Pipe flow

a branch of Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, is a type of liquid

flow within a closed conduit .The other type of flow within a
conduit is open channel flow. These two types of flow are similar
in many ways, but differ in one important respect. Pipe flow
does not have a free surface which is found in open-channel
flow. Pipe flow, being confined within closed conduit, does not
exert direct atmospheric pressure, but does exert hydraulic
pressure on the conduit.
Energy in pipe flow is expressed as head and is defined by the
Bernoulli equation.

In order to conceptualize head along the course of flow within a
pipe, diagrams often contain a hydraulic grade line. Pipe flow is
subject to frictional losses as defined by the Darcy-Weisbach
formula


Water Supply and Various Types of Pipes
Water supply is the process of general requirement for supply of water from public
water supply system to individual building and subsequent distribution of water to
various parts of the building. The water from public water supply system to individual
buildings is supplied through pipes. A large proportion of capital is invested on pipes
while designing water supply distribution system. The following factors should be
considered in selection of pipes.
Strength of pipe
Water carrying capacity
Life and durability of pipe
Expenditure on transportation
Jointing process, maintenance and repairs.
Various Types of Pipes
The pipes are available in several types and sizes. They may be classified into three
groups according to the material used in their manufacturing.
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Metallic pipes: the pipes such as CI Pipes, Steel pipes and GI Pipes.
Cement Pipes: the pipes such as Cement Pipes, Asbestos cement (AC) pipes, cement
concrete pipes.
Plastic Pipes: the pipes such as Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC ) pipes, Polythene
Pipes (low density)
Cast Iron (CI) Pipes
These pipes are mostly used in water supply. They are well suited for pressure and
can withstand external load because of their thickness. The pipes are easy in
manufacturing, layout and joining. These pipes are manufactured by vertical casting
in sand moulds, horizontal casting in sand moulds and centrifugal casting (spun
casting pipes).

(This picture is contributed by "Kumar")
CI Pipes - Strong and heavy.
CI pipes are heavy in weight. Therefore transportation is costlier and they are not
suitable for inaccessible places. Due to heavy weight these are generally made in short
length. This increases layout and jointing cost. CI vertical casting pipes are not of
very good quality and can be replaced by centrifugal casting (spun casting) pipes.

Steel Pipes
These pipes are extensively used for water supply. They are best suitable for long
distance pipe lines of high pressure and provide satisfactory performance during
service. These pipes have excellent mechanical properties and are ideally suited for
welding. The pipes are made in length more than twice the length of CI pipes; which
saves in transport, layout of pipe and joining cost. There is minimum damage to the
pipes in transportation. The pipes being light in weight are used for large diameter
pipe lines.
Cement Pipes
Main advantage of cement pipes in place of metallic pipes is their corrosion
resistance. These pipes are bulky, heavy and require careful transportation and
handling. The layout process of these pipes is costlier than steel pipes.

Asbestos Cement (AC) Pipes
These pipes are light in weight and easy in transportation and layout. They have
smooth internal surface and are not affected by corrosion (rust). The pipes are
extensively used for water supply systems. Holes can be drilled in these pipes. These
pipes are not costlier.

Un-plasticized PVC (UPVC) Pipes
These pipes are rigid PVC pipes. They are light in weight, tough, resistant to chemical
attack and large in length. Due to large in length the cost of handling is much whereas
transportation and installation cost is less. Smooth internal surface of pipes provide
less friction which results in saving of energy. These pipes are not suitable for the area
which is very hot.

(This Picture is contributed by "Ahmed")
PVC Pipes - Light weight still powerful.


Pipe Roughness
Commercial pipes come in many different materials and many different sizes. The
internal roughness of a pipe is an important factor when considering the friction losses
of a fluid moving through the pipe.

For each pipe material either a single pipe roughness value or a range of roughness
values is normally provided by the manufacturer. The roughness value, usually
denoted as e, is used in the calculating the relative roughness of a pipe against the size
of its diameter.
Absolute Roughness
The roughness of a pipe is normally specified in either mm or inches and common
values range from 0.0015 mm for PVC pipes through to 3.0 mm for rough concrete
pipes.
Relative Roughness
The relative roughness of a pipe is its roughness divided by its internal diameter or
e/D, and this value is used in the calculation of the pipe friction factor, which is
then used in the Darcy-Weisbach equation to calculate the friction loss in a pipe for
a flowing fluid.
Pipe Materials and Common Pipe Roughness Values
Material e (mm) e (inches)
Concrete 0.3 - 3.0 0.012 - 0.12
Cast Iron 0.26 0.010
Galvanized Iron 0.15 0.006
Asphalted Cast Iron 0.12 0.0048
Commercial or Welded Steel 0.045 0.0018
PVC, Glass, Other Drawn Tubing 0.0015 0.00006



