Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science

& Technology,Sehore
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Lab Manual
of
CTL
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


List of Experiment
&$ Study of prototype constant '( LO) *+SS ,ILTE-$
.$ Study of prototype constant '( /I0/ *+SS ,ILTE-$
1$ To chec# fre2uency response of a 3 lo4 pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+nalyser$
6$ To measure the image impedance of an asymmetrical L net4or# using1778 in
series arm , 9778 in shunt arm$
:$ To chec# fre2uency response of a 3 high pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+naly;er$
9$ To design an acti%e LO) *+SS ,ILTE- at a cut off fre2uency of & #/; and pass
band gain of . d<$ *lot the fre2uency response cur%e$
=$ To design an +cti%e /igh *ass ,ilter of a cut off fre2uency of & #/; and pass
band gain of . d<$ *lot the fre2uency response cur%e
>$ To measure the attenuation of Transmission line $

?$To Measure the input impedance of the line
&7$ Design of Symmetrical T@attenuator$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials .
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.1
AIM: Study of prototype constant '( LO) *+SS ,ILTE-$
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Inductor A1. m/B . os, CapacitorsA& uf B , function
generator, C-O, bread board *atch chords, connecting 4ires
THEOR:
+ LO) *+SS ,ILTE- is one 4hich transmit all fre2uencies from ;ero up to some designated
fre2uency called cut off fre2uency Af
c
B but attenuates fre2uency beyond this$ The circuit
diagram is as sho4n in the figure$ If the constant ( filter is a T or net4or# in 4hich series
and shunt impedances C
&
and C
.
are connected by the relationship
C
&
C
.
D-
#
.
)here -
#
is a real constant that is resistance independent of fre2uency $ -
#
is often termed as
design impedance of constant # filter$
The constant # filter is a T or filters as sho4n in the figure$ Since the total series and shunt
impedanceof both T or filters are the same they 4ill ha%e same design impedance and cut off
fre2uency$
C
&
C
.
D-
#
.
DL"C
C
OT
DL"CA&@4
.
LC"6B
C
OT
is real if 4
.
LC"6<& and imaginary if 4
.
LC"6>&
Cut off fre2uency f
c
at 4hich the C
OT
changes from being real to imaginary
E
c
.
LC"6D&
f
c
D&"ALCB
&".
LD-
#"
f
c
, CD&" f
c
-
#
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials 1
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


PRO!EDURE :
&B Design the circuit and implement on breadboard$
.B Set the output of function generator at & %olt and connect at input of
the filter$
1B Connect the output on C-O$
6B Changing the fre2uency of function generator from &77 h; to & mh;,
get the reading of output ta#ing the fre2uency in multiple of &7$
:B Calculate the %alue of f
c
and -
#
and match their theoretical and
practical %alues$
RESULT :
Study of prototype constant '# lo4 pass filter is complete$
PRE!AUTIONS:
&B +l4ays ma#e connection properly in breadboard
.B +ll connections should be tight$
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$)rite disad%antage of prototype filter$
.$ Define characteristics of filtersF
1$)hat is the ratio bet4een C
&
and C
.
during pass bandF
6$/o4 are m@ deri%ed superior to prototype filterF
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials 6
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.%
AIM: Study of prototype constant '( /I0/ *+SS ,ILTE-$
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Inductor A.$6 m/B,CapacitorsA7$7& uf B , function generator, C-O, bread board
*atch chords, connecting 4ires
THEOR:
+ /I0/ *+SS ,ILTE- is a four terminal net4or# 4hich passes all signals of fre2uency
greater than its cut off fre2uency Af
c
B but attenuates fre2uency belo4 this$ The circuit diagram is as
sho4n in the figure$ If the constant ( filter is a T or net4or# in 4hich series and shunt
impedances C
&
and C
.
are connected by the relationship
C
&
C
.
D-
#
.
)here -
#
is a real constant that is resistance independent of fre2uency $ -
#
is often termed as
design impedance of constant # filter$
The constant # filter is a T or filters as sho4n in the figure$ Since the total series and shunt
impedance of both T or filters are the same they 4ill ha%e same design impedance and cut off
fre2uency$
C
&
C
.
D-
#
.
DL"C
C
OT
DL"CA&@4
.
LC"6B
C
OT
is real if 4
.
LC"6<& and imaginary if 4
.
LC"6>&
Cut off fre2uency f
c
at 4hich the C
OT
changes from being real to imaginary


