Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

12 (2008) 24722483
A review on distributed energy resources
and MicroGrid
Huang Jiayi

, Jiang Chuanwen, Xu Rong

Department of Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Huashan Road 1954,
Shanghai 200030, PR China
Received 14 May 2007; accepted 20 June 2007
Abstract
The distributed energy resources (DER) comprise several technologies, such as diesel engines,
micro turbines, fuel cells, photovoltaic, small wind turbines, etc. The coordinated operation and
control of DER together with controllable loads and storage devices, such as ywheels, energy
capacitors and batteries are central to the concept of MicroGrid (MG). MG can operate
interconnected to the main distribution grid, or in an islanded mode. This paper reviews the
researches and studies on MG technology. The operation of MG and the MG in the market
environment are also described in the paper.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Distributed energy resources (DER); MicroGrid (MG); Operation; Multi-agent system (MAS)
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2473
2. Current situations about MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2473
3. MG architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2474
3.1. MicroSources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476
3.2. Storage devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476
3.3. Inverter controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2476
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doi:10.1016/j.rser.2007.06.004

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 21 34205930; fax: +86 21 54747501.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H. Jiayi), [email protected] (J. Chuanwen).
4. Emergency operation, fault detection, and safety analysis of MG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2477
4.1. Two approaches in emergency operation of MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2478
4.2. Fault detection in MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2478
4.3. Safely analysis of MG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2479
5. MG in market environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
5.1. MG using a multi-agent system (MAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
5.2. An operational cycle of the MG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
5.3. Optimal solution of MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2482
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2482
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2482
1. Introduction
Due to the technology development and environment protection, some distributed
energy resources (DER), such as internal combustion (IC) engines, gas turbines,
microturbines, photovoltaic, fuel cells and wind-power [1], have emerged within the
distribution system. However, application of individual distributed generators can cause as
many problems as it may solve. A better way to realize the emerging potential of
distributed generation and associated loads is a subsystem called MicroGrid (MG).
In [2], the MG concept assumes a cluster of loads and MicroSources (MS) operating as a
single controllable system that provides both power and heat to its local area. Refs. [2,3]
introduce the benets of MG, such as, enhance local reliability, reduce feeder losses, support
local voltages, provide increased efciency through using waste heat combined heat and
power (CHP), voltage sag correction or provide uninterruptible power supply functions.
The MG is intended to operate in the following two different operating conditions:
normal interconnected mode and emergency mode (islanded mode) [4]. Most DERs that can
be installed in an MG are not suitable for direct connection to the electrical network due to
the characteristics of the energy produced. Therefore, power electronic interfaces (dc/ac or
ac/dc/ac) are required. Inverter control is thus the main concern in MG operation.
The MG is centrally controlled and managed by a MG central controller (MGCC)
installed at the medium voltage/low voltage (MV/LV) substation. The MGCC includes
several key functions, such as economic managing functions and control functionalities,
and is the head of the hierarchical control systems [4].
The aim of this paper is to review the researches and studies on MG technology. In
Section 2, it will introduce some current situations about MG, especially in Europe and
Japan. In Section 3, MG architecture is described, including MS, storage devices, and
inverters. In Section 4, two approaches in the MG emergency operation is discussed in
details. Also the fault detection and safely analysis is included in this section. Last section
introduces the MG in the market environment. Multi-agent system (MAS) is proposed to
be the main technique in this section.
2. Current situations about MG
MICROGRIDS project is part of the European Research Project Cluster Integra-
tion of RES+DG (distributed generation) projects. It will investigate, develop and
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demonstrate the operation, control, protection, safety and telecommunication infrastruc-
ture of MG and will determine and quantify their economic benets. This project aims at
the increase of penetration of micro-generation in electrical networks through the
exploitation and extension of the MG concept, involving the investigation of alternative
microgenerator control strategies and alternative network designs, development of new
tools for multi-MG management operation and standardization of technical and
commercial protocols. More information can be obtained from [5].
Amorim et al. [6] presents a brief characterization, to a Portuguese LV grid, developed in
MICROGRIDS project. This project is being developed in Frielas, which is a residential
zone, supplied by a LV feeder from a public distribution power station of 200 kVA. The
paper focuses some improvements in terms of efciency and reliability. It gives several
conclusions. The control and protection hardware must be upgraded to allow the
supplying of the customers in island mode; the transition from grid-connected mode to
island mode should be analyzed carefully in order to prevent voltage disturbances in the
MG; the MG black-start is other important challenge. Some tests have demonstrated the
incapacity of the microturbine to support the transient peak demand of a typical
distribution MV/LV transformer during its initial magnetization.
