O T R A C O

(
International
)
Pty Ltd


Tyr e Se l e c t i on, Us e and Ope r at i onal
I s s ue s t o Maxi mi s e Tyr e Li f e
B y : C . A . W o o d m a n & A . T . C u t l e r ,
O t r a c o ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l ) P t y L t d .

OVERVIEW

yres are typically one of the
major costs incurred by
Mining and Quarrying
operations. However, the selection,
maintenance and operation of tyres
is one operational aspect which is
not normally adequately addressed,
given its overall impact on
performance.
The correct selection of tyres can
dramatically impact on the overall
cost of any earthmoving operation,
as tyres can account for between
25% to 40% of these costs. This
paper will examine the selection
process for earthmover tyres, along
with operational practices to
maximise tyre life.
TYRE SELECTION
As with most selection criteria, tyre
selection is a compromise. There
are many mutually exclusive criteria
which need to be balanced against
one-another to achieve an optimum
tyre life and cost.
Tyres are exposed to a variety of
operating conditions including
overloading, rock damage and heat
build-up within the tyre from flexing.
All of these operating conditions
create different loads that the tyre
must withstand. However, a tyres
ability to withstand one of these
conditions lessens its ability to
withstand the other two conditions.
Therefore a major part of the tyre
selection process will include an
assessment of the operating
conditions which the tyre will face.
It is essential that the selection task
is carried out by professionals who
will understand the tasks required of
your tyres and recommend only the
optimum tyre for the task. This
recommendation should be based
on sound assessment techniques, to
achieve the minimum operational
costs, backed up with practical
experience.
The design and operation of mines
and quarries is a continually evolving
process. The nature of the evolution
is dependant on the type of mine,
type of material being reclaimed and
the actual geology of the operation
itself, along with the fixed plant
infrastructure locations. Therefore,
tyre selection should also be re-
evaluated as operational changes
occur.
Tyres are normally rated in terms of
their heat resistance (ability to
perform work), cut and abrasion
resistance (resistance to damage)
and their traction characteristics
(usually a function of tyre
construction and tread pattern). The
method of selection to determine a
particular tyres suitability, for a
given operation, is usually based on
the operational conditions at the
particular mine and the tyres Tonne
Kilometre per Hour rating (TKPH).
As a tyre rotates, the deflection of
the tyre causes the tyres structure
to flex. As the tyre rotates through
the tyres contact point, the tyres
structure compresses then releases
to its original shape. Due to the in-
elastic properties of the tyres
structure, some of the energy
introduced through the flexing of the
structure is retained as heat. If the
cycle of flexing and release is rapid,
heat builds up within the tyre.
The critical temperature for a tyre
varies between construction
methods. Figure 1 shows the
statistical probability of a tyre
undergoing a heat separation
relative to internal temperature. If the
internal temperature of a tyre should
rise above the critical temperature
(normally taken to be 97C for radial
tyres and 109C for bias tyres), then
the probability of heat related
failures due to chemical and
physical changes within the tyre
increases.

The two main operational influences
on tyre heat build-up are:
Speed - as this affects the
number of cycles per unit time.
Load - as this affects the
amplitude of tyre deflection, hence
energy transferred.

T
Relationship Between Tyre Temperature and Heat
Damage
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
90 110 130 150 170 190
Tyre Temperature
( Degrees C)
S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l

P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

H
e
a
t

S
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n

D
a
m
a
g
e
Radial Tyres Bias Ply Tyres

Figure 1 - Tyre Temperature versus Heat Damage
2 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Figure 2 - Tyre Reference
Dimensions
Figure 2, above shows the most
commonly used reference
dimensions for earthmover tyres.
Construction
Types of Tyres
For earthmoving applications, there
are two main types of tyres. These
are radial and bias-ply tyres. This
excludes solid tyres or other special
tyres such as steel wheeled or
tracked vehicles.
The development of radial tyres has
been rapid. In 1960, radial tyres
comprised only two percent of all
light vehicle and earthmover tyres in
operation world wide. One
manufacturer, Michelin, accounted
for approximately 90% of these
tyres.



During the 1960-70s the use of light
vehicle radial tyres became
widespread, firstly on passenger
vehicles, then on light trucks and
finally on heavy road trucks. By 1980
radials comprised the majority of
light vehicle tyres in service, but only
5 percent of earthmover tyres.
Since then radial tyre acceptance by
the mining industry has increased
dramatically. The proportion of radial
earthmover tyres rose to 65 percent
by 1990 and is continuing to grow.
A parallel development over the
same period was the reduction in the
number of major earthmover tyre
manufacturers from eight to three.
Bridgestone, Goodyear and Michelin
account for most of the radial
earthmover tyres being produced
today.
Bias-Ply Construction
Figure 3 below shows a typical bias-
ply tyre construction.
Figure 3 - Bias-Ply Tyre Construction
A bias-ply tyre has a bulky casing
composed of many criss-crossed
nylon layers as shown in Figures 3
and 4. Tyre flexing causes
deformation of the casing and hour-
glassing of the section of tread in
contact with the ground, as shown in
Figure 4. This results in tread squirm
and uneven contact pressure across
the footprint area. Tyre flexing also
causes scissoring of adjoining ply
layers, increasing casing stress and
heat build-up.
Figure 4 - Bias-Ply tyre tread
patterns (loaded and unloaded)

Radial Ply Construction
Figure 5 below shows a typical radial
tyre construction.
Figure 5 - Radial Tyre Construction

A radial tyre has a thin casing
composed of a single radially
orientated steel ply layer which is
contained by several
circumferentially aligned steel tread
belts. Tyre flexing is absorbed by the
radial casing ply with little
deformation of the tread; the steel
belts act like a tank track providing
uniform ground contact pressure.
The radials thin casing also
generates less heat and stress
making it better suited to high speed
applications and more amenable to
repairs, especially in the side wall
area.
Figure 6 - Radial tyre tread patterns
(loaded and unloaded)

Radial tyres have several
advantages over bias-ply tyres.
These are:
Radials commonly have a higher
TKPH rating than the same size
bias tyre.
Heat generation in radial tyres is
lower due to construction and the
thinner casing required.
3 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
The tread of a radial tyre is not
affected by the side wall flexing,
creating less deformation of the
tread, leading to reduced tread
wear.
(Figures 4 and 6 highlight this.)
Higher grip levels.
Lower fuel consumption through
reduced rolling resistance and
friction.
Smoother ride because of the
reduced side wall stiffness.
Better flotation characteristics.
Steel belts that provide additional
resistance to tread damage.
Higher repair success rate.
Once the choice between a radial
and bias-ply tyre has been finalised,
the detailed analysis begins. Areas
that have to be examined include,
type of road surface, condition of
road, road profile, weather
conditions, traction requirements,
previous failure history if available
and type of material being
transported.
Pattern
The pattern of the tyre is normally
related to the type of operation that
the tyre will be utilised in. Typically
tyre manufacturers provide varying
patterns varying from traction to rock
patterns.
As the name suggests, a traction
pattern tyre is designed to maximise
available traction. This type of tyre
is usually characterised by a large
open tread style, with many
individual tread lugs.
A rock pattern normally has fewer
individual lugs. The reduced open
area prevents rocks being captured
in the tread voids and cutting into the
tyre.
As a general rule, the higher the
rock protection the higher the actual
level of reinforcement and protection
of the tyre. Conversely the higher
the rock protection the lower the
tyres traction, adhesion and
operating speed limits.
Therefore it is essential that the
optimum compromise be obtained
between traction and rock
resistance. Traction tyres operating
on rocky surfaces will wear quicker
than rock type tyres. Operator safety
can be jeopardised if rock tyres are
used in areas requiring traction. If
any tyre is subjected to excessive
wheel slip or spin, wear rates will be
dramatically increased.
Ply Rating
(where applicable)
For bias-ply tyres, the load carrying
capability of the tyre is normally
proportional to the ply rating. The
ply rating is the strength of the tyre
expressed against the equivalent
number of cotton plys.
Bias-ply tyres were originally
manufactured utilising cotton for the
ply weave. To assist in comparisons
and understanding, when newer
materials such as nylon etc were
introduced, tyre ratings were
measured against a standard
cotton construction tyre, rather than
the actual number of plys present.