E
c
.
D&"6LC
f
c
D&"6ALCB
&".
LD-
#"6
f
c
, CD&"6 f
c
-
#
PRO!EDURE :
&B Design the circuit and implement on breadboard$
.B Set the output of function generator at & %olt and connect at input of the filter$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials :
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


1B Connect the output on C-O$
6B Changing the fre2uency of function generator from &777 h; to & mh;, get the
reading of output ta#ing the fre2uency in multiple of &7$
:B Calculate the %alue of f
c
and -
#
and match their theoretical and practical
%alues$
RESULT :
Study of prototype constant '# high pass filter is complete
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$ +l4ays ma#e connection 4hen #it is in off position$
.$ +ll connections should be tight$
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$)rite disad%antage of prototype filter$
.$ Define characteristics of filtersF
1$)hat is the ratio bet4een C
&
and C
.
during pass bandF
6$/o4 are m@ deri%ed superior to prototype filterF
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials 9
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.&
AIM: To chec# fre2uency response of a 3 lo4 pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+nalyser$
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
&$ Spectrum +naly;er /M :779
.$ <C@<C cable . os
1$ Lo4 pass filter
THEOR: Lo4 pass filter is the filter 4hich allo4s only the lo4 fre2uency signal to
pass through it$
PRO!EDURE :
+B S4itch on the spectrum analy;er and chec# if the instrument is meeting the calibration
re2uirements else refer to the manual supplied along 4ith the instrument$
<B Set the spectrum analy;er as gi%en belo4!
CETE- ,-EGHECI 777$7
+TTEH+TIO A&7 d<J.B
SC+ )IDT/ . M/;"Di%
CB Set the Trac#ing 0enerator as gi%en belo4 !
+TTEH+TIO +LL *-ESSED
O"O,, S)ITC/ O
LEKEL L& d< Acloc#4iseB
DB Connect the gi%en filter bet4een the Spectrum +naly;er and Trac#ing generator as
sho4n in the fig&$
EBIou 4ill obser%e the cur%e as follo4s A,ig .$B
, B o4 s4itch on the mar#er push button$ M( is lit and the display sho4s the mar#er fre2uency$
The mar#er is sho4n on the screen as a %ertical needle$ o4 adMust the Mar#er #nob so as to align
the needle 4ith the spectral line under obser%ation$ The reading as obtained on the display is the
re2uired fre2uency
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials =
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


0B In order to find the <and4idth of the gi%en filter start mo%ing the mar#er (nob and note its
reading at '1 d< Amar#ed N in the fig$B $ In order to find the pass band of filter scan using the
center fre2uency #nob up to 177 M/;$
O'SER(ATIONS :
S$o$ 1 d< gain ,re2uency
RESULT :
fre2uency response of a 3 lo4 pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+nalyser is chec#ed$
PRE!AUTION :
&B e%er eJceed the input to the Spectrum +naly;er beyond &7 mK rms 4ith no
attenuation and & K rms 4ith all attenuation s4itches pressed $
.B )hile using Trac#ing 0enerator ne%er apply signal from eJternal source to any of its
<C terminals $
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&B )hat is Spectrum +naly;erF
.B Difference bet4een C-O and Spectrum +naly;erF
1B )hat is the reference le%el in S+ F
6B )hat do you understand by Sensiti%ity of S+ F
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials >
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.)
AIM: To measure the image impedance of an asymmetrical L net4or# using1778 in
series arm , 9778 in shunt arm$
APPARATUS REQUIRED: -esistorsA977 8,1:78,1778B,-*S ,C-O , multimeter
THEOR :
Since the asymmetrical net4or#s ha%e une2ual input and output impedance therefore their
beha%ior is described in terms of iterati%e impedance , image impedance , image transfer constant
and iterati%e transfer constant$
Image impedance :
E%ery asymmetrical four terminal net4or# as t4o image impedances such that 4hen one of
them is connected at the appropriate terminals the impedance measured at the other pair of
terminal e2uals the second image impedance$ Image impedances are usually denoted by C
7&
and
C
7.
C
7&
D
OA
C
&
.
".LC
&
C
.
B C
7&D
OC
oc&
C
sc&
C
7.D
C
&
C
.
"OC
&
.
LC
&
C
.
C
7.D


