INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE

ALKANES, HYDROCARBONS, and FUNCTIONAL GROUPS. All organic compounds are made up of at least carbon and
hydrogen. The most basic type of organic compound is one made up exclusively of sp
3
carbons covalently bonded to other carbons
and hydrogens through sigma bonds only. The generic name for this family of compounds is alkanes. Alkanes are part of a more
general category of compounds known as hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbons such as alkenes and alkynes contain sp
2
or sp-
hybridized carbon atoms.
Alkanes are of great importance to the different classification systems and the naming of organic compounds because they consist
of a carbon chain that forms the main structural unit of all organic substances. When an alkane carbon chain is modified in any
way, even by the mere introduction of an sp
2
carbon or a heteroatom (atoms other than carbon and hydrogen), is is said to be
functionalized. In other words, a functional group has been introduced and a new class of organic substances has been created.
A functional group is a specific arrangement of certain atoms in an organic molecule that becomes the center of reactivity. That
is, it is the portion of the structure that controls the reactivity of the entire molecule and much of its physical properties. An
entire classificaton system of functional groups is based on atom hybridization. Some of these functional groups are presented
on page 2. They are the most commonly studied in introductory organic chemistry courses.
ALKANE NOMENCLATURE. Since alkanes are the most fundamental types of organic compounds, their structural features (a
basic carbon chain, or skeleton) provide the basis for the nomenclature of all organic compounds. The earliest nomenclature
systems followed almost no systematic rules. Substances were named based on their smell, or their natural source, etc. Many of
those names are still in use today and are collectively known as common names. As organic chemistry developed and structures
became more complex, a systematic method for naming organic compounds became necessary. The International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is the organism that sets the rules for nomenclature of organic compounds today. Names that
follow IUPAC rules are known as systematic names, or IUPAC names.
According to IUPAC rules, the first four alkanes are called methane, ethane, propane, and butane. They contain one, two, three,
and four carbon atoms respectively, in a linear arrangement. Beginning with the fifth member of the series, pentane, the number
of carbons is indicated by a greek prefix (penta, hexa, hepta, etc.). Most organic chemistry textbooks contain tables of at least the
first ten members of the series, along with their structures and physical properties. Thus, the first two and most elementary rules
for naming alkanes are to identify the length of the carbon chain, start the name with the appropriate greek prefix, and end the
name with the suffix -ane. All this is obvious from the examples just given. Other rules are discussed next.
OVERVIEW OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS BASED ON ATOM HYBRIDIZATION
I. HYDROCARBONS - Substances containing only carbon and hydrogen.
ALKANES
C C
Only sp
3
carbon present (technically not a functional group)
ALKENES
C C
At least one !-bond between two sp
2
carbons present
ALKYNES
C C
At least one triple bond between two sp carbons present
II. ALKYL HALIDES, OR HALOALKANES - Substances containing at least one C-X bond, where X=F, Cl, Br, or I.
ALKYL FLUORIDES
C F
ALKYL CHLORIDES
C Cl
ALKYL BROMIDES
C Br
ALKYL IODIDES
C I
III. GROUPS CONTAINING OXYGEN - Both carbon and oxygen can be sp
3
or sp
2
hybridized, or a combination of both.
ALCOHOLS
C OH
and ETHERS
C O C
sp
3
Oxygen
ALDEHYDES
C H
O
and KETONES
C C
O
C
sp
2
Oxygen
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
C OH
O
, ESTERS
C O
O
C
, and ANHYDRIDES
C O
O
C
O
These functional groups contain both sp
3
and sp
2
oxygen.
ACID, OR ACYL HALIDES
C X
O
The most common halogens used are chlorine and bromine.
IV. GROUPS CONTAINING NITROGEN - They may also contain other elements. For example amides also contain oxygen.
AMINES
C N
(sp
3
Nitrogen), AMIDES
C N
O
, and NITRILES
C N
(sp Nitrogen)
Before proceeding, it is important to emphasize that beginning organic chemistry students must get used to seeing alkane chains
from different angles, perspectives, and positions, as shown below using line-angle formulas for linear alkanes.
BRANCHED ALKANES and ALKYL GROUPS. When naming branched alkanes by IUPAC rules, identify and name the longest
continuous carbon chain first. Then identify the branch, or branches. The branches are called alkyl groups. For example, a one
carbon branch is called a methyl group. The names of alkyl groups are the same as those of analogous alkanes, except that their
names end in -yl, instead of -ane. The following are examples of the most common alkyl groups encountered in introductory organic
chemistry courses. Alky groups never exist by themselves. In alkanes they are always attached to a higher priority chain and are
therefore sometime called substituents. The point of attachement is indicated by a dash.
