Other
M1 25,000 24,000 20,627
M2 26,581 25,487 22,259
M3 28,261 27,065 24,048
M4 30,047 28,741 25,898
M5 32,358 31,178 27,939
M6 34,768 33,554 30,148
What is the STRB?
The school teachers' review body (STRB) reports to the
Secretary of State for Education making recommendations on
teachers' pay and conditions in England and Wales.
What about teachers in Northern Ireland?
Teachers' pay scales in Northern Ireland are generally the same
as those in England and Wales.
Scotland: Salary scale for classroom teachers (From 1 April
2008)
Scale Point Salary
0 20,427
1 24,501
2 25,956
3 27,432
4 29,025
5 30,864
6 32,583
What happens when you reach the top of the scale?
In England and Wales, teachers who reach the top of the main
pay scale can apply to cross the `threshold' and move to the
upper pay scale. In Scotland, teachers can apply to become
chartered teachers when they reach the top of the salary scale.
Resources 155
Unions
Should I join a union?
Union membership is strongly recommended. Teaching is a
demanding profession with many potential legal minefields.
Teaching unions provide legal and professional advice, guidance
and support.
What are the benefits of TUC affiliation?
Most unions are affiliated to the trades union congress (TUC) and
members benefit from being part of a larger organisation.
Independent unions typically cater for more specialised profes-
sions and are not bound by inter-union agreements or political
affiliations.
Association of Teachers & Lecturers (ATL)
Represents teachers and lecturers in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
TUC affiliated.
+ 7 Northumberland Street, London WC2N 5RD
( 020 7930 6441 : www.atl.org.uk
mm 120,000
Educational Institute of Scotland (EIS)
Largest organisation of teachers and lecturers in Scotland. TUC affiliated.
+ 46 Moray Place, Edinburgh EH3 6BH
( 0131 225 6244 : www.eis.org.uk
mm 59,000
National Association of Headteachers (NAHT)
Main association representing the interests of headteachers. Independent.
+ 1 Heath Square, Boltro Road, Haywards Heath, West Sussex RH16 1BL
( 01444 472472 : www.naht.org.uk
mm 30,000
National Association of School Masters/Union of Women Teachers
(NASUWT)
Only TUC affiliated teachers' union representing teachers and headteachers
in all parts of the UK.
+ Hillscourt Education Centre, Rose Hill, Rednal, Birmingham B45 8RS
( 0121 453 6150 : www.nasuwt.org.uk
mm 250,000
National Union of Teachers (NUT)
Largest teaching union representing teachers and headteachers. TUC affiliated.
+ Hamilton House, Mabledon Place, London WC1H 9BD
( 020 7388 6191 : www.teachers.org.uk
mm 270,000
University and College Union (UCU)
Largest trade union and professional association for academics, lecturers,
trainers, researchers and academic-related staff. TUC affiliated.
+ 27 Britannia Street, London WC1X 9JP
( 020 7837 3636 : www.ucu.org.uk
mm 120,000
Voice Formerly the Professional Association of Teachers (PAT)
Independent trade union representing teachers, headteachers, lecturers,
teaching assistants, technicians, administrators and support staff, in the
public and private sectors.
+ 2 St James' Court, Friar Gate, Derby DE1 1BT
( 01332 372 337 : www.voicetheunion.org.uk
mm 35,000
Curriculum qualifications
England, Wales & Northern Ireland
SAT Statutory Assessment Tasks
GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education
BTEC Business & Technician Education Council
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
A Level Advanced Level
A/S Advanced Subsidiary Level
Scotland
Standard Grade
Higher
Advanced Higher
SVQ Scottish Vocational Qualification
NQF and SCQF
What is the NQF?
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and Scot-
tish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) group
together qualifications that place similar demands on learners.