OC
oc.
C
sc.
PRO!EDURE :
&B Design the circuit and implement on breadboard$
.B Open the circuit at terminal .@.$$
1B Connect the multimeter and %ary DC %oltage connected bet4een terminal &@&
6B Kary the DC %oltage from A:@.7KB and note the %alue of current and apply the
same procedure for C
sc
$
:B ,or C
.&
repeat the abo%e procedure to calculate C
oc. and
C
sc.
$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials ?
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


9B ,inally compare those %alues 4ith theoretical %alues$
O'SER(ATION TA'LE :
SO$ *ractical %alue
&$ +pplying C
7&
as
input loadD:.78
C
7.
D
.$ +pplying C
7.
as
input loadD1:78
C
7&
D
RESULT :
The image impedance of asymmetrical net4or# is@@@@@@@@@@
PRE!AUTIONS:
&B +l4ays ma#e connection 4hen #it is in off position$
.B +ll connections should be tight$
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$ Define Image Impedance, Iterati%e Impedance$
.$ )hat is /alf Section ,4here they are used$
1$ )hat are attenuatorsF
6$ )hat is difference bet4een attenuators and e2uali;ers F
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &7
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.*
AIM: To chec# fre2uency response of a 3 high pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+naly;er$
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
&$ Spectrum +naly;er /M :779
.$ <C@<C cable . os
1$ /igh pass filter
THEOR:
/igh pass filter is the filter 4hich allo4s only the high fre2uency signals to
pass through it$
PRO!EDURE :
+B S4itch on the spectrum analy;er and chec# if the instrument is meeting the calibration
re2uirements else refer to the manual supplied along 4ith the instrument$
<B Set the spectrum analy;er as gi%en belo4!
CETE- ,-EGHECI 777$7
+TTEH+TIO A&7 d<J.B
SC+ )IDT/ . M/;"Di%
CB Set the Trac#ing 0enerator as gi%en belo4 !
+TTEH+TIO +LL *-ESSED
O"O,, S)ITC/ O
LEKEL L& d< Acloc#4iseB
DB Connect the gi%en filter bet4een the Spectrum +naly;er and Trac#ing generator as
sho4n in the fig&$
EBIou 4ill obser%e the cur%e as follo4s A,ig .$B
, B o4 s4itch on the mar#er push button$ M( is lit and the display sho4s the mar#er fre2uency$
The mar#er is sho4n on the screen as a %ertical needle$ o4 adMust the Mar#er #nob so as to align
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &&
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


the needle 4ith the spectral line under obser%ation$ The reading as obtained on the display is the
re2uired fre2uency
0B In order to find the <and4idth of the gi%en filter start mo%ing the mar#er (nob and note its
reading at '1 d< Amar#ed N in the fig$B $ In order to find the pass band of filter scan using the
center fre2uency #nob up to 177 M/;$
O'SER(ATIONS :
S$o$ 1 d< gain ,re2uency
RESULT :
fre2uency response of a 3 high pass5 filter 4ith the help of Spectrum
+naly;er$ is chec#ed$
PRE!AUTION :
&B e%er eJceed the input to the Spectrum +naly;er beyond &7 mK rms 4ith no
attenuation and & K rms 4ith all attenuation s4itches pressed $
.B )hile using Trac#ing 0enerator ne%er apply signal from eJternal source to any of its
<C terminals $
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&B )hat is Spectrum +naly;erF
.B Difference bet4een C-O and Spectrum +naly;erF
1B)hat is the reference le%el in S+ F
6B)hat do you understand by Sensiti%ity of S+ F
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &.
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.+
AIM: To design an acti%e LO) *+SS ,ILTE- at a cut off fre2uency of & #/; and pass
band gain of . d<$ *lot the fre2uency response cur%e$
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
O*@ +M*AIC@=6&B,-ESISTO-S &7#,&7#,.7#
CapacitorsAceramic typeB @ 7$7&Pf,,unction 0enerator, C-O, <read <oard
*atch chords, connecting 4ires
THEOR:
+ Lo4 *ass ,ilter is a four terminal net4or# 4hich stops all signals of fre2uency greater
than its cut off fre2uency Af
c
B$ The circuit diagram is as sho4n in the figure$ The input is gi%en at
non@in%erting terminals of O*@+M* %ia a resistor and capacitor as sho4n in the figure$ 0ain + is
gi%en by
+D&L-
f
"-
&
Cut off fre2uency is gi%en by
,
c
D&".-C
PRO!EDURE :
&B+ssume and ta#e CD7$7& uf$
.Bdesign the circuit and implement on breadboard$
1BSet the output of function generator at & %olt and connect the input to the filter$
6BConnect the output on C-O$
:BChanging the fre2uency of function generator from &77 h; to & Mh;, get the
reading of output ta#ing the fre2uency in multiple of &7$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &1
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