In Japan, the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization
(NEDO) started three research projects, which deal with new energy integration to local
power system eld test in 2004 [7]. The sites are in Aomori, Aichi and Kyoto. In Aomori
project, eld tests were started to develop a distributed energy supply system, in which
some loads in special districts are supplied by this supply system with private power lines
and makes no inuence to utility power system with which the energy supply system is
connected at one point. In Aichi project, fuel cells are used as main generations.
Besides the ordinary ac-grid (alternating current) system, [8] proposes a dc-grid (direct
current) system having distribution power generators. It has designed and constructed an
experimental system based on a 10 kW dc having a solar-cell generator unit, a wind turbine
generator unit, an electric power storage unit, power-leveling unit, and an ac-grid
connected inverter unit. Experiment results show that there are no circulating current ows
among the units. An appropriate amount of the generated power is cooperatively allotted
to both the ac grid inverter unit and the storage unit with output impedance
characteristics.
3. MG architecture
In a basic MG architecture (Fig. 1), the electrical system is assumed to be radial with
several feeders and a collection of loads. The radial system is connected to the distribution
system through a separation device, usually a static switch, called point of common
coupling (PCC). Each feeder has circuit breaker and power ow controller.
Developed within the EU R&D MG project, the MG concept adopted in this research
involves an operational architecture (Fig. 2). It comprises an LV network, loads (some of
them interruptible), both controllable and non-controllable MS, storage devices, and a
hierarchical-type management and control scheme supported by a communication
infrastructure used to monitor and control MS and loads.
The head of the hierarchical control system is the MGCC. At a second hierarchical
control level, load controllers (LC) and microsource controller (MC) exchange
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information with the MGCC that manages MG operation by providing set-points to both
LC and MC.
The amount of data to be exchanged between network controllers is small, since it
includes mainly messages containing set-points to LC and MC, information requests sent
by the MGCC to LC and MC about active and reactive powers, and voltage levels and
messages to control MG switches.
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MV
LV
MGCC
Flywheel
LC
MC MC MC
MC
LC LC
Battery
CHP
Fuel Cell
Microturbine
MC
AC/DC
AC/DC AC/DC
AC/DC
Fig. 2. MG architecture with MGCC.
Point of
Common
Coupling
Static
Switch
Circuit
Breaker
Circuit
Breaker
Circuit
Breaker
Feeder A
bettery
Flywheel
Fuel Cell
Power Flow
controller
Feeder C
Feeder B
Fig. 1. Basic MG architecture.
H. Jiayi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (2008) 24722483 2475
3.1. MicroSources
The MS of special interest for MGs are small (o100 kW) units with power electronic
interfaces. These sources, including microturbines, wind generators, photovoltaic arrays,
PV panels and fuel cells, are placed at customers sites. They are low cost, low voltage and
have high reliable with few emission.
Despite this impressive list of benets, [9] points out that DER penetration have not met
expectations. Major drawbacks to increased DER utilization are high cost, the need for
custom engineering, lack of plug and play integration methods and few successful business
models. Many private and public organizations are aggressively addressing these
drawbacks, including the Department of Energy and state organization.
In [1], some emerging generation technologies are introduced in details. Several MS
models, able to describe their dynamic behavior, have been developed in [10]. Also in [11],
a simple combination control method for different kinds of DER to compensate load
demand uctuation in a MG is proposed.
3.2. Storage devices
The current power systems (can named as MacroGrid) have storage provided through
the generators inertia. When a new load comes on line, the initial energy balance is satised
by the systems inertia. This results in a slight reduction in system frequency. Lasseter [2]
points out that a system with clusters of MS designed to operate in an island mode must
provide some form of storage to insure initial energy balance.
Due to the large time constants (from 10 to 200 s) of the responses of some MS, such as
fuel-cells and microturbines, storage devices must be able to provide the amount of power
required to balance the system following disturbances and/or signicant load changes.
These devices act as controllable ac voltage sources to face sudden system changes such as
in load-following situations. In spite of acting as voltage sources, these devices have
physical limitations and thus a nite capacity for storing energy.