The higher the number of plys, the
higher the load carrying capability of
the tyre.
For radial tyres, a star rating (H) is
utilised. Radial tyres are given a star
rating from one to three (most
earthmover applications are
normally one or two star).
Manufacturers may publish
conversion tables for star to ply
ratings, but it is better to use the
load inflation tables to determine the
maximum loads for each tyre.
By knowing the maximum tyre load
(preferably from weighbridge
analysis), the tyre with the correct
load carrying capability can be
determined.
Tread Depth and Tyre
Compound
The tyre compound refers to the
actual type of rubber compound and
tyre construction used.
Manufacturers can vary the stiffness
and hardness of the structure and
the rubber to achieve optimal tyre
characteristics.
Tyres are normally available in three
types of compound, cut resistant,
heat resistant and ultra heat
resistant. The choice of which is
preferable is based on failure
history, operating conditions and
Tonne Kilometre Rating (TKPH).

Table 1 - Bridgestone constructions


1
Steel breaker construction
2
Side steel breaker construction
=Bias-ply tyres only
Service BS
Code
No.
Structure
Earthmover 1A
2A
3A
Standard
Cut-resistant
Heat-resistant
Grader 1A
2A
Standard
Cut Resistant
Loader
&
Dozer
2A
2V
=
2Z
=
Cut-resistant
Special (Type
V)
1

Special (Type Z)
2

4 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Tables one through to three give the
varying construction and compound
tyre types available from
Bridgestone, Goodyear and Michelin
Table 4 gives the Tyre and Rim
Association (TRA) Off-the-road tyre
nomenclature and type of service
applicable.
Where the TRA table calls for deep
tread tyre, the tread depth is 150%
of a standard tread depth tyre and
an extra deep tread tyre tread depth
is 250% of a standard depth tyre.
From Table 4, there are choices that
have to be made as to the type of
tyre performance required. The
choices involve a trade-off between
heat resistance and rock / cut
resistance. The trade-off between
heat resistance and cut resistance
occurs as carcass strength and
rubber hardness vary between the
two types of tyres. This variance in
hardness changes the amount of
energy generated per revolution of
the tyre.
Approximately 80% of the cost of
manufacturing an earthmover tyre is
expended in the casing. The
remaining 20% is expended in the
tread. Therefore, to extend a tyres
life, one method is to increase the
tread depth. Based on the 20% cost
of the tread, a 50% increase in tread
depth could be achieved for only an
approximate 10% increase in the
tyre purchase price. If this extra 50%
of tread can be utilised in service,
this would dramatically decrease the
tyres cost per kilometre or cost per
hour.
The disadvantage of thicker tread is
(due to the greater amount of
material utilised) heat is not
dissipated as quickly. A thicker tread
tyre usually carries a lower TKPH
rating than a standard tread depth
tyre for this reason. The actual depth
of tread chosen will normally depend
on the past performance of tyres on
site, or practical experience from
similar operations elsewhere.
For example, if standard tread tyres
are failing from rock damage at 50%
worn, an option would be to extend
the life of the standard tread tyres by
preventing rock damage as opposed
to purchasing deep tread tyres. This
is due to the fact that the tread depth
will only protect the tyre so much. If
major rock damage is occurring,
even having 50% more tread depth
will not protect the tyre, therefore
this extra tread is wasted.
This is a simplistic example however
and there may be other factors
which have to be accounted for at
varying sites. The option of utilising
a deep tread tyre should be
examined due to the potential
savings available.


VEHICLE TYPE TRA CODE
NUMBER
TREAD TYPE MAXIMUM
SPEED DISTANCE
(KPH) (ONE WAY)
Earthmover



Dump trucks,
scrapers,
articulated
dump trucks.

E-1

E-2

E-3

E-4

E-7

Rib

Traction

Rock

Rock Deep Tread

Flotation

65

65

65

65

65

4.0 km

4.0 km

4.0 km

4.0 km

4.0 km
Graders


G-1

G-2

G-3

G4

Rib

Traction

Rock

Rock Deep Tread

40

40

40

40

Unlimited

Unlimited

Unlimited

Unlimited
Shovels,
Loaders,
Bulldozers,
Load-Haul
Dump Trucks



L-2

L-3

L-4

L-4S

L-5


L-5S

Traction

Rock

Rock Deep Tread

Smooth Deep Tread

Rock Extra-Deep
Tread

Smooth Extra Deep
Tread

10

10

10

10

10


10

75 m

75 m

75 m

75 m

75 m


75 m
Compound
Description
Compound
Code
Construction
Description
Construction
Code
Heat Resistant (HR) 2 Standard S
Standard Abrasion
Resistant (AR)
4 Steel Breakers J
Ultra Abrasion
Resistant (UAR)
6 Heavy
Undertread
U
Table 2 - Compound and Construction Types for Goodyear Tyres
Tread Depth
Code
Relative Tread
Depth
Construction
Code
Construction Type
N 100% type A Rock and abrasion
resistant
D1 150% type B Heat resistant
D2 250% type C High speed, long haul
Table 3 - Michelin Tread Depth and Construction Codes
Table 4 - TRA Classification of Tyres for Earthmoving
5 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Tonne Kilometre per Hour
Rating (TKPH)
As a basis of determining the
suitability of a tyre for a given
operation, the final check is the
Tonne Kilometre per Hour (TKPH)
rating. At its most simplest form, the
TKPH rating of a site is a measure of
the earthmovers average speed
multiplied by the average tyre load.
This gives the average
The basic TKPH calculation
involves the following formula:
working
energy that the tyre must withstand
during operations.
M =
M +M
2
A
L E

Equation 1 - Average Load on Tyre
Where:
MA =Average load on tyre.
ML =Tyre load on a loaded vehicle.
ME =Tyre load on an empty vehicle.
The average tyre load should be
calculated for at least each axle on
the vehicle. If there is significant
variance across axles, this
calculation should be performed for
each tyre position. The maximum
value obtained from the calculations
will be used to determine the TKPH
value.


The weight of equipment is best
determined from actual weighscale
data. If manufacturers data is used,
allowances for extra equipment,
partial water fill in tyres, mud on
chassis, etc must be included.
Weightscale data will also highlight if
overloading, under loading or
uneven loading occurs and if so to
what extent.
The haul average speed is
calculated by Equation 2, given
below:
V
T
A
=
L x N

Equation 2 - Average Speed
Where:
VA =Average haul speed (kph).
L =Haul length (kilometres).
N =Number of cycles per shift.
T =Duration of shift (hours).
It should be noted that when
performing the haul average speed
calculation, where there is more than
one haul route, the calculation must
be performed so that the maximum
average speed for the site is
determined. The fastest haul route is
normally the longest.
Also, for the shift duration time,
periods such as dwell time at
shovels, unloading points, refuelling,
meal breaks etc, are to be included
in the shift. Abnormal downtime is
not to be included in the shift time
calculation, for example
breakdowns, stoppages etc.
As evident from the calculation
method for the TKPH value, the
actual TKPH value calculated is very
generic. This causes several
problems which have to be
overcome. These include:
No allowance is made for
overloading of equipment.
As only the average speed of the
equipment is used, there is the
potential to exceed this for
limited periods and hence
exceed the tyres actual TKPH
rating.