Design Conditions

General
Normal operating conditions
Design conditions

Design pressure and temperature
Identify connected equipment and associated design conditions
Consider contingent conditions
Consider flow direction
Verify conditions with process engineer

Design Factors
Layout
Component

Design details
Fluid service
Connected equipment type
Operating Scenarios
Pipe diameter, thickness
Design temperature and pressure
End point movements
Existing structural steel locations
Special design considerations

Pipe Thickness Required for Internal Pressure

T=PD/2(SE+PY)
P = Design pressure, psig
D = Pipe outside diameter, in.
S = Allowable stress in tension, psi
E = Longitudinal-joint quality factor
Y = Wall thickness correction factor
Tm=t+CA
Tnom=Tm/0.875

Stress Categorization
Primary Stresses
Direct
Shear
Bending
Secondary stresses
Act across pipe wall thickness
Cause local yielding and minor distortions
Not a source of direct failure
Allowable Stresses
Function of:
Material properties
Temperature
Safety factors
Established to avoid:
General collapse or excessive distortion from Sustained loads
Localized fatigue failure from thermal Expansion loads
Collapse or distortion from occasional loads

Piping Flexibility Temperature
Analysis based on largest temperature difference imposed by normal and abnormal
operating conditions
Results give:
Largest pipe stress range
Largest reaction loads on connections, supports, and restraints
Extent of analysis depends on situation

Layout Considerations
Operational
Operating and control points easily reached
Maintenance
Ample clearance for maintenance equipment
Room for equipment removal
Sufficient space for access to supports
Safety
Consider personnel safety
Access to firefighting equipment

Storage and Handling
Store piping on mounds or sleepers
Stacking not too high
Store fittings and valves in shipping crates or on racks
End protectors firmly attached
Lift lined and coated pipes and fittings with fabric or rubber covered slings and
padding

Loading Conditions
Principal pipe load types
Sustained loads
Act on system all or most of time
Consist of pressure and total weight load
Thermal expansion loads
Caused by thermal displacements
Result from restrained movement
Occasional loads
Act for short portion of operating time
Seismic and/or dynamic loading
Reinforcement Area
d1=Db-2(Tb-c)/Sin
d1 = Effective length removed from run pipe, in.
Db = Branch outside diameter, in.
Tb = Minimum branch thickness, in.
c = Corrosion allowance, in.
Acute angle between branch and header
Required Reinforcement Area
Required reinforcement area, A1:
A1=th* d1(2-Sin )
Where: th = Minimum required header thickness, in.











Pipe Length of Uniform Diameter
Pressure drop in pipes is caused by:
Friction
Vertical pipe difference or elevation
Changes of kinetic energy
Calculation of pressure drop caused by friction in circular pipes
To determine the fluid (liquid or gas) pressure drop along a pipe or pipe component,
the following calculations, in the following order.






Determine Reynolds Number:

Where: Re = Reynolds Number

= Velocity of Flow
D = Diameter of Pipe
V = Kinematics Viscosity

If the Reynolds number < 2320, than you have laminar flow.
Laminar flow is characterized by the gliding of concentric cylindrical layers past one
another in orderly fashion. The velocity of the fluid is at its maximum at the pipe axis
and decreases sharply to zero at the wall. The pressure drop caused by friction of
laminar flow does not depend of the roughness of pipe.
If the Reynolds number > 2320, you have turbulent flow.
There is an irregular motion of fluid particles in directions transverse to the direction
of the main flow. The velocity distribution of turbulent flow is more uniform across
the pipe diameter than in laminar flow. The pressure drop caused by friction of
turbulent flow depends on the roughness of pipe.
Select pipe friction Coefficient:
The pipe friction coefficient is a dimensionless number. The friction factor for
laminar flow condition is a function of Reynolds number only, for turbulent flow it is
also a function of the characteristics of the pipe wall.
Determine Pipe friction coefficient at laminar flow:

Where:
= Pipe Friction Coefficient
Re = Reynolds number
Note: Perfectly smooth pipes will have a roughness of zero.
Determine Pipe friction coefficient at turbulent flow (in the most cases):

Where:
= Pipe Friction Coefficient
g = Acceleration of Gravity
Re = Reynolds Number
k = Absolute Roughness
D = Diameter of Pipe
lg = Log
The solutions to this calculation are plotted vs. the Reynolds number to create a
Moody Chart.