Hexane
Octane
CH
3
Methyl Ethyl n-propyl isopropyl
n-butyl isobutyl sec-butyl t-butyl
CH
3
CH
2
CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
CHCH
3
CH
3
CH
2
CH
2
CH
2
CH
3
CH
CH
3
CH
2
CH
3
CHCH
2
CH
3
CH
3
CCH
3
CH
3
In the following example, the longest continuous carbon chain has five carbons. Therefore the parent alkane is pentane. There
is a methyl group attached to this chain. The molecule is then named methylpentane. Finally, the exact position of the methyl
group is specified by numbering the main chain from the end closest to the methyl group. The complete IUPAC name for this alkane
is 2-methylpentane.
CH
3
1
2
3
4 5
In the following examples the alkyl groups are shown in red. Students must get used to line-angle formulas as early as possible.
Make sure youve identified the longest continuous carbon chain correctly. Otherwise you might end up with the wrong name. The
longest continuous carbon chain doesnt always have to be a horizontal row of carbons. It can take twists and turns. Thats why
one must get used to visualize molecules from different angles and perspectives. The following example illustrates the correct
name and an incorrect name based on a horizontal row of carbons.
The correct name above illustrates whats done when there are several substituents of the same kind. First identify their positions,
then use the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. to indicate how many are present.
3-Ethylhexane
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2
3
4
5 6
4-Isopropyloctane
1 2
3
4 5
1
2
3
4
5 6
INCORRECT: 2-Isopropylpentane CORRECT: 2,3-Dimethylhexane
2,4-Dimethylpentane 2,5,6-Trimethylnonane
If there are substituents of different kinds present, name them in alphabetical order (e.g. ethyl before methyl). Prefixes such as
di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. are ignored when alphabetizing.
4-Ethyl-2-methylhexane 3-Isopropyl-2,6-dimethylheptane 2,6-Dimethyl-4-propylnonane
If there are several options for choosing the longest continuous carbon chain, choose the one that yields the simplest name. That
means:
(a) The longest continuous carbon chain has the greatest number of substituents, and
(b) The name has the lowest set of numbers indicating the substituent positions.
Complex alky groups (those which are branched themselves) are named as if they were alkanes, but the name ends in -yl and
is enclosed in parenthesis. The carbon from which the substituent atttaches to the main chain is automatically number 1.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
CORRECT: 2,6-Dimethyl-4-propyloctane
INCORRECT: 5-Isobutyl-3-methyloctane
3 substituents of simpler structure,
and a lower set of position numbers
2 substituents of more complex structure,
and a greater set of position numbers
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
2
3
point of attachement to the main chain
(1-Methylpropyl) group
5-(1-Methylpropyl) nonane
Although common alkyl group names such as isopropyl and t-butyl are commonly used as part of IUPAC names, strict IUPAC rules
call for naming them as complex substituents. Common names are used because they are easier to say, shorter, and save paper
and ink in scientific publications when they have to be used repeatedly in manuscripts.
ALKANES: COMMON NAMES. Like alkyl groups, alkanes can also have common names. Common, or trivial names are rarely
used for straight chain alkanes, but are frequently used for branched alkanes. The following pages contain some terminology that
organic chemistry students must memorize or become familiar with, due to the fact that it is widely used in textbooks and in the
chemical literature.
ISOALKANES and ISOALKYL GROUPS. The iso structural unit consists of two methyl groups attached to a common carbon.
When this unit is present in an alkane or alky group, the common name starts with the prefix iso.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 2
COMMON NAME: Isopropyl group
IUPAC NAME: (1-Methylethyl)
4-Isopropyloctane
Acceptable and
commonly used name
4-(1-Methylethyl) octane
Correct IUPAC name, but
cumbersome for routine use
CH
3
CH
CH
3
or
The iso structural unit
When this unit is present in alkanes, the molecule is named according to the total number of carbon atoms present, but the
name starts with the prefix iso. The smallest possible isoalkane is then isobutane.
CH
3
CH
CH
3
CH
3
or
Isobutane - four carbons total Isopentane - five carbons total Isohexane - six carbons total
The same rules apply to isoalkyl groups, but their names end in -yl. The smallest possible isoalky group is the isopropyl group,
because alkyl groups are always attached to another carbon chain.