Actual TKPH of tyres in service
may vary when compared to
rated TKPH through improved
road design, maintenance and
pressure maintenance.
The TKPH values quoted by
manufacturers assume certain
standards of pressure
maintenance, road condition,
speeds and loads. If these
conditions are well controlled
compared to the assumed levels,
actual tyre TKPH may actually
increase.
No allowance is made for load
variations between the front and
rear of the tray.
TKPH values supplied by tyre
manufacturers are only valid for
certain haul lengths, ambient
temperatures and speeds.
Even after a TKPH figure has been
determined, it may have to be
modified to suit pit conditions further.
Most TKPH values are quoted at a
standard ambient of 38C. Therefore
if the ambient temperature at your
site is above or below this
temperature, the tyres TKPH rating
needs to be adjusted.
It should be noted, that as most
earthmover tyres last approximately
a year, (depending on site
conditions), the maximum
temperature needs to be used to
determine the required TKPH. Both
Bridgestone and Michelin have
individual formula for calculating
temperature corrected TKPH.
Goodyear do not require their TKPH
values to be modified for ambient
temperatures.
An example of an actual TKPH
calculation is given in Appendix 1
and 2.
Choosing The Actual Tyre
Based On TKPH
Normally, the size of the tyre is
already determined by what was
fitted as original equipment.
Depending on rim size, there are still
some possibilities for tyre size
adjustment, however this normally
requires changes in rim widths or rim
diameters.
Therefore the starting point is
normally the tyre size that has been
originally fitted. Reference to the
Tyre and Rim Association Standards
Manual will give load carrying
capacities for most tyre sizes and
carcass constructions.
Using the TKPH value calculated, a
choice between the short listed bias-
ply and radial tyres will have to be
made where this choice has not
been made prior to this point.
Normally the selection of bias-ply or
radial tyres has been made prior to
this point for other reasons, such as
wear life, cost etc.
Once the TKPH requirements have
been determined for the site, actual
matching of tyres from vendors can
be undertaken. It is not within the
scope of this article to specify how
this is performed, as the choice of
tyres is dependant on many
variables such as:
Tyre purchase cost
Warranty provisions
Service life
Brand performance
Availability / delivery
Consignment agreements
Rebates




6 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Tyre Maintenance
To maximise the performance of
tyres utilised, correct operation and
maintenance is required. The main
factors affecting tyre life are listed
below.
Maintenance
Pressure Maintenance
Pressure Setting
Under Inflation
Over Inflation
Road Maintenance
Rocks in Road
Surface
Over Watering
Uneven Surfaces
Rocks in Windrows
Tyre Maintenance
Matching
Dual Matching
Asymmetrical Wear
Rock Removal
Run Out Parameters
Vehicle Maintenance
Tyre Camber
Alignment
Toe In / Toe Out
Brake Adjustments
Haul Road Design
Curve Radius
Road Width
Road Surface
Gradients
Drainage
Super Elevation
Operations
Driving
Vehicle Speed
Vehicle Positioning
Cornering Speed
Gear Changes
Wheel Slip / Slide
Avoidance of
Obstacles


Loading
Load Position
Load Weight
Load Type
Loading Accuracy
Face Condition
Backing Trucks onto
Face / Rocks
Scheduling
Balancing of TKPH
Waiting Periods
Break Periods
Release for
Maintenance
Tyre Selection
Construction Type
TKPH
Tread Wear
Load Capacity
Traction
Maintenance
Maintenance activities include,
pressure maintenance, road
maintenance, tyre maintenance and
vehicle maintenance.
Pressure Maintenance
Pressure Maintenance is the single
most important contributor to tyre
life. The effects of incorrect pressure
maintenance can cause accelerated
wear along with other problems.
Some of the typical problems
associated with pressure
maintenance are:
Under Inflation
Heat separation.
Uneven wear - excessive heal
and toe wear.
Internal ply separation.
Bead damage.
Increased fuel consumption.
Over Inflation
Uneven wear (excessive centre
line wear).
Cuts.
Impact damage.
Figure 7 below, highlights the effect
that poor pressure maintenance
standards can have on the relative
tyre life achieved in operation. It
should be noted that the type of
operation plays a major part in the
actual wear rates, in conjunction with
pressure maintenance.
There are many methods of
checking earthmover tyre pressures.
These range from simple visual
inspection to continuous monitoring
systems. A paper detailing three
commercially available systems is
included as an Appendix to this
article.
It should be noted from Figure 7 that
under inflation not only affects tyre
life but also safety greater than over
inflation.
7 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
The pressure setting for tyre is also
important. An incorrect setting can
dramatically decrease tyre life, even
if pressure maintenance is good.
Pressure settings can be initially
calculated from the tyre load /
inflation tables provided by tyre
manufacturers. Allowances may
have to be made based on
operational practices, such as partial
water fill, speeds or loading criteria.


Road Maintenance
Road maintenance is usually not
factored into tyre life analysis.
However road maintenance is vitally
important if extended tyre life is to be
achieved.
Correct road maintenance requires a
coordinated approach which
involves all personnel. All personnel
should have the ability to request
road maintenance crews attend an
area of concern.
Road maintenance involves all
aspects of maintaining the haul
roads to a standard where tyre wear
or damage is not accelerated. This
includes the removal of rocks laying
on the road, rocks imbeded in the
road, grading of road surfaces to re-
level them, drainage channels and
the grooming of windrows and
emergency stopping buffers.
Overwatering causes scouring and
erosion of the roadbase, which can
lead to overloading of individual
tyres. Excessive watering can also
cause wheel spin and subsequent
removal of material leading to
grooving of the roadbase with
channels which can increase tyre
load.


It is important therefore that when
watering haul roads, care should be
taken to ensure that the road surface
is not overwatered. This may
necessitate the use of pulse
sprays. Pulse sprays are typically
where the water spray is
alternatively on or off for
approximately 5 second periods.
Other methods to reduce
overwatering include using the right
hand sprays to wet the uphill side of
the road whilst travelling downhill,
not watering already wet roads, not
watering during rain periods and
reduced water delivery rates.
Tyre Maintenance
Tyre maintenance involves the
rectification of problems which if left
unchecked could lower tyre life. The
timely rectification of these problems
will ensure that tyre life is
maximised.
There are many problems that tyres
can have during service. These
problems include asymmetrical wear
and rocks imbeded in the tread. To
correct for asymmetrical wear, the
tyres are reverse mounted, whilst
any embedded rocks should be
removed, as these tend to be drawn
into the casing by the flexing of the
tyre and can cause the inner liner to
be ruptured.

