8/6/2014 Lecture 7

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LECTURE 7
ANALYSIS OF STRAINS
CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Concept of strain : if a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress the bar will change in length. If the bar has an original length L and changes by an amount dL, the
strain produce is defined as follows:
Strain is thus, a measure of the deformation of the material and is a nondimensional Quantity i.e. it has no units. It is simply a ratio of two quantities with the same unit.
Since in practice, the extensions of materials under load are very very small, it is often convenient to measure the strain in the form of strain x 10
-6
i.e. micro strain, when the
symbol used becomes m .
Sign convention for strain:
Tensile strains are positive whereas compressive strains are negative. The strain defined earlier was known as linear strain or normal strain or the longitudinal strain now let
us define the shear strain.
Definition: An element which is subjected to a shear stress experiences a deformation as shown in the figure below. The tangent of the angle through which two adjacent sides
rotate relative to their initial position is termed shear strain. In many cases the angle is very small and the angle it self is used, ( in radians ), instead of tangent, so that g =
AOB - A'OB' = f
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Shear strain: As we know that the shear stresses acts along the surface. The action of the stresses is to produce or being about the deformation in the body consider the
distortion produced b shear sheer stress on an element or rectangular block
This shear strain or slide is f and can be defined as the change in right angle. or The angle of deformation g is then termed as the shear strain. Shear strain is measured in
radians & hence is non dimensional i.e. it has no unit.So we have two types of strain i.e. normal stress & shear stresses.
Hook's Law :
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimensions when load is removed.
Hook's law therefore states that
Stress ( s ) a strain( )
Modulus of elasticity : Within the elastic limits of materials i.e. within the limits in which Hook's law applies, it has been shown that
Stress / strain = constant
This constant is given by the symbol E and is termed as the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus of elasticity
Thus
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The value of Young's modulus E is generally assumed to be the same in tension or compression and for most engineering material has high, numerical value of the order of
200 GPa
Poisson's ratio: If a bar is subjected to a longitudinal stress there will be a strain in this direction equal to s / E . There will also be a strain in all directions at right angles to s .
The final shape being shown by the dotted lines.
It has been observed that for an elastic materials, the lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain. The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known as the
poison's ratio .
Poison's ratio ( m ) = - lateral strain / longitudinal strain
For most engineering materials the value of m his between 0.25 and 0.33.
Three dimensional state of strain : Consider an element subjected to three mutually perpendicular tensile stresses s
x
, s
y
and s
z
as shown in the figure below.
If s
y
and s
z
were not present the strain in the x direction from the basic definition of Young's modulus of Elasticity E would be equal to

x
= s
x
/ E
The effects of s
y
and s
z
in x direction are given by the definition of Poisson's ratio m ' to be equal as -m s
y
/ E and -m s
z
/ E
The negative sign indicating that if s
y
and s
z
are positive i.e. tensile, these they tend to reduce the strain in x direction thus the total linear strain is x direction is given by
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Principal strains in terms of stress:
In the absence of shear stresses on the faces of the elements let us say that s
x
, s
y
, s
z
are in fact the principal stress. The resulting strain in the three directions would be the
principal strains.
i.e. We will have the following relation.
For Two dimensional strain: system, the stress in the third direction becomes zero i.e s
z
= 0 or s
3
= 0
Although we will have a strain in this direction owing to stresses s
1
& s
2
.
Hence the set of equation as described earlier reduces to
Hence a strain can exist without a stress in that direction
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Hydrostatic stress : The term Hydrostatic stress is used to describe a state of tensile or compressive stress equal in all directions within or external to a body. Hydrostatic
stress causes a change in volume of a material, which if expressed per unit of original volume gives a volumetric strain denoted by
v
. So let us determine the expression for
the volumetric strain.
Volumetric Strain:
Consider a rectangle solid of sides x, y and z under the action of principal stresses s
1
, s
2
, s
3
respectively.
Then
1
,
2
, and
3
are the corresponding linear strains, than the dimensions of the rectangle becomes
( x +
1
. x ); ( y +
2
. y ); ( z +
3
. z )
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hence the
ALITER : Let a cuboid of material having initial sides of Length x, y and z. If under some load system, the sides changes in length by dx, dy, and dz then the new volume ( x + dx ) (
y + dy ) ( z +dz )
New volume = xyz + yzdx + xzdy + xydz
Original volume = xyz
Change in volume = yzdx +xzdy + xydz
Volumetric strain = ( yzdx +xzdy + xydz ) / xyz =
x
+
y
+
z
Neglecting the products of epsilon's since the strains are sufficiently small.
Volumetric strains in terms of principal stresses:
As we know that
Strains on an oblique plane
(a) Linear strain
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Consider a rectangular block of material OLMN as shown in the xy plane. The strains along ox and oy are
x
and
y
, and g
xy
is the shearing strain.
Then it is required to find an expression for
q
, i.e the linear strain in a direction inclined at q to OX, in terms of
x
,
y
, g
xy
and q.
Let the diagonal OM be of length 'a' then ON = a cos q and OL = a sin q , and the increase in length of those under strains are
x
acos q and
y
a sin q ( i.e. strain x original length
) respectively.
If M moves to M', then the movement of M parallel to x axis is
x
acos q + g
xy
sin q and the movement parallel to the y axis is
y
asin q
Thus the movement of M parallel to OM , which since the strains are small is practically coincident with MM'. and this would be the summation of portions (1) and (2) respectively
and is equal to
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This expression is identical in form with the equation defining the direct stress on any inclined plane q with
x
and
y
replacing s
x
and s
y
and g
xy
replacing t
xy
i.e. the shear
stress is replaced by half the shear strain
Shear strain: To determine the shear stain in the direction OM consider the displacement of point P at the foot of the perpendicular from N to OM and the following expression
can be derived as
In the above expression is there so as to keep the consistency with the stress relations.
Futher -ve sign in the expression occurs so as to keep the consistency of sign convention, because OM' moves clockwise with respect to OM it is considered to be negative
strain.
The other relevant expressions are the following :
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Let us now define the plane strain condition
Plane Strain :
In xy plane three strain components may exist as can be seen from the following figures:
Therefore, a strain at any point in body can be characterized by two axial strains i.e
x
in x direction,
y
in y - direction and g
xy
the shear strain.
In the case of normal strains subscripts have been used to indicate the direction of the strain, and
x
,
y
are defined as the relative changes in length in the co-ordinate
directions.
With shear strains, the single subscript notation is not practical, because such strains involves displacements and length which are not in same direction.The symbol and
subscript g
xy
used for the shear strain referred to the x and y planes. The order of the subscript is unimportant. g
xy
and g
yx
refer to the same physical quantity. However, the sign
convention is important.The shear strain g
xy
is considered to be positive if it represents a decrease the angle between the sides of an element of material lying parallel the
positive x and y axes. Alternatively we can think of positive shear strains produced by the positive shear stresses and viceversa.
Plane strain :
An element of material subjected only to the strains as shown in Fig. 1, 2, and 3 respectively is termed as the plane strain state.
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Thus, the plane strain condition is defined only by the components
x
,
y
, g
xy
:
z
= 0; g
xz
= 0; g
yz
= 0
It should be noted that the plane stress is not the stress system associated with plane strain. The plane strain condition is associated with three dimensional stress system
and plane stress is associated with three dimensional strain system.
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