The necessary MG storage can come several forms; batteries or super-capacitors on the
dc bus for each MS; direct connection of ac storage devices (batteries, ywheels, etc.); or
use of traditional generation with inertia with the MS.
Venkataramanan and Illindala [12] conducts that a leadacid battery is considered the
most suitable for MG applications. They are capable of providing large currents for a very
short interval of time.
3.3. Inverter controller
Most MS technologies that can be installed in an MG are not suitable for direct
connection to the electrical network due to the characteristics of the energy produced.
Therefore, power electronic interfaces (dc/ac or ac/dc/ac) are required (Fig. 3). Inverter
control is thus the main concern in MG operation.
Pecas Lopes et al. [4] introduces two kinds of control strategies used to operate an
inverter. The inverter model is derived according to the following control strategies. PQ
inverter control: the inverter is used to supply a given active and reactive power set point.
Voltage source inverter (VSI) control: the inverter is controlled to feed the load with pre-
dened values for voltage and frequency.
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In [1], operation of the MG assumes that the power electronic controls of current MS are
modied to provide a set of key functions. The critical system performance components are
the voltage versus reactive power droop and power versus frequency droop.
Voltage vs. reactive power (Q) droop
Voltage regulation is necessary for local reliability and stability. Without local voltage
control, systems with high penetrations of MS could experience voltage and/or reactive
power oscillations. With small errors in voltage set points, the circulating current can
exceed the ratings of the MS. This situation requires a voltage vs. reactive power droop
controller so that, as the reactive power generated by the MS becomes more capacitive, the
local voltage set point is reduced. Conversely, as Q becomes more inductive, the voltage set
point is increased.
Power vs. frequency droop
In island mode, problems from slight errors in frequency generation at each inverter and
the need to change power-operating points to match load changes need be addressed.
Power vs. frequency droop functions at each MS can effectively solve these problems
without a communication network. When the MG separates from the grid, the voltage
phase angle at each MS has a change, resulting in an apparent reduction in local frequency.
This frequency reduction coupled with a power increase allows for each MS to provide its
proportional share of power.
Li et al. [13] presents the design and analysis of a controller for multi-bus MG system.
The controller proposed for use with each distributed generation (DG) system in the MG
contains inner voltage and current loops for regulating the three-phase grid-interfacing
inverter, and external power control loops for controlling real and reactive power ow and
for facilitating power sharing between the paralleled DG systems when a utility fault
occurs and the MG islands.
Li et al. [14] proposes a grid-interfacing power quality compensator using two inverters
(inverters A and B) to control both the sensitive lead voltages in the MG and the line
currents owing between the MG and utility system. The main functions of shunt inverter
A are to maintain a balanced set of sensitive load voltages in the MG under all grid and
load operating conditions, while the main functions of series inverter B are to inject
appropriate voltage components along the distribution feeder to balance the line currents
and to limit the ow of large fault currents during utility voltage sags.
4. Emergency operation, fault detection, and safety analysis of MG
MG exibility can be achieved by allowing its operation under two different conditions.
One is normal interconnected mode, in which the MG is connected to a main MV grid
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Prime
Mover
Inverter
DC
Interface
V
E
X
Fig. 3. Interface inverter system.
H. Jiayi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (2008) 24722483 2477
being either partially supplied from it or injecting some amount of power into it. The other
is emergency mode, in which the MG operates autonomously (as in physical islands) when
the disconnection from the upstream MV network occurs.
The MG islanding process may result from an intentional disconnection from the MV
grid (due to maintenance needs) or from a forced disconnection (due to a fault in the MV
network).
4.1. Two approaches in emergency operation of MG
Pes Lopes et al. [15] describes two approaches to deal with MG islanded operation. In
the rst approach, the main concern is related to inverter control modes. As the MG is an
inverter-dominated grid, frequency and voltage control during islanded operation is
performed through inverters. The other approach closely follows concepts related to
conventional synchronous machine control.
A. MG operation regarding inverters control modes
If a cluster of MS is operated within a MG and the main power supply (the MV
network) is available, all the inverters can be operated in PQ mode, because there are
voltage and frequency references. However, a VSI can be used to provide a reference
for frequency and it will be possible to operate the MG in islanded mode and to
smoothly move to islanded operation without changing the control mode of any
inverter. The combination of primary frequency regulation provided by storage
devices, load-shedding schemes for less important loads and secondary load frequency
control are the key for successful MG islanded operation. More details and specic
information can be obtained from [12]. It gives the details of inverter internal control
and relative simulations.