Resources 157
NQF and SCQF equivalent qualifications
NQF Level Qualifications Vocational Qualifications
1 GCSE (grades DG) BTEC Introductory Diploma
NVQ
2 GCSEs (grades A*C) BTEC First Diploma
NVQ
3 A level BTEC Diploma
International Baccalaureate BTEC National
SCQF Level Qualification Vocational Qualification
3 Foundation Standard Grade
4 General Standard Grade SVQ1
5 Credit Standard Grade SVQ2
6 Higher SVQ3
7 Advanced Higher
Subject associations
Association for Science Education
+ College Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL10 9AA
( 01707 283000 www.ase.org.uk
Association for Teachers of Mathematics
+ Unit 7 Prime Industrial Park, Shaftesbury Street, Derby DE23 8YB
( 01332 346599 : www.atm.org.uk
Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research
+ 3rd Floor, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7HR
( 020 7379 5101 : www.cilt.org.uk
Economics and Business Studies Association (EBEA)
+ The Forum, 277 London Road, Burgess Hill RH15 9QU
( 01444 240150 : www.ebea.org.uk
Geographical Association
+ 160 Solly Street, Sheffield S1 4BF
( 0114 296 0088 : www.geography.org.uk
Historical Association
+ 59a Kennington Park Road, London SE11 4JH
( 020 7735 3901 : www.history.org.uk
National Association for Advisors and Inspectors in Design and
Technology
+ 68 Brookfield Crescent, Hampsthwaite, Harrogate, North Yorkshire
HG3 2EE
( www.naaidt.org.uk
National Association for the Teaching of English (NATE)
+ 50 Broadfield Road, Sheffield, South Yorkshire S8 OXJ
( 0114 255 5419 : www.nate.org.uk
RE Today
+ 1020 Bristol Road, Selly Oak, Birmingham B29 6LB
( 0121 472 4242 : www.retoday.org.uk
Exam boards
Assessment & Qualifications Alliance (AQA)
+ Guildford Office Stag Hill House, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XJ
Harrogate Office 31-33 Springfield Avenue, Harrogate, North Yorkshire
HG1 2HW
Manchester Office Devas Street, Manchester M15 6EX
( Guildford 01483 506 506
Harrogate 01423 840 015
Manchester 0161 953 1180 : www.aqa.org.uk
Northern Ireland Council for the Curriculum, Examination and Assessment
(CCEA)
+ 29 Clarendon Road, Clarendon Dock, Belfast BT1 3BG
( 02890 261200 : www.ccea.org.uk
City & Guilds
+ 1 Giltspur Street, London EC1A 9DD
( 020 7294 2800 : www.cityandguilds.com
Edexcel
+ Edexcel Customer Service, One90 High Holborn, London WC1V 7BH.
( 0844 576 0025 : www.edexcel.org.uk
London Chamber of Commerce and Industry Examinations Board (LCCIEB)
( 08707 202909 : www.lccieb.com
Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations (OCR)
+ 1 Hills Road, Cambridge CB1 2EU
( 01223 553 998 : www.ocr.org.uk
Resources 159
Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA)
+ The Optima Building, 58 Robertson Street, Glasgow G2 8DQ
( 0845 279 1000 : www.sqa.org.uk
Welsh Joint Education Committee (WJEC)
+ 245 Western Avenue, Cardiff CF5 2YX
( 029 2026 5000 : www.wjec.co.uk
Media
General media
BBC News www.bbc.co.uk/learning/subjects/schools
Daily Telegraph www.telegraph.co.uk/education
Guardian education.guardian.co.uk
Independent www.independent.co.uk/news/education
Times www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/
education
TES www.tes.co.uk
Teachers TV
Freesat 650
Freeview 88
Sky 880
Tiscali TV 845
Virgin TV 240
Lesson planning
What is a learning style?
A learning style is the method of educating which best suits an
individual. Teachers are encouraged to assess and adapt to the
learning styles of their pupils. Common learning style definitions
are shown below.
Auditory: learning occurs through hearing the spoken word.
Kinesthetic: learning occurs through doing and interacting.
Visual: learning occurs through looking at images, demonstra-
tions and body language
Assessment
Formative
Teachers use their assessments (observation, homework, discus-
sion etc) to adapt teaching and learning to meet student needs.
Characterised as assessment for learning.
Summative
Students sit a test to assess their progress over a given period.
Characterised as assessment of learning.
Inclusion SEN and other barriers to learning
What do we mean by SEN pupils?
The DCSF defines students with special educational needs
(SEN) as having `learning difficulties or disabilities which make
it harder for them to learn or access education than most other
children of the same age'. School special educational needs
coordinators (SENCO) are responsible for coordinating SEN
provision within a school.
