Networking interview questi ons - posted on March 20, 2014 at 03:05 PM by Nihal Singh

Q.1 Describe Domain Name System.

There are two types of client/server programs.
First is used directly by the user, such as e-mail, Second supports other application programs. The Domain Name
System (DNS) is a supporting program that is used by other programs such as to find the IP address of an e-mail
recipient.
Q.2 Describe Hierarchical Namespace.
In a hierarchical name space, each name is combination of several parts as:
Type of the organization.
Name of an organization.
Departments in the organization.
A central authority can assign the part of the name that defines the nature and name of the organization. The other
things of the name the organization provides itself. The organization can add suffixes (or prefixes) to the name to
define its host.
The company need not worry about the prefix if it is same as that of another organization because, even if part of an
address is the same, the whole address is different.
Exampl e:
Suppose central authority has given names ABC.com and XYZ.com to two separate organization but these
organization can add prefix as career so the name becomes career.XYZ.com and career.ABC.com. The names are
unique without the need for assignment by a central authority. The central authority controls only part of the name,
not the whole.
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Q.3 Define Fully Qualified Domain Name and Partially Qualified Domain
Name.
In hierarchical name space, names are defined in an inverted-tree structure with the root at the top. The tree can
have only 128 levels: level 0 (root) to level 127.
Each node in the tree has a label, which is a string with a maximum of 63 characters.
The root label is a null string (empty string). In this tree, all the labels have different name, which guarantee the
uniqueness of the domain names.
A full domain name is a sequence of labels separated by dots (.). The domain names are always read from the node
up to the root.
Ful l y Qual ified Domai n Name
If a label is terminated by a null string or empty string, it is called a fully qualified domain name (FQDN).
Parti all y Quali fi ed Domai n Name
If a label is not terminated by a null string, it is called a partially qualified domain name (PQDN). A PQDN starts from
a node, but it does not end with the root.
What is transmission impairment?
Signals need transmission media for travel from one point to another. Transmission media are not perfect because it
provides resistance. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. There are three
causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
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Q.5 Describe attenuation, distortion, and noise in brief.
Attenuation: When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy due to resistance of the medium.
This loss of energy is called Attenuation. This is the reason why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm. Some of
the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat. To overcome for this problem, amplifiers are used to amplify
the signal.
Unit of the decibel is used to find out if a signal has lost or gained strength. The decibel (dB) measures the relative
strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points. If decibel is negative then a signal is attenuated and if
positive signal is amplified.
Formul a:

Where PI and P2 are the variable and the powers of a signal at points 1 and 2, respectively.
Di storti on
When the signal travels through the medium from one point to another it may chance to change the form or shape of
signal. It is called distortion.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal, made up of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own
propagation speed through a travelling medium and, therefore, its own delay in reaching at the final destination.
Means signal components at the receiver have phases different from what they had at the sender.
Noi se
The third cause of impairment is Noise. Following types of noise are possible.
-Thermal noi se.
-Induced noi se.
-Crosstalk noi se.
-Impul se noi se.
These noise may corrupt the signal.
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Thermal noise is produced due to the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally
sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and other electronic appliances.
These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna.
Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
Impulse noise comes from power lines, lightning etc.
Q.6 Describe composite single.
Composite Signals are the combination of more than one sine waves. Simple sine waves can be used to carry
electric energy from one place to another or we can use a single sine wave to send an alarm to a security center
when a thief opens a door or window in the house.
A single frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications we need to send a composite signal. A composite
signal can be periodic or non-periodic.
The figure of composite periodic signal is given below.

Q.7 Describe MIME
Electronic mail has a simple structure. It can send messages only in NVT 7-bit ASCII format. It cannot be used for
those languages that are not supported by 7-bit ASCII characters so languages such as French, German, Hebrew,
Russian, Chinese etc cannot use this format. Also, it cannot be used to send binary files or video or audio data.
We need a protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through e-mail. So Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
(MIME) is the answer. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT (Network Virtual Terminal) ASCII
data and delivers them to the client MTA to be sent through the Internet. The message at the receiving side is
transformed back to the original data. Main task of MIME is to transform non-ASCII data to ASCII data and vice
versa.
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MIME header
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions defines five types of header.

Q.8 SMTP is push protocol J ustify your answer.
SMTP is a push protocol; it pushes the message from the client to the server. For sending email SMTP is used two
times, between the sender and the sender's mail server and between the two mail servers. To send mail, a system
must have the client MTA (Message transfer agents), and to receive mail, a system must have a server MTA. SMTP
uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and an MTA server. Commands are
sent from the client to the server and Responses are sent from the server to the client. SMTP is not used in pulling
the message.

Q.9 Describe the POP3 protocol.
Post Office Protocol, version 3 is used for accessing the message. POP3 is very simple protocol and has limited
functionality. POP has different version but currently version 3 is used. A POP3 server listens on well-known port 110.
POP3 supports two types of mode.
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Del ete Mode: In this mode, the mail is deleted from the mailbox after each retrieval.
Keep Mode. The mail remains in the mailbox after retrieval.
Q.10 Describe IMAP4 (Internet Mail Access Protocol) in detail.
This protocol is also used in Internet for accessing the mail. IMAP4 has more feature than POP3 and is more
powerful.
Main difference in POP3 and IMAP4 are as follows.