B. MG operation regarding primary energy source control
In this representation, the MS and storage device can be represented by synchronous
generators or by STATCOM battery energy storage (STATCOM-BES). In grid-
connected mode, the frequency of the MG is maintained within a tight range. However,
following a disturbance, the frequency of the MG may change rapidly due to the low
inertia present in the MG. The control of the MS and storage devices is very important
in order to maintain the frequency of the MG during islanded operation (see [4,12]).
With droop control action, a load change in the MG will result in steady-state
frequency and voltage deviations, depending on the droop characteristics and
frequency/voltage sensitivity of the load. The storage device will contribute to the
overall change in generation. Restoration of the frequency/voltage of the MG to their
normal values requires a supplementary secondary frequency control action to adjust
automatically the output of the storage device.
4.2. Fault detection in MG
When the MG is operating as a self-contained power island, any fault current will have
to be supplied by those generators still connected to it. These fault currents may have
relatively low values. The difculty caused by using generation that relies on converters is
that these units are designed to limit their output current to protect their power devices.
Typically this limit is set to about twice their rated output current (see [2,16]). This is
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insufcient to trip conventional over-current protection and therefore other protection
techniques have to be found.
Lasseter [2] concludes that the unique nature of the MG design and operation requires a
fresh look into the fundamentals of relaying. One approach that is quite powerful is to
develop a real-time fault location technique that will identify the exact location of the fault
much more accurately that the classical relaying is capable of doing under any
circumstances. These methods may prove too costly. Low cost approach such a current
transformer (CT) based zero sequence detection, and differential current and/or voltage
methods also show promise.
Hernandez-Gonzalez and Iravani [16] presents an active islanding detection technique
for a DR unit at the distribution voltage level, which uses a three-phase, voltage-sourced
converter (VSC) as the interface unit. The proposed method is based on injecting a
disturbance signal into the system through either the direct axis (d-axis) or the quadrate
axis (q-axis) current controllers of the interface voltage-sourced converter. Signal injection
through the d-axis controller modulates the amplitude of the voltage at the PCC, whereas
signal injection through the q-axis controller causes a frequency deviation at PCC, under
islanded conditions.
AI-Nasseri et al. [17] introduces a new type of protection scheme which is able to protect
against faults that are both internal and external to a set zone of protection scheme, based
on the abc-dq transformation for the voltage waveforms is able to identify the presence of
a short circuit fault and to facilitate discrimination between faults which are either inside
or outside a set zone of the MG.
Mahinda Vilathgamuwa et al. [18] presents the resistanceinductance (RL) feedforward
and ux-charge model feedback algorithms for protecting utility-interfaced MG from large
line currents during utility-voltage sags. The RL algorithm functions by controlling a series
inverter, connected between the micro and utility grids, to insert large virtual RL
impedance along the distribution feeder to limit the line currents and damp transient
oscillations with a nite amount of active power circulating through the series (and shunt)
inverter.
4.3. Safely analysis of MG
A fault in a MG may generate substantial ground potential rise, even if the energy
sources operate at LV. Thus grounding of the distributed energy sources and the
transformer connecting the MG to the utility network must be carefully analyzed and
appropriate rules need to be developed.
LV earthing systems are dened according to the earthing techniques of the secondary of
the MV/LV transformer (supply source) and the frame of the load equipment. LV neutral
earthing is broadly categorized in to three types: TT, IT and TN (see [19]). The TN-C-S is
the rst choice for MG earthing and the second choice would be TT. Besides, a grounding
system for a typical MG has been designed in [19] and its adequacy during fault conditions
studied from an electrical safety point of view. The safety criterion of touch voltage and the
step voltage has been adopted.
In [20], a method of small-signal stability analysis of power systems with MG is
proposed. The small-signal stability of the system can be evaluated by computing the
eigenvalues of the dynamic equations around the operating steady state point.
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5. MG in market environment
5.1. MG using a multi-agent system (MAS)
The use of MAS technology can solve a number of specic operational problems. First
of all, small DER units have different owners, and several decisions should be taken locally
so centralized control is difcult. Furthermore MGs operate in a liberalized market;
therefore the decisions of the controller of each unit concerning the market should have a
certain degree of intelligence. Finally the local DER units besides selling power to the
network have also other task: producing heat for local installations, keeping the voltage
locally at a certain level or providing a backup system for local critical loads in case of a
failure of the main system (see [2123]). These tasks suggest the importance of the
distributed control and autonomous operation.