Determine Pressure drop in circular pipes:

Where:
= Pressure Drop
= Pipe Friction Coefficient
L = Length of Pipe
D = Pipe Diameter
p = Density
= Flow Velocity

If you have valves, elbows and other elements along your pipe then you calculate the
pressure drop with resistance coefficients specifically for the element. The resistance
coefficients are in most cases found through practical tests and through vendor
specification documents. If the resistance coefficient is known, than we can calculate
the pressure drop for the element.

Where:
= Pressure Drop
= Resistance Coefficient (determined by test or vendor specification)
p = Density
= Flow Velocity

Pressure drop by gravity or vertical elevation

Where:
= Pressure Drop
p = Density
g = Acceleration of Gravity
= Vertical Elevation or Drop

Soil corrosivity is not a directly measurable parameter and pipe corrosion is largely
a random phenomenon. The literature is replete with methods and systems that
attempts to predict soil corrosivity and resulting metallic pipe corrosion from soil
properties (e.g., resistivity, pH, redox potential and others) surrounding the pipe.
This paper describes research that endeavors to gain a thorough understanding of the
geometry of external corrosion pits and the factors (e.g., soil properties, appurtenances,
service connections, etc.) that influence this geometry. This understanding would lead to
the ultimate objective of achieving a better ability to assess the remaining life of ductile
iron pipes for a given set of circumstances.
Soil
Varying lengths of ductile iron pipes were exhumed by several North American and
Australian water utilities. The exhumed pipes were cut into sections, sandblasted
and tagged. Soil samples extracted along the exhumed pipe were also provided.
Pipe segments were scanned, using a specially developed laser scanner. Scanned
data were processed using specially developed software. Statistical analyses were
performed on three geometrical attributes, namely pit depth, pit area and pit
volume. Various soil characteristics were investigated for their impact on the
geometric properties of the corrosion
9. Viscous Flow in a Pipe
This topic is about flow of fluid (mostly liquid) inside a pipe. There are two
characteristics of this type of flow:
laminar flow (which has a special name called Poiseuille Flow and turbulent
flow

.
To begin with, we have to examine Couette flow which is a
2-D equivalent of pipe flow as well as some definitions of viscosity and properties
in turbulent flow


viscosity and properties in turbulent flow
Closed Conduit Flow
Stormwater conduits are designed for a specific capacity (i.e., maximum discharge)
that depends on the upstream conditions and downstream controls. Conduits
flowing full operate at, or near, that capacity. Measuring discharge in a full-flowing
conduit with a weir or flume is not recommended because weirs and flumes reduce
the capacity of the conduit and the relationship between discharge and the water
surface elevation is not well established without a critical depth. Area-velocity
probes, however, can measure discharge without causing significant obstruction in
conditions that provide adequate depth over the probe. The following are
advantages and disadvantages to using probes to measure full-flowing conduit
discharge in lieu of weirs or flumes:
measure full-flowing conduit discharge in lieu of weirs or flumes:
Advantages:
Probes create less flow obstruction than weirs or flumes
Probes can accurately measure depth or discharge in full-flowing conditions
Probes are usually easier to install
Disadvantages:
Probes cannot accurately measure small discharge associated with small
storm events or the entire rising and falling limbs of hydrographs
Probes sometimes require calibration, which may be difficult for certain site
conditions
Probes require additional cost and maintenance

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A discharge measurement probe is usually attached to a flexible metal ring, which,
when compressed, can be slid into the conduit to the desired location (figure 4.7).
When the compression is released, the ring expands against the inside of the conduit
where friction holds the ring and probe in place. The probe is connected to a data
logger that records such information as depth and velocity, which is then converted to
a cross-sectional area of discharge, and then to a measurement of discharge.
Additional equipment, such as tipping bucket rain gages, can be connected to the data
logger, as well.

Area-velocity probes must be located at the bottom of the conduit and oriented so they
face the oncoming discharge directly. They also require a minimum water depth
(usually 1 to 2 inches, ~2.5 to 5 cm) in order to obtain accurate measurements.
Stormwater pipe systems can have supercritical flow which produces large discharge
values with minimal water depth. Significant errors can occur when using probes to
measure these discharge conditions when the depth does not exceed the minimum
suggested by the manufacturer.
Two common brands of area-velocity probes used at the time of publication are Isco
(figure 4.8) and Campbell Scientific. Campbell Scientific produces a velocity sensor
that must be combined with a depth measurement and area conversion computation to
estimate discharge. Campbell Scientific equipment is capable of connecting with
equipment from other manufacturers but requires computer code written by the user to
communicate with the equipment. Isco equipment does not require code but it cannot
be used in combination with equipment from other manufacturers. Most discharge
measurement probes require connection to a data logger to record measurements with
respect to time.