Incorrect matching of rear dual tyres
can increase loads in individual tyres
dramatically. Matching of tyres is
also critical in loader and dozer
applications.
Most organisations have limits that a
tyre can be worn to and still be fitted
to the steering positions of a truck. If
these criteria are too stringent, extra
tyres will have to be fitted to the front
position and if the criteria are too
loose, this could lead to increased
rates of front tyre failures which may
have safety consequences. Front
tyre failures also result in increased
downtime due to tyre changes
occuring outside the workshop
environment or having to transport
the vehicle back to the workshop.
Vehicle Maintenance
From a tyre perspective, correct
vehicle maintenance includes
camber adjustments, wheel
alignment, toe in and toe out and
brake adjustment.
The correct alignment and
adjustment of the wheel is critical to
achieving long tyre life. If the tyre is
misaligned, the tyre will rotate at an
angle to the desired direction of
travel. This causes slip and increase
wear. Some mis-alignment is
required for steering and stability
purposes, but this should be rigidly
controlled.
Incorrect brake adjustment,
especially dragging brakes can
cause excessive heat loads on the
tyre and premature failure. If the
Pressure Maintenance Standards - Effect on Tyre Life
0.0%
10.0%
20.0%
30.0%
40.0%
50.0%
60.0%
70.0%
80.0%
90.0%
100.0%
40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120%
Inflation Pressure - Percentage of Recommended Base Pressure
%

L
i
f
e

O
b
t
a
i
n
e
d
Very Demanding Operation Typical Operation Mild Operation

Figure 7 - Pressure Maintenance Relative to Tyre Life
8 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
heat levels are extreme there is the
possibility of a tyre fire of even a tyre
explosion. Both of these events have
the potential for serious injury.
Haulroad Design
The impact of haul road design is
often overlooked when comparing
tyre performance, but this is one of
the most critical aspects of achieving
high tyre life. The United States
Department of the Interior - Bureau
of Mines prepared a book titled,
Design of Surface Mine Haulage
Roads - A Manual, authored by
Walter Kaufman and J ames Ault in
1977, which highlights the design
requirements for mine roadways.
This publication highlights safety
issues associated with mine road
design, along with methods of
integrating vehicle dynamics and
performance into road design.
We will examine the following:
Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment
Cross Fall
Drainage
Superelevation
Curve Radii
Road Construction
Road Width
Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment
In the interests of safety, where
economically feasible, all roadways
should be constructed to provide
safe, efficient travel at normal
operating speeds. Provision for
adequate sight of vehicles and
obstacles should be paramount from
a safety perspective. Adequate sight
will allow operators to avoid
obstacles and also enable smoother
braking, thereby reducing wear and
increasing tyre life. Figure 8 gives a
graphical representation of vertical
and horizontal alignments to
maximise safe working.
The vertical alignment, grades,
curve radii etc, is a function of the
equipment being utilised.
Consideration should be given to the
braking and haulage capabilities of
the equipment (both current and
future), to allow adequate stopping
distances. Where equipment is
hauling material up hill, then the
equipments capacity and power
requirements, along with brake
capacity must be considered.
Where gradients start, adequate
blending of the transition between
the horizontal and grade areas
needs to be performed. Too often,
steep grades begin with no
transition, which causes the
equipment to pitch and, if
overloaded, deposit rocks and
material on the road surface.
These rocks cut the tyres surface
and if large enough, cause impact
damage to the tyre.
Figure 7 - Road Alignment Criteria
At the lower end of grades, curves if
necessary, should be of sufficient
width relative to radius, to allow the
equipment to easily traverse them.
Here speed is the issue, as with
correct super elevation, corners
should not be a problem.
Horizontal alignment predominantly
deals with the safe operation of
equipment around curves at speed.
Curves are regularly created with
little regard to the operating speed of
the equipment utilising them, the
width of the equipment and stopping
distances relative to vision
distances.
Cross Fall
Cross fall on vertical sections is not
necessary, especially where pulse
watering can occur. If cross fall is
used and is from the outside of the
road to the inside, water will tend to
drain into the edge of any corner at
the bottom of the grade and cause
scouring and cutting of the surface.
Cross fall if excessive can cause
steering difficulties and slip between
the tyres increasing wear. Where
cross fall is excessive the inner rear
duals can be overloaded also.
Drainage
Drainage is a major consideration,
as during heavy rain large amounts
of water can collect and run down
the grade, causing severe scouring.
This scouring can cause overloading
of tyres or even impact damage.
Additional problems such as
reduced traction and loss of control
can also occur if drainage is not
adequate. The combination of wet
tyres and wheel slip through loss of
traction dramatically increases the
tyres wear rate.


9 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Superelevation
If curves are made which have very
small radii and if there is no super
elevation included, the tyres will tend
to deflect and skid outwards,
increasing loads and wear. Super
elevation is a function of both the
curves radius and the equipments
speed. Table 5 gives super elevation
rates (metres per metre) for a given
curve radius (metres) and equipment
speed (kilometres per hour).
There needs to be some practical
limits as to the amount of super
elevation required. If a curve is
designed for 45 kph, but in practice
equipment only achieves 20 kph,
then the net effect is that the driver
will require extra effort to manoeuvre
the vehicle around the curve.
If the vehicle is moving slowly or has
to stop on a super elevated curve,
the inner wheels will carry a higher
percentage of the load.
Table 5 can also be used to
determine the correct entry speeds
for a given corner radius. These
speeds can then be posted to
remind drivers of the correct speed
prior to entering the curve.
As important, but often overlooked,
is the relationship between super
elevation and required run-out. The
super elevation runout is the length
of transitional road where the
amount of super elevation changes
from zero to the required, or from
positive super elevation to negative.
As the speed of vehicles at most
minesites is relatively slow, the
positioning of runout is not as critical
as other applications such as
highways or access roads. However,
where cross fall is used on the road
surface and it opposes super
elevation, the necessary changes in
road surface slope should be
achieved prior to the corner.
Curve Radii
Sharp bends should be minimised
where possible. Figure 8 gives a
method of determining the road
width during a curve. From a tyre life
perspective curves should be as
large as possible. If this is not
possible speeds should be reduced
to minimise the possibility of
accidents.
Road Construction
Fundamental to the safe operation of
equipment is a stable road base.
Vehicle dynamics are severely
affected by a roadbase which cannot
adequately support the equipments
weight. Productivity is also affected
by incorrect roadbase materials,
through tyre wear, rework (such as
grading and compacting), downtime
due to the disruptions that this
creates and reduced operating
speeds of equipment required to
negotiate irregularities.
Too frequently, the economics of
road construction is confined to the
immediate. Therefore, roads tend to
be built such that operations can
begin, rather than for the duration of
operations. This usually means that
operations will over time be subject
to delays through restrictions,
rework, clearing, leveling and
cleaning.
Some common problems occurring
with road bases include:
Incorrect particle sizes
Low bearing strength
Flow under load
Scouring
Dust
Sinking
The geology and soil mechanics
associated with road construction
will not be discussed here.
Care must also be taken to select
the most appropriate road surface.
Figures for road adhesion
coefficients are given in various
publications, for example the
Caterpillar

performance handbook.
The correct choice of road surface
material will provide not only higher
levels of adhesion, but also lower
rolling resistance and improved fuel
economy.

Figure 8 - Roadway Width during Curves
Radius of
Curve
Speed of Vehicle (kph)
(metres) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
50 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.39
100 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.20
150 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.13
200 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10
250 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08
300 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
350 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
400 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
450 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04
500 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04

Table 5 - Recommended Super Elevation Rates (metres per metre)
10 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Road Width
Road width is essential to the safe
operation of equipment.
Earthmoving equipment varies in
size dramatically between machines
of varying capacity. Therefore road
width needs to be set for the largest
vehicle that would normally operate
over a given route.
If there exists a large discrepancy in
the width between normal machinery
and some plant, it may be more
appropriate to ensure that there is
sufficient width for the relocation of
the equipment, which would have to
be moved under escort.
Table 6 and Figure 9 show relative
road widths for varying numbers of
lanes and equipment sizes.
Table 6 - Recommended Lane
Widths (Straight Sections)
Only through proper road design can
the long term efficiency of
operations, not only tyre wear, be
guaranteed.
Operations have a high impact on
the overall tyre life. Normal tyre
failure modes, such as rock
damage, cuts, heat separations, etc,
can to some degree be avoided by
correct operational practices. These
practices will be discussed in the
following section of this article.
Operational Issues
Vehicle Speed
Vehicle speed is also a critical factor
in tyre life. Previously, only the
actual operator could control vehicle
speed. However, with the advent of
modern computerised mine dispatch
systems, vehicle speed, and
associated tyre heating, can now be
monitored remotely. This monitoring
is only a check system, it is not
perfect, or 100% accurate.
Drivers should be made aware of the
limitations of the tyres that are fitted
to the vehicles that they are
operating. Common tyre maximum
speed restrictions are given below in
Table 7. This table is only a guide
and each different tyre should be
checked for its maximum speed
rating.
The average speed for a vehicle
should be less than the TKPH value
of the tyre divided by the average
load, ie: the workday or workshift
average speed.
Type of Vehicle Maximum
Speed
Earthmover 65 kph
Scraper 48 kph
Grader 40 kph
Loader & Dozer 10 kph
Table 7 - Typical Vehicle Speed
Limitations