9B*lot fre2uency response cur%e bet4een 0ain and ,re2uency$
O'SER(ATION TA'LE:
S$O$ K
in
A%oltsB Input
fre2uency A/;B
K
7
A%oltsB 0ainD.7logK
7
"K
in
!AL!ULATION:
Let CD7$7& Pf
,
c
D&".-C
0ainD.7logK
7
"K
in
If K
in
D& K
0ainD.7logK
7
RESULT :
,re2uency response cur%e is plotted on the graph paper$
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$ +l4ays ma#e connection 4hen #it is in off position$
.$ +ll connections should be tight$
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$ 4hat are filtersF
.$ )hat is the difference bet4een +cti%e and *assi%e filtersF
1$ )hat do you understand by fre2uency transformation F
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &6
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


6$ Define characteristics of filtersF
EXPERIMENT NO.,
AIM:
$ To design an +cti%e /igh *ass ,ilter of a cut off fre2uency of & #/; and pass
band gain of . d<$ *lot the fre2uency response cur%e
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
O*@ +M*AIC@=6&B,-ESISTO-S &7#,&7#,.7#
CapacitorsAceramic typeB @ 7$7&Pf, ,unction 0enerator, C-O, <read <oard
*atch chords, connecting 4ires
THEOR:
+ /I0/ *+SS ,ILTE- is a four terminal net4or# 4hich passes all signals of fre2uency
greater than its cut off fre2uency Af
c
B but attenuates fre2uency belo4 this$ The circuit diagram
is as sho4n in the figure$ The input is gi%en at non@in%erting terminals of O*@+M* %ia a
resistor and capacitor as sho4n in the figure$ 0ain + is gi%en by
+D&L-
f
"-
&
Cut off fre2uency is gi%en by
,
c
D&".-C
PRO!EDURE :
&B+ssume and ta#e CD7$7& uf$
.Bdesign the circuit and implement on breadboard$
1BSet the output of function generator at & %olt and connect at input of the filter$
6BConnect the output on C-O$
:BChanging the fre2uency of function generator from &77 h; to & mh;, get the
reading of output ta#ing the fre2uency in multiple of &7$
9B*lot fre2uency response cur%e bet4een 0ain and ,re2uency
O'SER(ATION TA'LE:
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &:
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


SO$ K
in
A%oltsB Input fre2uency A/;B K
7
A%oltsB 0ainD.7logK
7
"K
in
!AL!ULATION:
Let CD7$7& uf
,
c
D&".-C
0ainD.7logK
7
"K
in
If K
in
D& K
0ainD.7logK
7
RESULT :
,re2uency response cur%e is plotted on the graph paper$
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$ +l4ays ma#e connection 4hen #it is in off position$
.$ +ll connections should be tight$
"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$)hat are filtersF
.$ )hat is the difference bet4een +cti%e and *assi%e filtersF
1$ )hat do you understand by fre2uency transformation F
6$Define characteristics of filtersF
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &9
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.-
AIM :To measure the attenuation of Transmission line $
APPARATUS REQUIRED ! Trainer #it, C-O, *atch chords

THEOR:
The Ohmic resistance - & the conductance 0 are responsible for energy disputation in
the form of heat$ These losses, 4hich determine the attenuation characteristics ,are
eJpressed in terms of attenuation Q+R and can be calculated by
+D.7logAK."K&B
)here K&D amplitude of signal at I"*
K. D amplitude of signal at O"*
+ D attenuation for gi%en length
In this eJperiment 4e 4ill measure the attenuation for the different trun#s of
transmission line a%ailable on the trainer$ See fig$
PRO!EDURE:
&$ +dMust -i and -
l
for &>8 and 9>8 respecti%ely 4ith the help of DMM$
.$ Ma#e connections as sho4n in diagram$
1$ Set the sine 4a%e fre2uency to approJ &77(h; and le%el to 7$6 %$
6$ Oscilloscope Ch& sho4s applied input Ch. sho4s outputs$
:$ Measure signal le%el at input, and at .7,:7,=: and &77m length$
9$ o4 calculate the attenuation in d< at %arious lengths by the formula gi%en belo4!
+D.7logAK."K&B
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &=
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