Attention deficit (hyperactivity) disorder (ADHD)
Students have difficulty focusing on a specific task. Easily
distracted, they have a very short attention span and have
trouble commencing work. Those with hyperactivity may act
impulsively and erratically.
Autistic spectrum disorder (ASD)
Students share three main areas of difficulty: i) social commu-
nication; ii) social interaction; and iii) social imagination. The
condition affects students in different ways, hence use of the
word `spectrum'.
Asperger's syndrome
Form of autism associated with more intellectually-able indivi-
duals.
Dyscalculia
Students have difficulty acquiring mathematical skills. They may
have difficulty understanding simple number concepts and lack
an intuitive grasp of numbers.
Resources 161
Dyslexia
Students have a marked and persistent difficulty in learning to
read, write and spell. They may have poor reading comprehen-
sion, handwriting and punctuation skills.
Dyspraxia
Students are affected by an impairment or immaturity of the
organisation of movement and often appear clumsy. They may
have poor balance and coordination. Their articulation may also
be immature and their language late to develop.
English as an additional language (EAL)/English as a
secondary language (ESL)
Students whose main language at home (mother tongue) is a
language other than English.
Emotional/behavioural disorder (EBD)
Students' behaviour provides a barrier to their learning despite
implementation of effective school behaviour policy.
Hearing impairment (HI)
Students with a hearing impairment range from those with mild
hearing loss to those who are profoundly deaf.
Individual education plan (IEP)
Document setting out additional support and strategies provided
to meet the needs of a student with learning difficulties.
Moderate learning difficulty (MLD)
In comparison with their peers, students have much greater
difficulty acquiring basic literacy and numeracy skills and in
understanding concepts. Other difficulties include low self-
esteem, low levels of concentration and underdeveloped social
skills.
Multi-sensory impairment (MSI)
Students have a combination of visual and hearing difficul-
ties. They may also have additional disabilities.
Physical disability (PD)
Students with a visual, mobility or orthopaedic impairment that
impacts on their ability to access the curriculum.
Profound and multiple learning difficulty (PMLD)
In addition to very severe learning difficulties, students have
other significant difficulties, such as physical disabilities, sensory
impairment or a severe medical condition.
Severe learning difficulty (SLD)
Students have significant intellectual or cognitive impair-
ments. This has a major effect on their ability to participate in
the school curriculum without support.
Specific learning difficulty (SpLD)
Umbrella term used to cover a range of difficulties including
dyslexia, dyscalculia and dyspraxia.
National SEN Associations
British Dyslexia Association
+ Unit 8, Bracknell Beeches, Old Bracknell Lane, Bracknell RG12 7BW
( 0845 251 9002 www.bdadyslexia.org.uk
National Attention Deficit Disorder Information and Support Service
+ P.O. Box 340 Edgware, Middlesex HA8 9HL
( 020 8952 2800 : www.addiss.co.uk
National Association for Language Development in the Curriculum
+ Serif House, 10 Dudley Street, Luton LU2 0NT
( 01582 724724 : www.naldic.org.uk
National Autistic Society
+ 393 City Road, London EC1V 1NG
( 020 7833 2299 : www.autism.org.uk
National Association for Special Educational Needs
+ Nasen House, Amber Business Village, Amber Close, Amington,
Tamworth, Staffordshire B77 4RP
( 01827 311500 : www.nasen.org.uk
Dyspraxia Foundation
+ West Alley, Hitchin, Hertfordshire SG5 1EG
( 01462 454 986 : www.dyspraxiafoundation.org.uk
Royal National Institute for the Deaf
+ 19-23 Featherstone Street, London EC1Y 8SL
( 0808 808 0123 : www.rnid.org.uk
Resources 163
Lesson plans
What should be included?
Many schools and universities have their own recommended
lesson plan format. The suggested structure below provides a
possible structure and key areas of content.
Teacher Date Subject
Class No. Pupils Ability/Level
No. SEN Pupils LSA Support Y/N
Context An introduction to. . . /Builds on material covered in a
previous lesson. . .
A cooperative/challenging class. . . strategies employed
include . . .
Aim Why do we . . .