Excessive speed can result in many
problems which can damage a tyre.
These include:
Higher heat generation inside
tyre
Heat damage
Heat separations
Rapid Braking
Chipping
Bead damage
Reduced tyre life
Sharp Cornering
Irregular wear
Excessive abrasion
Bead damage
Chipping through slip
Road Debris Collisions on Road
Cutting
Punctures
Cut / Burst
Vehicle speed can also cause other
problems. When vehicles climb a
grade when loaded, the drive tyres
can slip. Often this slip cannot be
seen with the eye. The grade by
which the vehicle has to ascend
directly affects tyre wear. Figure 10
shows the relationship between
grade, vehicle speed and tyre life.
The grade also affects the vehicles
mechanical systems such as brakes,
drivelines and engines.







Figure 9 - Road Width Relative to Equipment Width
(Horizontal Surfaces)
Vehicle
Width
1
lane
2
lanes
3
lanes
4
lanes
(metres)
2.0 4 7.0 10 13.0
2.5 5 8.8 12.5 16.3
3.0 6 10.5 15 19.5
3.5 7 12.3 17.5 22.8
4.0 8 14.0 20 26.0
4.5 9 15.8 22.5 29.3
5.0 10 17.5 25 32.5
5.5 11 19.3 27.5 35.8
6.0 12 21.0 30 39.0
6.5 13 22.8 32.5 42.3
7.0 14 24.5 35 45.5
7.5 15 26.3 37.5 48.8
8.0 16 28.0 40 52.0
8.5 17 29.8 42.5 55.3
9.0 18 31.5 45 58.5
9.5 19 33.3 47.5 61.8
10.0 20 35.0 50 65.0
10.5 21 36.8 52.5 68.3
11.0 22 38.5 55 71.5
11.5 23 40.3 57.5 74.8
12.0 24 42.0 60 78.0
12.5 25 43.8 62.5 81.3
13.0 26 45.5 65 84.5
13.5 27 47.3 67.5 87.8
14.0 28 49.0 70 91.0
14.5 29 50.8 72.5 94.3
15.0 30 52.5 75 97.5
15.5 31 54.3 77.5 100.8
16.0 32 56.0 80 104.0
11 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Figure 10 - Reduction in Tyre Life
with Road Grade and Speed

Figure 11 - Effects of Road Profile
on Tyre Load
Vehicle Positioning
Figure 11 shows the impact that
poor positioning of the vehicle can
have on the tyre load. This Figure
also highlights the need for good
road maintenance along with
adequate road width, to ensure that
there is enough room to manoeuvre
around obstacles, or negotiate
curves etc at speed.
As can be seen from Figure 11,
tyres can be severely overloaded
simply from falling into drainage
channels, mounting windrows, or
from simply being mis-matched. It is
in these situations that side wall
cuts, rock penetrations and impact
bursts, along with internal damage
can readily occur.
Damage incurred through
operational issues can be overcome,
but requires regular informational
and training sessions with those
concerned, operators and drivers.
Without their commitment,
consequential damage will not be
dramatically reduced.
Care must also be taken to ensure
that the design and maintenance of
roads are performed so that tyre
damage is minimised.
As Figure 11 shows, tyre
overloading can occur even when
the vehicle is correctly loaded,
through road geometry or driver
errors. If however, the vehicle is
already overloaded, the problems
are increased dramatically.
Loading Techniques
It is important that the loading
operation be carried out in a manner
to reduce tyre wear and damage.
Figure 12 highlights the impact that
overloading can have on tyre life,
without any other factors included.
Care should be taken to ensure that
the load is positioned properly,
allowances are made for overburden
and ore densities, along with
allowances for varying truck types
and capacities.

Figure 12 - Effects of Load on Tyre
Life
Other issues related to tyre wear
and damage that occur when
loading, include backing onto the
face, lack of face clean-up and
overfilling or missing the trucks tray
which results in stones falling under
the rear tyres.
Backing onto the face can cause
severe over-loading on the rear tyres
and increase the risk of rock cuts
and penetrations (Figures 13 & 14).
This is exaggerated where large
rocks are present. To remove this
problem, regular face clean-up
operations should occur, along with
accurate loading and removing
spilling, as this is the most common
cause of face debris. If accurate
loading is carried out, eliminating
spillage, not only will face clean-ups
be less frequent, but there will be
less likelihood of rocks falling under
the rear wheels.
Figure 13 - Overloading and Spillage
Figures 13 and 14 show actual
loading operations. These practices
are treated as everyday practices
however they dramatically reduce
tyre life. Pit surveys and condition
reports can help to identify and
correct practices such as these.

Figure 14 - Backing onto Loading
Area





Figure 15 - Rocks around Face Area





12 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Figure 15, shows the accumulation
of rocks, both at the face and in the
area around the face, that can occur
from overloading. Not only do rocks
fall from the tray during loading from
overfilling, but they also fall from the
tray when the vehicle begins to
move. This multiplies the work that
the face clean-up crews have to
undertake and dramatically
increases rock damage to tyres.