Dimeas and Hatziargyriou [21] describes four kinds of agents: production agent,
consumption agent, power system agent and MGCC agent. The MGCC agent has only
coordinating tasks and more specically it announces the beginning and the end of a
negotiation for a specic period and records nal power exchanges between the agents in
every period. In the market environment, three control levels are distinguished.
distribution network operator (DNO) and market operator (MO) at the level of the MV;
MGCC;
local controllers (LC), which could be either micro source controllers or load controllers.
The main interface between the DNS/MO and the MG is the MGCC. The MGCC is the
main responsible for the optimization of the MG operation, or alternatively, it simply
coordinates the LC, which assume the main responsibility for this optimization. Ref. [22]
describes the main functions required by the MGCC for the efcient MG participation in
future real-time markets following different policies.
5.2. An operational cycle of the MG
Dimeas and Hatziargyriou [23] presents an operational cycle of the system in the market
environment.
The MGCC announces the beginning of the market period.
The power sellers estimate their actual production capabilities and generate the proper
number of power-seller market agents.
The loads estimate their actual demands and generate the proper number of power
buyer market agents.
The power system agent, depending on the number of the seller and buyer agents,
generates sufcient number of agents, in order to make the system symmetrical. Next, it
calculates the total number N of the sellers (or buyers) and generates an extra set of N
sellers and N buyers. This allows a production unit to sell directly to the grid or gives the
ability to a lead to buy directly from the grid.
The MGCC announces the start of the new negotiation cycle.
The energy market sellers and buyers agents bid in the market, according to some
algorithm.
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The MGCC announces the end of the current negotiation.
The sellers and buyers agents announce to their parent agent their assignment and then
terminate themselves.
The MGCC announces the end of the energy market period.
The MGCC announces the new set points.
Fig. 4 shows the agent operational cycle of the MG.
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beginning of
the market
period
Production
capabilities
Actual
demand
Generates sufficient
number of agents
Start new
negotiation cycle
Bid in the market
Set new
points
end of the
energy market period
end
MGCC
Agent
MGCC
Agent
Seller
Agents
Buyer
Agents
Power
System
Agent
Seller
Agents
Buyer
Agents
End of the
negotiation
MGCC
Agent
Announce to their parent
agent the assignment
Seller
Agents
Buyer
Agents
MGCC
Agent
Yes
No
Fig. 4. Agents operational cycle.
H. Jiayi et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (2008) 24722483 2481
5.3. Optimal solution of MG
Alibhai et al. [24] introduces four major auction types used in MG. They are rst-price
sealed bid, Vickrey, English and Dutch. In this paper, it presented techniques and
simulation results for coordinating energy loads and sources in a single community within
a MG. Under conditions without a large number of loads and sources, the choice of an
auction type depends on whether total messages or price has higher importance. When
there are a large number of loads and sources, Dutch auctions are preferable.
In [25], the paper presents a rational method of building MGs optimized for cost and
subject to reliability constraints. The method is based on dynamic programming and
consists of determining the optimal interconnection between MS and lead points, given
their locations and the rights of way for possible interconnections.
In [26], an algorithm able to deal with the reconguration of distribution system is
proposed in order to nd the optimal combination of MGs. In the search of the best
conguration among different combinations of MGs, the algorithm uses a Sequential
Monte Carlo simulation technique. The nal structure found by the algorithm maximizes
the sum of the savings in both the cost of energy purchasing and the cost of service
interruptions.
In [27], the paper is focused on the development of a novel energy management system
(EMS) based on the application of neural networks (NN). The EMS is able to
autonomously make decisions and determine hour-by-hour the correct dispatch of
generators with the nal goal of minimizing the global energy costs. The application of the
EMS to a small test case has showed signicant saves in the global energy bill by using
typical Italian energy and fuel price data.
6. Conclusion
This paper makes a conclusion on the works and researches that make efforts on DER
and MG. It introduces the current situations about MG and MG architecture.
Furthermore, the operation in a MG is described in details. At last, the MG in market
environment is also concluded in the paper.
MG is a new type of power system. The technique is still not mature nowadays. A lot of
works have to be done until it can be put in the market. Japan and some Europe
organization have put some efforts into it, although it is still under the research and
experimental stage.
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