What is the link between. . .
Objectives Understand key features of. . .
Learn how to. . .
Outcomes Write down five facts about. . .
Identify the key features of . . . Keywords
Structure Teaching Activity Pupil Activities
Starter Work in pairs
Recall previous lesson
Main Body Complete exercise
Work in pairs
Plenary Write down
Discuss
Differentiation Extension questions
Peer support
Assessment Teacher led Q&A targeted and open questions
Marking books
Resources Text books, PowerPoint
LSA Support Focus on pupil x
Circulate among all pupils
SEN Pupils Name Condition Strategy
Dyslexia Keywords on board
LSA help writing h/w
Other useful websites
Site name: A to Z of School Leadership and Management
Description: Advice on legislation concerning schools, and guidance on a
range of school-management issues.
URL: www.teachernet.gov.uk/atoz
Site name: Addresses of LAs in England with websites
Description: A comprehensive list of LA contacts, news, information and
communications from the DCSF.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/localauthorities
Site name: Advanced Skills Teachers
Description: Information from Teachernet for teachers who wish to apply.
URL: www.teachernet.gov.uk/professionaldevelopment/opportu-
nities/ast
Site name: BBC Key Stage 2 Revisewise bitesize revision
Description: Revision work for Key Stage 2 students in English,
mathematics and science from the BBC Education website.
URL: www.bbc.co.uk/schools/revisewise
Site name: BECTA British Educational Communities and Technology
Agency
Description: The UK government's leading agency for information and
communications technology (ICT) in education.
URL: www.becta.org.uk
Site name: Behaviour and Attendance
Description: Information about the government's programme to improve
pupil behaviour and attendance.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/behaviourandattendance/index.cfm
Site name: Birmingham Grid for Learning
Description: The public portal contains resources and links for learners,
teachers, parents and administrators.
URL: www.bgfl.org/bgfl/
Site name: Building Bridges
Description: Information on the Independent/State School Partnerships
Grant Scheme, set up to encourage collaborative working
between independent and maintained schools.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/buildingbridges
Resources 165
Site name: CEGNET
Description: Careers education website from the Connexions Service
National Unit for schools and colleges and their partners.
URL: www.cegnet.co.uk
Site name: Children and Young People's Unit
Description: The website of the government unit for the better
coordination of policies and services for children.
URL: www.allchildrenni.gov.uk/
Site name: Choice
Description: First online course prospectus for 14- to 19-year-olds in
London. Includes a free searchable directory of over 25,000
courses with clear details of all the learning opportunities
open to young people.
URL: www.yourlondon.gov.uk/choice
Site name: Citizenship
Description: The DCSF citizenship website. Includes schemes of work and
teaching resources, plus articles and information from
assessment to whole-school issues.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/citizenship
Site name: Code of Practice on LA-School Relations
Description: Link to a downloadable version of the code, providing
statutory guidance on how to raise standards.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/lea
Site name: Connecting Voices (COVO)
Description: A Southwark-based charity delivering services that address
conflict, disaffection and underachievement in education
and the workplace.
URL: www.covo.org.uk
Site name: Connexions
Description: Guidance and support for 13- to 19-year-olds in all areas of
life.
URL: www.connexions.gov.uk
Site name: Curriculum Online
Description: A comprehensive catalogue of digital learning resources for
the National Curriculum for England.
URL: www.curriculumonline.gov.uk
Site name: Don't Suffer in Silence
Description: Website showing pupils, their families and teachers how to
tackle bullying problems.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/bullying
Site name: Education Protects
Description: A project funded by the DCSF aiming to help raise the
educational achievements of children and young people in
care.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/educationprotects
Site name: DCSF Languages Strategy
Description: The Languages for Life website outlining the government's
languages plans to transform language use and acquisition.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/ languagesstrategy/
Site name: Directgov
Description: Main portal for access to UK government services, including
the latest, up-to-date public-service information.
URL: www.direct.gov.uk
Site name: Every Child Matters: Change for Children
Description: Useful materials and case studies to help understand and
deliver the Every Child Matters agenda.
URL: www.everychildmatters.gov.uk
Site name: Fast Track
Description: Accelerated leadership development programme for new
teachers.