Figure 16 - Vehicle Parked on Rocks

Figure 16 shows a vehicle parked on
rocks during a shift break. Care
should be taken to keep clean any
area utilised by the equipment.
Parking on rocks is very damaging
to the tyres, as the point loads that
occur are present for a much greater
period of time, dramatically
increasing the probability of damage
to the tyre.
Figure 17 - Uneven Loading of
Vehicles
Figure 17 highlights uneven loading
in practice. This is a major concern,
especially where road conditions are
not favourable. Care should be
taken to always ensure that the load
is positioned correctly within the tray.
With the advent of new Mine
Scheduling Systems, there is the
potential to increase truck utilisation,
through more efficient dispatch /
routing. This however has several
problems in relation to tyre life.
Unless an allowance is made for the
increased distance travelled and
corresponding increase in average
speed, there exists a very high
probability that tyres will be operated
over their TKPH limits. Some
computer systems attempt to
address this issue through in-built
tyre TKPH algorithms, but even
these are too simplistic to accurately
predict tyre TKPH. In severe cases
the error could be enough to either
have trucks stood down or tyres
damaged, depending on the trigger
levels set.
The new computerised Mine
Scheduling Systems also increase
average speeds through a reduction
in waiting times at both loaders and
crushers. This also may reduce tyre
life if not accounted for.
CONCLUSION
Tyres usually account for 25% to
40% of a mining or quarrying
operations earthmoving costs. As
such, there is a large scope for cost
reduction through improvements in
tyre utilisation.
Effective utilisation of tyres is not a
simple task. The maximisation of
tyre life requires a coordinated effort
from proper selection through to
maintenance and operational
practices.
The fundamental areas required to
ensure tyre life is maximised include;
Correct selection
Correct pressure settings
Correct pressure maintenance
Correct tyre maintenance
Haul road design
Haul road maintenance
Correct loading methods
Correct load area housekeeping
Correct vehicle operations
Proper vehicle scheduling
Only if ALL of these areas are
properly addressed, will tyre life
achieve the maximum possible.
Correct selection ensures that the
tyre being utilised is the most cost
effective solution for the combination
of vehicle, load and operating
conditions. The selection process
involves many trade-offs and if an
incorrect assessment is made, tyre
life can dramatically decrease.
Regular trials of tyres which may be
suitable can also be carried out to
gain a quantitative assessment of
their performance. This process can
however take several years to
complete, during which tyre
construction or compound changes
may make the results obsolete.
Pressure maintenance is the major
building block upon which effective
tyre utilisation is founded. Without
correct pressure settings and
pressure maintenance, tyre life will
be significantly reduced.
With an average earthmover tyre
costing in the vicinity of $10,000 or
even greater, the cost of a regular
inspection program relative to the
potential losses is minimal.
Care should be taken to ensure that
employees undertaking this process
are properly trained to do so. Otraco
has Australias only accredited tyre
serviceman training program.
To maximise tyre life it is essential
that haulroad design be adequately
addressed. Although the economics
of haulroad design are normally
confined to the immediate, the
longer term ramifications can
dramatically exceed the short term
benefits.
The benefits of undertaking
adequate haulroad design and
construction include:
Reduced downtime
Reduced maintenance
Reduced consequential damage
Reduced tyre failures
Reduced tyre wear
Reduced machine maintenance
Improved operator comfort
Improved safety
Improved tyre life
Haul road design covers issues such
as curve radii, cross fall, horizontal
and vertical alignment, super
elevation rates, drainage, camber,
road widths, gradients, construction
medium, base materials and
surfacing material. All of these areas
can be optimised to ensure that the
most suitable combination is
achieved.
Haulroad maintenance is also
essential to ensure effective tyre
utilisation. Haul road maintenance is
dependent on climatic variables,
road construction techniques and
operational practices.
Tyre life will normally reflect the level
of haul road maintenance, if all other
criteria are equal. If the level of haul
road maintenance is high the tyre life

13 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
will be relatively high, if haul road
maintenance is low, tyre life will be
correspondingly low.
Operational issues can also have a
dramatic effect on tyre life. Some of
the main operational issues which
impact on tyre life include loading
methods, housekeeping of the
loading area, vehicle operations and
vehicle scheduling.
Loading methods predominantly
revolve around the actual load
placement on the truck and truck
positioning when loading. Care
should be taken to ensure that
spillage is reduced as spillage can
fall under the tray making the tyre
roll over it when leaving the load
area. This causes the overloading of
the tyre and increases the risk of a
rock impact damage or rock cut.
If spillage occurs, or if rocks begin to
foul the load area, either the shovel
operator or a clean-up crew should
clear the loading area prior to
continuing. This reduces the
likelihood of tyres being parked on
rocks, which can cause significant
tyre damage. Good housekeeping in
the load area should not be seen as
lost production time, if it is seen as
poor operational practice to cause
this spillage in the first place,
operator skills will improve.
Vehicle operations includes travel
speeds, cornering speeds, gear
changes, obstacle avoidance,
braking methods, acceleration
methods and vehicle positioning. All
of these areas can impact on tyre life
and have the scope to cause
premature failures in the extreme.
Operators should be educated to
ensure that they are aware of the
consequences of poor operational
practices. This education process
has proved to be very effective when
combined with accurate reporting in
reducing the incidence of premature
tyre failures through operator error.
Proper vehicle scheduling is now
much more readily achieved through
modern computerised mine dispatch
systems. However, the models
utilised have some inconsistencies
in relation to TKPH calculations. The
algorithms utilised however can still
provide a useful first line of defence
against tyre damage.
It can be seen that effective tyre
utilisation requires a coordinated
approach. To achieve the maximum
life for a tyre, ALL of the issues
raised must be addressed. Tyre life
decreases with each criteria that is
not adequately controlled or
addressed.
The areas listed are not static
variable and as such must be
continuously monitored to ensure
adequate responses are made to
new developments. It is essential
that periodic reviews of operations
are carried out to validate
assumptions or confirm values
utilised and therefore confirm the
processes and tyres in use as being
still optimal.
This process is ongoing. But with the
correct type of tyre and effective
operational practices, effective tyre
life should be possible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Historical and technical information
supplied by the following companies
is gratefully acknowledged -
Bridgestone Earthmover Tyres,
Goodyear Australia Limited, Michelin
and Rimtec. The author also wishes
to thank Otraco and colleagues for
their support and assistance.
REFERENCES
1. Report to Minera Escondida Ltda
on tyre operation at Escondida,
Otraco International, 1995
2. Developments in tyres for
quarrying, A. T. Cutler, Projects
Manager, Otraco International
Pty Ltd.
3. Proper tyre management
reduces tyre costs, D. M. Gordon
& A. T. Cutler.
4. Design of surface mine haulage
roads - A manual, United States
Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Mines Information
Circular, 1977, W. W. Kaufman
& J . C. Ault.
5. Bridgestone Technical Data,
Bridgestone Corporation,
November 1994
6. Goodyear Off-the-road tyres
engineering data, Goodyear
Australia Limited, 1994
7. Michelin Technical Data, small &
large earthmover tyres, Edition
Number 15, Michelin Ltd.
8. The Tyre and Rim Association
Australia - 1996 Standards
Manual.
9. Caterpillar

Performance
Handbook, Edition 26, Caterpillar
Inc, 1995















14 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
APPENDIX 1 -
EARTHMOVER TKPH
CALCULATIONS

he follow calculations show
the TKPH determination for a
typical haul truck, with the
following operating parameters,
along with a brief overview of a
hypothetical tyre selection process.
Based on the data above, the
Average Load per Tyre can be
calculated as follows,
Unloaded - Front
2 tyres, 47% of 61,793 kg equates
to:
Load =
47% x 61,793 kg
2 Tyres
Load = 14,521 kg / Tyre


Unloaded - Rear
4 Tyres, 53% of 61,793 kg equates
to:
Load =
53% x 61,793 kg
4 Tyres
Load = 8,188 kg / Tyre


Loaded - Front
2 Tyres, 33% of 146,966 kg equates
to:
Load =
33% x 146,966 kg
2 Tyres
Load = 24,249 kg / Tyre


Loaded - Rear
4 Tyres, 67% of 146,966 kg equates
to:
Load =
67% x 146,966 kg
4 Tyres
Load = 24,617 kg / Tyre


The average load per tyre can now
be calculated.
Average Load Front Tyres:

M
M
A
A
=
+
=
14521 24249
2
19385
, ,
, kg/ tyre


Average Load Rear Tyres:

M
M
A
A
=
+
=
8188 24617
2
16403
, ,
, kg/ tyre

Therefore, the maximum average
load per tyre occurs on the front
tyres and corresponds to an average
load of 19,385 kg/tyre.
The site average speed must be
determined from the two haul routes
and cycle frequency information
given.
Therefore, for Haul Route 1;
V
4.2 km x 30 cycles
8 Hours
15.75 kph
A1
=
= V
A1


and, For Haul Route 2;
V
6.8 km x 22 cycles
8 Hours
18.7 kph
A2
=
= V
A2


Therefore, the highest average
speed is achieved on haul route 2.
Using the two maximum figures, the
site TKPH can be calculated as
follows:

TKPH = 19.385 Tonnes x 18.7 kph
TKPH = 363


This TKPH figure must be
corrected for the sites high
ambient temperatures.
Using Bridgestones correction
factor:
( ) [ ]
F(t C) =
52
52 + 50- 38 x 0.4
F(t C) = 0.92
o
o