Area-velocity probes should be used only when an insignificant portion of the runoff
event will occur at depths below those required for accurate measurements.
Otherwise, a large portion of the total runoff volume may not be measured accurately.
Partially full conduits
Conduits flowing partially full are a specific instance of open channel flow in which
the channel is simply the size, shape, and slope of the conduit. Therefore, a V-notch
compound weir (figure 4.4), a circular weir (Addison 1941, figure 4.9), or a V-notch
weir (figure 4.10) may be used to measure the discharge. To ensure accurate
discharge measurements in a conduit with a weir, the weirs and probes must receive
regular inspection and maintenance to remain free of sediment and debris that may
accumulate behind the probe or weir.

All weirs should be constructed so that the bottom of the weir fits the contour of the
conduit and can be sealed with a waterproof sealer such as polyurethane. If a circular
weir is to be used in a non-circular conduit, it is important that the crest of the weir
remains circular (unless a calibration curve is determined for a specialized weir). For
a circular weir, depth can be converted to an estimated discharge using equation 4.5.
Example 4.4 demonstrates the use of equation 4.5 for discharge estimation using a
circular weir.



Velocity Of Flow
When water flows through a pipe of uniform cross section, the quantity of water
passing any point in a given interval of time depends upon the velocity with which the
water flows and the area of cross section of the pipe. It is evident that the quantity of
water will equal a column whose cross section is the area of the pipe and whose
length is equal to the velocity.
The velocity with which water moves through a pipe is not uniform throughout its
cross section. It is least near the wetted perimeter of the pipe where the friction of the
pipe retards the flow, and is greatest at the center of the cross section where having to
overcome only the friction of its own flowing layers, it attains the maximum velocity.
It is assumed in practice, however, that all particles of the water have the same
velocity, and the mean of all the velocities in the cross section is taken as the velocity
of flow.
Formulas For Velocity
When the size of a pipe and the quantity of water it will discharge in a given time are
known, the mean velocity of efflux can be found by the formula: v=q.
a In which V = velocity of flow in feet per minute q = quantity of water in cubic feet
per minute a = area of cross section of pipe in square feet.*
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When the hydrostatic head, length and diameter of a pipe are known, the mean
velocity of discharge can be found by the formula:

In which V = mean velocity in feet per second m = coefficient
from Table XXVIII d = diameter of pipe in feet h = hydrostatic
head in feet 1 = total length of pipe in feet
Parts

PVC Storm water Pipes & Fittings
PVC fittings and storm water pipes including tees, coupling reducers, storm water
pipe, caps, elbows, grates, couplings and junctions.

Tees


Coupling Reducers


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Stormwater Pipe


Caps


Elbows


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Grates


Couplings


Junctions



Plumbing
Butlers is a leading provider of plumbing, drainage and water transfer products for
the domestic, commercial and industrial building markets.
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With years of industry experience , powerful buying power through the Think Water
Network and staff that can provide great advice on a wide range of plumbing
applications including all basic PVC pressure, storm water, Polyethylene piping and
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Drainage AG Pipe & Fittings
Drainage AG Pipe & Fittings including AG Pipe 65mm, AG Pipe
100mm and AG Pipe joiners/fittings.


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Water Treatment & Filtration
More people are getting concerned about the quality of the water that flows through
our taps for drinking, showering and cleaning purposes because even though it passes
quality control, which is monitored by the local Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and is certified drinkable, there are many minerals and even bacteria that still
exist and can damage our health, skin and appliances.
Here is why you should strongly consider filtering your water in order to avail
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Pumping
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VCP = Verified Clay Pipes


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Cast iron pipes
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Glass fiber reinforced pipes
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_flow
http://www.gharexpert.com/articles/Drainage-,-Sanitary-System-
Plumbing-1804/Water-Supply-Various-Types-Pipes_0.aspx
http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/obj/irc/doc/pubs/nrcc53611.pdf

http://stormwaterbook.safl.umn.edu/content/flow-conduits
http://chestofbooks.com/home-
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improvement/construction/plumbing/Principle-Practice/Flow-Of-Water-
Through-Pipes-Formulas.html


http://www.pipeflow.com/pipe-pressure-drop-calculations/pipe-roughness
http://pipingdesigners.com/downloads/process%20plant%20piping%20overview
.pdf
http://www.cs.cdu.edu.au/homepages/jmitroy/eng243/ENG243_study_guide_09.p
df

http://www.butlersirrigation.com.au

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