URL: www.dfee.gov.uk/fasttrack
Site name: Global Gateway
Description: Information for the development of an international
dimension in education. Including ideas for lesson plans,
free downloadable resources, an area for young people and
information on gap years.
URL: www.globalgateway.org
Site name: Go-Givers
Description: Site showing primary children what it means to be part of a
caring society. Including case studies for assemblies,
discussion activities and a range of resources ideal for
teaching citizenship.
URL: www.gogivers.org
Resources 167
Site name: Homework: The Standards Site
Description: Support for the development of independent learning skills
andattitudes for successful lifelong learning.
URL: www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/homework
Site name: Key Stage 3: The Standards Site
Description: Information on the KS3 curriculum standards.
URL: www.standards.dfee.gov.uk/keystage3
Site name: Learning and Skills Council
Description: Information and guidance on further education, work-based
training, entry to employment and modern apprenticeships.
URL: www.lsc.gov.uk
Site name: Learning and Skills Development Agency
Description: National resource for the development of policy and
practice in post-16 education and training.
URL: www.lsda.org.uk
Site name: LifeBytes
Description: Website for 1114 year olds providing facts and information
about their health.
URL: www.lifebytes.gov.uk
Site name: Literacy: The Standards Site
Description: Support for teachers and educational professionals to
improve literacy in schools.
URL: www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/literacy
Site name: National Vocational Qualifications
Description: Information on NVQs and the career opportunities they
provide.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/nvq
Site name: Numeracy: The Standards Site
Description: Support for teachers and educational professionals to
improve numeracy in schools.
URL: www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary/mathematics
Site name: Practical Research for Education
Description: Online journal for education students, teachers and educa-
tion lecturers. Includes: free articles, profile interviews with
researchers and a forum to discuss educational research.
URL: www.pre-online.co.uk
Site name: Primary National Strategy
Description: Support from the DCSF for all aspects of primary teaching.
URL: www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/primary
Site name: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)
Description: Website of the QCA, the governing body who maintain and
develop the school curriculum and assessments and accredit
and monitor qualifications.
URL: www.qca.org.uk
Site name: School Lookup
Description: Access to the DCSF EduBase database of all nurseries,
schools and colleges in the UK.
URL: www.easea.co.uk
Site name: SEN
Description: Special Educational Needs page from Teachernet offering
information on SEN, including materials for teachers, parents
and other education professionals.
URL: www.dfes.gov.uk/sen
Site name: Standards Site
Description: Internet materials and services aiming to support and
improve teacher ability and raise levels of achievement.
URL: www.standards.dfes.gov.uk
Site name: Teachernet
Description: Education website for teachers and school managers,
setting the government standard for UK teachers and
schools-related professions.
Including resources, lesson plans and assessment strategies.
URL: www.teachernet.gov.uk/
Site name: Teachers' Pension Scheme
Description: Information about the Teachers' Pensions Scheme for
England and Wales.
URL: www.teacherspensions.co.uk/
Site name: Teacher Xpress
Description: Resources and links to educational websites covering every
area of the curriculum.
URL: www.teacherxpress.com
Resources 169
Site name: Times Educational Supplement
Description: Jobs, resources and ideas for all teachers and people
working in education. Resource Bank section includes a
large section of resources for teachers by teachers.