This correction factor is multiplied
with the tyres rated TKPH to give
the tyres TKPH at 50C.
To utilised the Michelin tyre data, the
TKPH has to be corrected for two
factors. The first correction is
performed for ambient temperature
and the second correction is
performed for cycle length. As haul
route 2 is over 5 kilometres, the tyre
TKPH factor has to be corrected.
Michelin quote correction factor
coefficients for varying route lengths.
Using the data given for a route
length of 7 kilometres, the correction
factor, K1 equals 1.06.
To correct for temperature, the
following formula must be used for
Michelin data.
( ) [ ]
K2 =
V + 0.25 x TA - 38
m
V
m

Where:
K2 =The correction factor.
T
Operating Weight 61,793 kg
Max. Gross Weight 146,966 kg
Weight Distribution
(Empty)
Front

Rear


47%

53%
Weight Distribution
(Loaded)
Front

Rear


33%

67%
Standard Tyres 27.00R49
Standard Rim 49 x 19.50
Haul Route 1 Length
(Return)
4.2 km
Haul Route 2 Length
(Return)
6.8 km
Number of Cycles per
Shift (Route 1)
30
Number of Cycles per
Shift (Route 2)
22
Shift Duration 8 Hours
Site Maximum
Temperature
50C
Site Minimum
Temperature
12C
Road Condition Rocky
Dominant Failure Mode Rock cut /
Impact
Current Tread Utilisation 53%
15 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Vm =The site average speed.
TA =Ambient site temperature.

Using this formula and the data
given, we obtain:
( ) [ ]
K2 =
12.5 + 0.25 x 50 - 38
= 1.24
125
2
.
K

Therefore the corrected TKPH for
the given site conditions is:
TKPH =363 x 1.06 x 1.24
TKPH =477
Tyre Selection
Tyre selection is normally performed
independently from the TKPH
calculation. The calculated TKPH
values are used as a check to
determine if a particular
construction,
Table 2 lists all available
Bridgestone tyres in the 27.00x49
size and their respective TKPH
values, both rated and corrected.

Bridgestone

Tyre Type TKPH Corrected
TKPH
RLS 2A Bias 336 309.1
RLS 1A Bias 406 373.5
RLS 3A Bias 431 396.5
RLS 3AUH Bias 547 503.2
ELS 2A Bias 350 322.0
ELS 1A Bias 409 376.3
ELS 3A Bias 453 416.8
ELS 3AUH Bias 569 523.5
EL 2A Bias 423 389.2
EL 1A Bias 496 456.3
EL 3A Bias 555 510.6
EL 3AUH Bias 701 644.9
Table 2 - Bridgestone 27.00x49 Bias
Tyre TKPH Values








Tyre Type TKPH Corrected
TKPH
VKT/VFT 3A Radial 736 677.1
VKT/VFT 1A Radial 654 601.7
VKT/VFT 2A Radial 490 450.8
VEL / VRL 3A Radial 693 637.6
VEL / VRL 1A Radial 612 563.0
VEL / VRL 2A Radial 449 413.1
VMTS 3A Radial 652 599.8
VMTS 1A Radial 571 525.3
VMTS 2A Radial 448 412.2
VWTS / VRLS
3A
Radial 611 562.1
VWTS / VRLS
1A
Radial 530 487.6
VWTS / VRLS
2A
Radial 407 374.4
Table 3 - Bridgestone 27.00R49
Tyre TKPH Values

Tyres that are close to or under the
calculated TKPH rating are shown in
italics.

Michelin

The TKPH values for the Michelin
27.00x49 tyre size are given below.

Tyre TKPH
X VC 1090
X RB 763
X KB 698
X HD1A4 392
X HD1A 480
X HD1B4 567
X HD1B 654
X KD1A 392
X KD1B4 480
X KD1B 567
Table 4 - Michelin 27.00R49 Tyre
TKPH Values








Goodyear

The TKPH values for the Goodyear
27.00x49 bias tyres are given below.

Tyre Type TKPH
HRL-3B-4S Bias 380
HRL-4B-2S Bias 460
HRL-4B-4S Bias 328
HRL-4B-6S Bias 277
MRL-4D-4S Bias 277
SHY-7A-2S Bias 474
Table 5 - Goodyear 27.00x49 Bias
Tyre TKPH Values

Goodyear radial tyre TKPH figures
are given below:

Tyre Type TKPH
RL3+2S Radial 628
RL3+4S Radial 474
RL-4-2S Radial 584
RL-4-4S Radial 445
RL-4J /4J -II-2S Radial 547
Rl-4J /4J -II-4S Radial 423
RL-4J/4J-II-6S Radial 328
Table 6 - Goodyear 27.00x49 Tyre
TKPH Values

Discussion
It is not possible to accurately
recommend a tyre from those listed,
as the tyre prices and stock
availability are unknown. This would
play a major part in any decision
process. However, based on the site
data, a list of preferred option can be
formulated.
It should be noted that the actual
selection of tyres requires detailed
knowledge of past and current tyre
performance, in both similar and
varied operations to determine tyre
suitability prior to actually purchasing
tyres and performing tests. This
knowledge can save both time and
resources by extrapolating known
data to other sites, helping form
short lists of suitable tyres. This
process is especially important when
purchasing new equipment which
has not been previously operated on
site.
16 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
Based on the data given, the
following tyres would be short-listed
for trial:
Bridgestone
Bias-ply Tyres
ELS 1A - Standard construction,
deep tread tyre with
reasonable rock protection.
EL 2A - High rock protection
through cut resistant
construction and materials,
resistant to cutting, normal
tread depth.
The corrected TKPH for these tyres
closely match the TKPH figures
calculated for the site conditions.
The EL 2A should have a higher
probability of wearing out, through
the combination of stronger
construction and standard tread
depth.
Radial Tyres
VRLS 2A - The tyres corrected
TKPH is closely matched to the
TKPH figures calculated for the site
conditions and the tyre has a cut
resistant construction, with extra
deep tread. With TKPH figures
being so closely matched, pressure
maintenance would have to be
regularly carried out to prevent
damage from improper inflation.
Michelin
XHD1A - Good operating speed,
traction and reinforcement
protection.
XKD1B4 - Less traction and lower
speed than XHD1A, but
better reinforcement and
protection.
Both of these tyres have TKPH
ratings approximately equal to the
site corrected TKPH calculated.
Through operational planning
(varying haul trucks between the two
routes and rigorous pressure
maintenance), these tyres should
perform well in operation. Also, the
TKPH ratings have a correction
factor of 1.24 included for the
maximum site temperature. As the
site minimum is lower, during the
cooler months of the year, the tyres
should have a small margin of safety
incorporated. All of the tyres
recommended are deep tread
tyres, giving 50% extra tread.
If operational and maintenance
practices are not able to be
organised to suit, then the following
tyres should be trialed:
XHD1B4 - Higher TKPH than
XHD1A, but lower cut and
abrasion resistance.
XKD1B - High heat resistance for
long hauls, with the ability
to withstand minor
fluctuations in pressure
maintenance.
Goodyear
RL-(4J /4J II)-4S-E4 - This tyre
combines a deep tread,
standard construction tyre
with a cut resistant
composition. The choice
between the Rl-4J and the
RL-4 tyres would be a
choice between the wear
and traction / ride
characteristics of each tyre.
RL-4-4S - Also a deep tread,
standard construction tyre
with a cut resistant
composition.

There are only 2 Goodyear bias
tyres that would meet the TKPH
requirements and as both are heat
resistant tyres, rather than cut
resistant tyres, the optimum choice
is for radial tyres only.