The isopropyl group, or (1-Methylethyl)
The isobutyl group, or (2-Methylpropyl)
The isopentyl group, or (3-Methylbutyl)
PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY CARBONS. Another bit of terminology associated with common names refers to the
connectivity of sp
3
carbons in alkanes and alkyl groups. A primary carbon is one that is covalently attached to only one other
carbon. A secondary carbon is one attached to two other carbons. A tertiary carbon is attached to three other carbons. This
definition implies that methane cannot have any such carbons, since it consists of only one carbon atom. Likewise, this terminology
applies only to sp
3
carbons. Other types are not defined in this way. In the following examples the carbons in question are
indicated as dots.
primary (1
o
) carbons secondary (2
o
) carbons tertiary (3
o
) carbons undefined
The carbon atoms directly engaged !-bonding in alkenes are referred to as vinylic. An sp
3
carbon directly attached to a vinylic
carbon is referred to as allylic. Finally, an sp
3
carbon directly attached to a benzene ring is referred to as benzylic.
Although it is emphasized that this is terminology used in common names, it is widely used and therefore important. It constitutes
the basis for characterizing not only alkanes, but also other types of compounds where the main functionality is attached to a
carbon that belongs to one of the types described. Thus we can have primary alcohols, secondary chlorides, allylic hydrogens,
etc. based on the type of carbon to which they are attached.
vinylic carbons allylic carbon benzylic carbon
OH
OH
OH
primary
alcohol
secondary
alcohol
tertiary
alcohol
Cl
Br
H
primary
chloride
secondary
bromide
tertiary
hydrogen
Cl
vinyl
chloride
Br
allyilic
bromide
OH
benzyl
alcohol
H
secondary
hydrogen
This terminology is also used to identify the point of attachment of certain alkyl groups to the main chain of a molecule, based on
the type of carbon from which the alkyl group connects to the main chain. For example four different butyl groups are possible,
depending on their structure and their point of attachemnt to the main carbon chain. Two of them are named sec-butyl and tert-
butyl (or t-butyl) because they connect to the main chain from a secondary and a tertiary carbon respectively.
While there are four possible butyl groups, only two possible butanes exist. They are n-butane and isobutane (once again, these
are common names). Likewise, there are three possible pentanes called n-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane.
The square represents the main carbon chain of a molecule
n-butyl group isobutyl group
sec-butyl group
the point of attachment
is a secondary carbon
t-butyl or tert-butyl group
the point of attachment is
a tertiary carbon
n-butane
isobutane n-pentane isopentane neopentane
The nomenclature concepts presented in the previous sections also apply to cycloalkanes. Please consult your organic chemistry
textbook for examples and additional practice exercises.
ORGANIC NOMENCLATURE, PART II
HALOALKANES, OR ALKYL HALIDES
Like alkanes, alkyl halides, called haloalkanes by IUPAC rules, can have common names as well as systematic names. Common names are
widely used because they are short and easy to say and write. Once you know what chloroform is, its easier to refer to it as such, rather than
as trichloromethane.
COMMON NAMES - Most common names refer to the main carbon frame as an alkyl group, and then add the halogen name, ending in
-ide. Names such as isopropyl, or sec-butyl are extensively used. Likewise, primary halides have the halogen attached to a primary carbon,
secondary halides have the halogen attached to a secondary carbon, etc. Refer to chapter 6 in your textbook. Examples are:
CH
3
Cl CH
3
CH
2
Br
I
Cl
Cl
Cl
Br
CH
2
Cl Cl
Methyl
chloride
Ethyl
bromide
Methylene chloride
(CH
2
Cl
2
)
Isopropyl
iodide
n-butyl
chloride
sec-butyl
chloride
t-butyl
chloride
Neopentyl
bromide
IUPAC NAMES - The systematic naming of haloalkanes follows the same basic principles as that of alkanes. Find the longest carbon
chain and number it trying to obtain the lowest set of numbers. Follow the alphabetical rule in naming the substituents, whether they are alkyl
groups or halogens. Use prefixes such as di-, tri, as needed. The following examples illustrate these points.
Cl
Br
Cl
Cl
Cl Br
Cl
2-Chlorobutane
2-Bromo-3-
methylpentane
3-Chloro-2-
methylpentane
2,3-Dichloropentane
2-Bromo-1-chloro-
4-methylpentane
If two substituents are equally far from either end, number the chain according to alphabetical order.
Br
2-Bromo-4-methylpentane,
NOT: 2-Methyl-4-bromopentane
All these rules apply only if the substituents on the main carbon chain are alkyl groups and/or halogens. Other functional groups have different
priorities, depending on their nature.
To name cyclohaloalkanes that contain halogen and alky substituents, number from the carbon bearing the halogen. Remember to indicate
cis or trans when applicable.
Br
1-Bromo-2,3-
dimethylcyclopentane
Cl
H
3
C
trans-1-Chloro-3-
methylcyclopentane
Name complex substituents using parenthesis and the guidelines discussed before for alkanes.
Br
Bromomethylcyclohexane
F
4-(2-Fluoroethyl)heptane