URL: www.tes.co.uk
References
ATL www.atl.org.uk
BBC.co.uk www.bbc.co.uk/health/
British Dyslexia Association www.bdadyslexia.org.uk
DCSF www.dcsf.gov.uk
Directgov www.direct.gov.uk
Educational Resources.co.uk www.educationalresources.co.uk
GTC England www.gtce.org.uk
GTC Northern Ireland www.gtcni.org.uk
GTTR www.gttr.ac.uk
Info Scotland: Teaching in Scotland www.teachinginscotland.com
NASUWT www.nasuwt.org.uk
National Autistic Society www.autism.org.uk
NUT www.teachers.org.uk
Scottish Credit and Qualifications
Network www.scqf.org.uk
Scottish Executive Education
Department www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Education
Teachernet www.teachernet.gov.uk
EIS www.eis.org.uk
TDA www.tda.gov.uk
TUC www.tuc.org.uk
UCU www.ucu.org.uk
Voice www.voicetheunion.org.uk
Index
A Level 38, 39, 567
Access and Engagement in
History 834
accessibility of evidence 57
accessing, problems of 67, 6971
active learning approaches 3
additional tasks for gifted
pupils 77
adventure game 845
advice on improving
performance 35, 36
advocate role 118
Allen, K. 108
analogy 112
analysing utility 512
animation 63
art 20
Asperger's syndrome 66, 161
Assessing Pupil Progress (APP) 27,
41, 435
assessment 17, 2546
features of effective
assessment 28, 29
forms of 256, 161
future of 435
identifying gifted and talented
pupils 745
importance 268
of progression 413
Assessment Focuses 445
Assessment for Learning (AfL) 26,
2841
Assessment Reform Group 17
Association of Teachers and
Lecturers (ATL) 130
attention deficit (hyperactivity)
disorder (ADD/ADHD) 66,
161
attitudes 52, 55
teachers' and teaching Irish
history 120
authoring 103
autistic spectrum disorder
(ASD) 66, 161
avoidance, deliberate 11415
balance, lack of 115
Banqueting House, Whitehall 133
battlefield trips 13540
Becta 87
behaviour management
strategy 117
Berlin 1401
bias 52, 83
`big stories and big pictures'
approach 13
Black, P. 26, 27, 28, 30, 389, 40
Blankety Blank 34
Blogger website 108
Boice, R. 116
Boxoftricks website 108
brainstorming 117
`buddy' 82, 834
Caernarfon Castle 132
causation 43, 957
171
cemeteries 136, 137
check list for school visits 1301
civility in the classroom 11617
class discussion 303
Coalbrookdale 134
collaboration, inter-school 126,
127
comment-based marking 3840
committed teacher role 118
communicating historical
understanding 678, 714
community involvement 83
comparison of content 534, 97
computer technology see ICT
Conservative Party 1, 113
context, historical 14, 57, 115, 119
controversial issues 11124
approach to teaching 11619
case studies 11924
factors constraining teaching
of 11216
rationale for teaching 11112
`conversations in history' 78
Conwy Castle 1323
costume 19
Counsell, C. 723, 123
counterfactual history 78, 845
CREATE network 89
cross-curricular links 88
cross-referencing sources 535,
56, 95
cultural isolation 81
Cunnah, W. 69, 72
curriculum time for history 12,
11213
databases 1003
day-to-day assessment 434
debates 117, 119
declared interest role 11819
decline of history 12, 11213
deliberate avoidance 11415
Department for Children, Schools
and Families (DCSF) 401, 82
departmental marking policy 35
depth studies 1314, 16
devil's advocate role 118
differentiation 9, 72
digital video 1035
directed activities related to text
(DART) 84
Disability Discrimination Act 68
discussion
class discussion 303
forums 91, 92, 108
Dover Castle 1345
drama 83
dual-language texts 83
dyslexia 66, 162
dyspraxia 66, 162
e-book 108
Easter Rising 122
Eden Camp 134
Edexcel `Resultsplus' 28
Edmodo website 108
Education for All 82
effective teaching 57, 8
Èlizabethan Speed Dating'
exercise 701
emotive issues see controversial
issues
empathy 11516
Ènclosure Game' 55
English Civil War 957
English as an additional/second
language (EAL/ESL) 804,
162
principal barriers for
learning 81
strategies 824
enquiry, historical 47, 578, 778,
128
European trips 13541
evaluation of sources 557, 95,
10910
evaluation table 56
evidence see sources
evidence-based approach 121
exam boards 15960
exam pressure 113