17 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
APPENDIX 2 -
LOADER
CALACULATIONS

he following calculations give
an overview of the tyre
selection calculation process
for a front end loader, with the
following operating parameters;
along with a brief overview of a
hypothetical tyre selection process.
Configuration ROPS canopy,
standard lift,
teeth and
segments, 5.3m
3

rated capacity.
Operating Weight 29,019 kg
Static Tipping Load 18,887 kg
Standard Tyres 29.5-25 22 Ply
(L5)
Standard Rim 25x25.00
Haul Route 1
Length (Return)
200 metres
(one way)
Haul Route 2
Length (Return)
125 metres
(one way)
Number of Cycles
per Hour (Route 1)
21
Number of Cycles
per Hour (Route 2)
30
Shift Duration 8 Hours
Site Maximum
Temperature
50C
Site Minimum
Temperature
12C
Road Condition Rocky
Dominant Failure
Mode
Rock cut /
Impact


Front end loaders and tyred dozers
present a different set of selection
criteria to those of haul truck tyres.
Loader and dozer tyres cannot cope
with high speed operation or long
travel distances, even at moderate
speeds. Care must be exercised in
the selection and operation of loader
and dozer tyres.
Table 4 gave the TRA classifications
for loader and dozer tyre
construction. This information is
reproduced in Table 7. It should be
noted that the maximum operating
speed for these tyres is normally 10
kph and the maximum one way
distance is 75 metres.

TRA
Code
Tread Type
L-2 Traction
L-3 Rock
L-4 Rock deep tread
L-4S Smooth deep tread
L-5 Rock extra deep tread
L-5S Smooth extra deep tread
Table 7 - TRA Classifications for
Loader & Dozer Tyres

There are several factors to be taken
into account when determining the
tyre size and construction type to be
utilised. These are:
Tyre load.
Machine speed.
Load and carry distances.
Tyre ballasting.
The use of chains on tyres.
Special consideration should be
given when re-locating machinery
over long distances on highways,
along with transport services within
an operation, such as from face to
face movements, travel to
workshops, etc, as these can
damage the tyre through excessive
speed and heat generation.

Unlike haul truck applications, radial
tyres have been slow to be accepted
into loader and dozer applications.
The choice to move to radials should
only be taken based on sound
experience of results obtained in the
field. Current tyre fitments to loader
and dozer fleets would still be
predominantly bias-ply tyres.
There are several methods of
determining the correct tyre for
loader and dozer applications.
These methods vary between tyre
companies and include calculating
the tyre load and then determining
the corresponding pressure,
determining the static tipping load
and vehicle weight and using this
figure to determine the tyre load or
calculating a work capability factor.
Michelin
Using the example data given, the
most severe loading occurs when
the loader is at the face, loading the
bucket. At this point, the loader may
have the entire weight of the vehicle
on the front wheels. The load
exerted on the tyres is a combination
of the machines unladen weight and
the static tipping load.
Therefore, using the data the loader,
this equates to:
Max Load = 29,019 kg+18,887 kg
Max Load = 47,906 kg

The equivalent load per tyre is
therefore:
Load per Tyre =
47,906 kg
2 Tyres
Load per Tyre = 23,953 kg/ tyre

Using this load per tyre, Michelin
recommends the following tyre
inflation pressures for the front tyres:
3.5 Bar (51 psi).

Based on the tyre size used, the
available tread patterns are:
XHA H - L3
XLDD2A H - L5
XKA HH - L3
XMINED2 - L5
Michelin recommend tyres based on
a function of the surface type and
condition combined with the service
conditions (distances and speeds)
that the tyre will encounter.
Table 9 below lists the values given
by Michelin for tyre selection.
Using Michelins guidelines, the
highest average speed equates to
8.4 kilometres per hour. This
distance precludes the use of the
X Mine D2 tyre.
T
18 O T R A C O (International) Pty Ltd - Tyre Selection, Use and Operational Issues to Maximise Tyre Life
As both cycle lengths are under the
minimums specified by Michelin,
there are no restrictions placed on
tyre selection by this criteria.
Based on the calculations performed
and the data given, the Michelin tyre
recommended is the XLD D2A H -
L5. This tyre has the advantage of
an extra deep tread (D2 / L5),
combined with a construction highly
resistant to cutting, hacking and
abrasion. The theoretical pressures
for the front and rear tyres would be:
Front : 350 kPa (51 psi)
Rear : 200 kPa (29 psi)

Goodyear
Goodyear utilise a Work Capability
Function (WCB) to determine tyre
selection for loader and dozer
applications. The WCF formula is
given below:
M =
M + M
2
=
L x N
WCF = M x V
Avg
Empty Loaded
Trip Cycles
Avg Max
V
T
Max
Cycles

Where:
MAvg =Average tyre load.
MEmpty = Empty tyre load.
MLoaded =Loaded tyre load.
VMax =Maximum average speed per
hour.
LTrip =round trip distance.
NCycles =Number of cycles per
period.
TCycles =Length of period (hours).
Using the data given for the
operation of the loader, we can
compute the WCF:
Take maximum load to be the
combination of the operating weight
and the static tipping load (straight)
distributed over the front tyres only,
with the empty load being the
vehicles operating weight distributed
over all four tyres.

Therefore:
M =
47,906 kg
2 tyres
+
29,019 kg
4 tyres
2
M = 15,604 kg/ tyre
Avg
Avg

and
VMax =8.4 kph
Therefore:
WCF =15,604 kg/tyre x 8.4 kph
WCF =131 (metric WCF)

Using the Goodyear tyre information
for the 29.5x25 tyre size, the
following tyres are available which
have a WCF equal to or greater than
131:
Tyre Type WCF
GP-2B-4S Radial 226
GP-2B-6S Radial 190
RL-2F-4S Radial 168
RL-2F-6S Radial 161
Table 10 - Goodyear 29.5R25 WCF
Of the tyres available, the following
would be the recommended choice:
GP-2B-6S-L3 Radial.
This choice is made as this tyre can
be ordered in a L3 (Rock)
construction, with a 6S material
specification, ultra abrasion resistant
material and the WCF factor is high
enough to allow a moderate margin
of safety.
The theoretical pressures for the
front and rear tyres would be:
Front : 550 kPa (80 psi)
Rear : 400 kPa (58 psi)

Bridgestone
Bridgestone utilise a TKPH
calculation to determine the correct
tyre to be utilised.
For the loader, the loaded weight
corresponds to a full bucket
(assume 75% rock and 25% earth
with a density of 2000 kg/m
3
). This
gives a loaded weight of 39,419 kg.
Using this figure:
M =
39,419 kg + 29,019 kg
2
M = 34,219 kg
A
A

The average speed of the loader is
8.4 kph. Therefore, assuming that
the average load acts over the two
front tyres only:
TKPH =
34,219 kg
2
x 8.4 kph
TKPH =144

Using the Bridgestone product
catalogue, there are two tyres that
have a TKPH rating over 144, these
are:
FG-2A
VALS H
The FG-2A tyre would need to be a
28 ply or higher tyre to cope with the
loads placed upon it. Using the 28
ply tyre, the theoretical tyre
pressures would be:
Front : 400 kPa (58 psi)
Rear : 225 kPa (33 psi)
The VALS H tyre would have the
following theoretical tyre pressures:
Front : 500 kPa (73 psi)
Rear : 400 kPa (58 psi)







Type of Tyre Maximum Length of Cycle
Permissible (Round Trip)
Average Number
of Kilometres
Allowed in One
Hour
XHA, XRA, XRDNA 1,800 m 16 km
XR D1A, XLD D1A 1,800 m 14 km
XR D2A, XLD D2A,
X Mine D1
1,500 m 10 km
X Mine D2, XSM D2 1,200 m 6 km
Table 9 - Michelin Tyre Selection Guidelines