=$ The attenuation is approJ '. d< at &77m$
>$ Try the same 4ith open ended line and short ended line$
O'SER(ATION :
LengthAmB K& AinputB K. AoutputB
.:
:7
=:
&77
RESULT : It is %erified that 4hen length increases, attenuation also increases
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$ +ll connections should be made correctly$
.$ Supply gi%en should be of right polarity$
1$ The readings should be ta#en accurately$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &>
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO..

AIM : To Measure the input impedance of the line
THEOR!
The input impedance of the line depends on feature li#e the ohmic resistance, the
conductance, the inductance and the capacitance$ It is also related to the resistance that loads the
line at the opposite end and to both the fre2uency and %oltage to the signal$ The purpose of first
part to measure the I"* impedance of the line under different load conditions!
&$ Line terminated 4ith match load $
.$ Open line
1$ Short circuited line
In the second part of the test 4e 4ill measure the phase displacement bet4een the I"* %oltage
and current, under the 1 conditions of line termination$ )hen the modulus and the phase
displacements are #no4n the impedance %ector is fully identified$
PRO!EDURE:
&$ +dMust -
i
and -
L
for &>8 and 9>8 respecti%ely 4ith the help of DMM$
. Ma#e the connections as sho4n in the Diagram$
1$ + &8 resistance in series bet4een the generator and the transmission line as sho4n in the
Diagram allo4s to measure the %alue of input current$
6$ Set the I"* at 7$6K p@p and fre2 &77 (h; of sine 4a%eAboth measurement on C-OB
:$ Ta#e readings of Kin and Km across &8 on C-O$
9$ Calculate the I"* impedance according to the follo4ing formula!
CinDKin"IDKin"KmJ& 8
=$ Change the fre2 to & Mh; and note the %alues of Kin and Km at this fre2$
ote do4n these results$ The I"* impedance at &77 (h; is around >7 8 and at & Mh; is
:78$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials &?
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


-epeat the eJperiment 4ith shorted and open line$
RESULT : The Input Impedance of the Transmission line is measured as@SSS$
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$ +ll connections should be made correctly$
.$ Supply gi%en should be of right polarity$
1$ The readings should be ta#en accurately$

"REQUENTL AS#ED QUESTION$S:
&$ )hat is the input impedance of an infinite line
.$ )hat is the eJpression for input impedance of a line terminating in a load resistance C
r
and
ha%ing a characteristic impedance C
o
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials .7
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


EXPERIMENT NO.1/
AIM : Design of Symmetrical T@attenuator$
APPARATUS REQUIRED !
-esistors -
&
A&>7 TB , -
.
A.7. TB,function generator, C-O $
THEOR :
+n attenuator is a four terminal de%ice 4hich attenuates the gi%en input signal$ +ttenuators does
not distort the signal as it is made up of resistors$ -esistors are fre2uency independent components$ So
there is no effect of fre2uency %ariation of input$ + %oltage di%ider is simplest attenuator$ In a Symmetrical
T@attenuator terminated at characteristic impedance of -
7
%alues of -
&
and -
.
can be defined as
-
&
D-
7
A@&B"AL&B
-
.
D.-
7
A"
.
@&B
Dantilog U".7
)here UD attenuation in decibels
PRO!EDURE :
&$ Ma#e connections as sho4n in figure on bread board$
.$ set the output of function generator to &K$
1$ Connect the output of circuit to C-O$
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials .&
Sri Satya Sai Institute Of Science & Technology,Sehore
Department Of Electronics & Communication


O'SEER(ATION TA'LE :
S Input %oltage Output
%oltageA%oltsB
+ttenuationAd<BD.7
logAK
o
"K
in
B
RESULT :
The designed net4or# gi%es a .7 d< attenuation to all input %oltages$
PRE!AUTIONS:
&$Ma#e all the connections properly$
.$Insure appropriate %alue of resistances and capacitances$
1$S4itch off po4er supply and function generator 4hen not in use
"AQ$S:
&$)hat are attenuatorsF
.$)hat is difference bet4een attenuators and e2uali;ersF
http!""r#df$blogspot$in %isit for study materials ..