examples 69
Excellent Teacher Status 10, 11
extended writing 724
external audience 28
Eyre, D. 74
Family Fortunes 33
film production 1035
film proposals 78, 79
first-order concepts 41, 47
First World War battlefields
13540
Fleury 140
Focus on Film 104
formative assessment 256, 378,
161
see also Assessment for Learning
(AfL)
Fort Douaumont 140
Fountains Abbey 135
Freedom of Information Act 1,
113
functional skills 90
GCSE 2, 556
mock exams 378
General Teaching Councils
(GTCs) 1523
gifted and talented pupils 7480
defining 74
identifying 746
meeting their needs 7680
global issues 112
Goodwin, N. 100
Greater Manchester County
Record Office 100
ground rules 117
group work 14, 81
groups/communities, portrayal
of 115
Hadrian's Wall 1334
Harlech Castle 132
Harris, R. 72
Harwood, D. 11819
Hattie, J. 67
Hay McBer 56, 7, 8
Haydn, T. 810, 67, 75, 94
health and safety 12931
Hiss, A. 93
Historial de la Grande
Guerre 1389
Historical Association 12, 126
historical enquiry 47, 578, 778,
128
historical focus 116
history societies 1256
Holocaust 114
Holocaust Memorial Museum,
Washington 115
hot-seating 55
Husbands, C. 17, 69
hypotheses 13, 118
ICT 83, 87110
audit 109
databases 1003
digital video 1035
enhancing the study of
history 904
learner response pods 33,
1056
mini-blogs 108
PowerPoint 99100
rationale for using 8790
virtual learning environments
1068
word-processors 77, 88, 912,
934, 949
images 49, 71, 82, 93, 99, 119
impartial chairperson role 118
Index 173
Imperial War Museum
(IWM) 1312
In Flanders Fields Museum 136
inclusion 6585, 1613
pupils with EAL/ESL 804, 162
pupils with SEN 6574, 88,
1613
independent activity 18
independent learning 88
independent schools 2
individual education plan
(IEP) 68, 162
initial stimulus material 4851,
119
interactive whiteboards 93
internet 93
see also ICT; websites
interpretations 47, 5963
difference from evidence 5960
effective teaching 603
types of 61
inter-school collaboration 126,
127
Ireland in Schools project 121
Irish history in Northern Ireland
11922
Ironbridge Gorge museums 134
Islamic history 1224
John, P. 989
Key Stage 3 curriculum 12
Kinloch, N. 112, 114, 122, 1223
Kitson, A. 120
lack of balance 115
Laffin, D. 106
Langemarck Cemetery 137
language
pupils with EAL 804, 162
pupils with SEN 67, 6971
Lattimore, O. 93
league tables 28
learner response pods 33, 1056
learning
goals 1819
independent 88
personalized 9, 27
style 27, 160
visits and learning points 1289
what and how to learn 27
Learning Curve 92
learning disabilities see special
educational needs (SEN)
learning environment
civility 11617
effective 7, 8
inclusion 71, 76, 79
supportive 33
1068
Lee, P. 423
lesson planning 1721, 224, 41,
160
format 164
integrating AfL strategies 30,
312
Level Descriptors 33, 38, 41, 42
listening frames 834
local authorities (LAs) 152
local history 126
Lochnagar Crater 138
long-term planning 1012, 41
Manchester Grammar School First
World War database 100,
101, 1023
Manchester Museum of Science
and Industry 132
Maritime Museum, Liverpool 133
marking work 346, 3840
mark schemes 38
marking policy 35
Martin, D. 91
McCully, A. 120, 1212
medium-term planning 1216
Meeting of Minds 123
Menin Gate 136, 138
Michael Collins 122
mini-blogs 108
mock GCSE exams 378
modelling task 126, 127
motivation 27
Movie Maker 105
Mr and Mrs 34
murals 119, 121
music 20
National Academy for Gifted and
Talented Youth (NAGTY) 74,
75, 76, 77
National Curriculum 12, 12, 59,
92, 118, 128
assessment 412, 44
controversial issues 111
historical processes 47, 723,
756
and ICT 901
National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) 1578
Newfoundland Memorial
Park 138
Newly Qualified Teacher
Status 10, 11
Normandy beaches 140
Northern Ireland 11922
history curriculum 1201
nursery rhymes 50
objective teacher role 118
offence, fear of causing 11415
Ofsted 3, 17, 26, 90
open-ended tasks 79
open-minded approach 11718
organization chart 73
organizing ideas and evidence
978
Ossuary at Douaumont 139
out-of-class activities 80, 889,
12541
visits see visits
ways to develop pupil interest
1258
outcome, differentiation by 72
overviews 1314, 15
Oxfam 117
pair work 81, 88, 95
parental involvement 83
Paris 140
peer assessment 30, 88, 95
Pembroke Castle 133
periodic assessments 434
personalized learning 9, 27
Phillips, R. 48, 501, 67, 69, 108
planning 524, 41, 69
importance of 710
lesson plans see lesson planning
long-term 1012, 41
medium-term 1216
visits 128
Poperinghe 137
popularity of history 13, 11213
portrayals of groups/
communities 115
Post-threshold Status 10, 11
PowerPoint 99100
preliminary visit 128
presentation of work 77, 94, 100
primary objective 89
primary sources 57
Prior, J. 989
problemobjectivesolution
evaluation model for problem
solving 11718
processes 9
professional characteristics 56, 7
professional standards 910, 11
progression, assessing 413
prompting questions 73
pupil to staff ratio 130
Index 175
pupil talk 701, 105
puppets 20
Qualifications and Curriculum
Authority (QCA) 43, 44
Qualifications and Curriculum
Development Agency
(QCDA) 11, 68, 756, 76
Qualified Teacher Status 910, 11,
153
questions
about interpretation 61, 62
devised by pupils 778
questioning by the teacher
1718, 303, 73
Ramparts cemetery 136
Rebel Hearts 122
recall tennis 19
relative significance 912
reliability of sources 523
resources
controversial issues 11314,
121, 123
pupils with SEN 67, 71
revelatory writing 989
Riley, M. 1213
risk assessment 128, 130
Roberts, C. 80
role-play 55, 63, 84, 106, 117
Russia 141
Sanctuary Wood 1367
Scottish Credit and Qualifications
Framework (SCQF) 1578
second-order concepts 413, 47
secondary sources 57
self-assessment 30, 35, 36, 378,
39
Serre 138
settling-in issues 81, 82
Shemilt, D. 423
short-term planning see lesson
planning
simulations 79
site visits see visits
Snape, D. 108
social isolation 81
Somme, the 136, 1389
sources 4759
accessing Web sources 589
effective use of evidence 4857
evaluation 557, 95, 10910
as evidence 517
ICT and source skills 923, 978
and interpretations 5960
pitfalls of using evidence 578
rationale for using evidence
478
as stimulus material 4851
visited sites as 129
Speak Your Piece project 1212
special educational needs (SEN)
6574, 88, 1613
accessing the material 67,
6971
barriers to learning history
668
communicating historical
understanding 678, 714
coordinator (SENCO) 66, 82,
161
overcoming the barriers 6874
SEN code of practice 68
standards, raising 26
starter activities 1921, 23
Stephen, A. 1234
stimulus material 4851, 119
subject associations 1589
summative assessment 256,
378, 161
support 72, 81, 889
supporting an argument 557
task, differentiation by 72
TEACH report 11215, 122, 124
teacher
attitudes to Irish history
teaching 120
feedback from 7, 71, 117
pay and conditions 1545
professional characteristics 56,
7
professional standards 910, 11
qualities and gifted and talented
pupils 77
role in teaching controversial
issues 11819
subject knowledge 77, 114
training 89, 113, 1534
teacher talk 67, 69
teaching assistants (TAs) 68, 69
Teaching History 44, 114
teaching skills 67
television shows 334
TES 6
text boxes 99
textbooks 67, 71, 121
Thiepval Memorial 138
thinking skills 112, 119
training 89, 113, 1534
transition assessment 434
Trench of Bayonets 13940
Tyne Cot 137
UK site visits 1315
unions 130, 1567
utility, analysing (for sources)
512
variety 88
Verdun 13940
video, digital 1035
video clips 1920, 49, 834,
103
Vimy Ridge 1378
(VLEs) 1068
visits 80, 12641
health and safety 12931
learning points 1289
suggested locations 13141
vocabulary lists 84
voting response pods 33, 1056
Walsh, B. 93, 95
websites
departmental and school 94
interpretations 61
sources 589, 10910
useful 104, 108, 16570
Welsh castles 1323
Wiliam, D. 26, 27, 28, 30, 389,
40
word-processors 77, 88, 934,
949
causation 957
organizing ideas and evidence
978
and relative significance 912
revelatory writing 989
source evaluation 95
Wordle software 13
worksheets 71
writing frames 734, 934
Ypres 135, 1367
Index 177

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