Q.11 What is Anonymous FTP?
Some sites provide the functionality that user can access the file with limited access. To access these files, a user
does not need to have an account or password. For using FTP, the user enters "anonymous" as a user ID and guest
as password. Usually, you can enter anything as a password.
Q.12 What is User Agent?
User agent is a software that provides the service to the user to make the process of sending and receiving a
message easier. The following are User Agent services.
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Networking interview questi ons - posted on Feb 04, 2014 at 12:45 PM by Nihal Singh
Q.1 Describe Classful Addressing
Ans. IPv4 addressing uses the concept of classes. In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five
classes:A, B, C, D, and E. We can find the class of an address when the given address is in binary notation or dotted-
decimal notation.
Example

Q.2 Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.
a. 200.56.045.78
b. 22.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.279.14
d. 11100010.23.24.66
Sol uti on
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers in an IPv4 address.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255 (279 is outside this range).
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed.
Q3.Describe how many types are wireless transmission?
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In general we can divide five types of wireless transmission
1. The Electromagnetic Transmission
2. Radio Transmission
3. Microwave Transmission
4. Infrared Transmission
5. Light Transmission
1. The El ectromagnetic Transmi ssi on
When electrons move, they create electromagnetic waves that can propagate through space and in a vacuum. The
electromagnetic waves can be broadcast efficiently and received by a receiver some distance away.
2. Radi o Transmi ssi on
Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and can penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely
used for communication. These waves can travel in all directions.
3. Microwave Transmi ssi on
Microwaves travel in a straight line, so if the towers are too far apart, the earth will get in the way. Thus, repeaters are
needed periodically. The higher the towers are, the farther apart they can be. Unlike radio waves at lower
frequencies, microwaves do not pass through buildings well.
4. Infrared Transmissi on
It is used for short-range communication. The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and stereos, use infrared
communication. They are relatively directional and can not pass through solid objects.
5. Li ght Transmissi on
These types of wave can easily effected by wind and temperature changes. They normally work well on sunny days.
Q.4 Explain Random Excess Method.
In Random Excess Method, any station can send the data at any time without the permission of other station. At any
time, if a station has information to send to other station, it uses a specific method defined by the protocol to make a
decision on whether or not to send.
There is no scheduled time for a station to transmit the data that is why it is called Random Excess Protocol. Random
protocol has the following types.
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Q5.Explain Channelization in networks.
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code, between different stations. There are three basic approaches to achieve channelization.

Q.6 Describe FDMA and TDMA in short.
In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands. Each station
is allocated a band to send its data. Different frequency bands are used by different stations.
In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is
allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its data in is assigned time slot.
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FIG: TDMA
Q.7 Explain CDMA in wireless networks.
CDMA differs from FDMA and TDMA because only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link and also
there is no timesharing. In CDMA a code is available for every station wanting to send the data. In this protocol the
assigned codes have two properties.
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get zero.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get the number of stations.
So suppose there are three stations and code and data are (c1, d1), (c2, d2), (c3, d3) respectively. The data that go
on the channel are the sum of all these terms. Any station wanting to receive data from one of the other two,
multiplies the data on the channel by the code of the sender. For example, suppose stations 1 and 2 are talking to
each other. Station 2 wants to hear what station I is saying. It multiplies the data on the channel by cl the code of
station 1.
Because (cl . cl) is 3, but (c2 . cI) and (c3 . cI) are all Zero, station 2 divides the result by 3 to get the data from station
1.
Q.8 Describe the functionality of data link layer.
Data Link Layer is the second layer from the bottom in OSI model. This layer has two main functions
Data link control
Media access control.
Data link control provides the functionality of include framing, flow and error control that provide smooth and reliable
transmission of frames between nodes. Media Access Control (MAC) handles the sharing of link.
Q.9 Explain Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request for noisy channel.
In this protocol the sending device keeps a copy of the last frame transmitted until it receives an acknowledgment for
that frame. A data frames uses a sequence number; an ACK frame uses an acknowledgment number. The sender
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has a control variable, which we call Sn (sender, next frame to send), that holds the sequence number for the next
frame to be sent (0 or 1).
Q.10 what is the difference between Pure ALOHA and Slotted Aloha protocol?
In Pure Aloha, station can send data in a continuous time manner whereas in Slotted Aloha, time is divided in slots.
Pure ALOHA doesn't check whether the channel is busy before transmission. In slotted ALOHA, a frame can be sent
only at fixed times, whereas in pure ALOHA, you can send any time. Pure ALOHA has a vulnerable time of 2 x Tfr.
Whereas in Slotted ALOHA vulnerable time =Tfr {Tfr: Average transmission time for a frame}.
Download Networking interview questions and answers
Comment on Data Encrypti on Standard (DES) weakness and strength.
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric key block cipher which takes 64-bit
plaintext and 56-bit key as an input and produces 64-bit cipher text.............
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Describe the Packet Format of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
What are the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4?
What are the different design goals of ATM?
If you are a vi ctim of Deni al of Servi ce (Dos) then what you do?
The function of a denial of service attack is to flood its target machine with too much traffic and
prevents it from being accessible to any other requests or providing services..............
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Networking interview questions - posted on June 27, 2013 at 16:45 PM by Kshipra Singh
1. Differentiate between hub and switch.
a.) Hub is a layer 1 device while Switch is layer 2 device.
b.) Hub works on single collision and single broadcast domain while switch works on per port
collision and single broadcast domain.
2. What is FQDN?
- FQDN is the abbreviation for Fully Qualified Domain Name.
- It contains both the hostname and a domain name.
- It uniquely identifies a host within a DNS hierarchy
3. Tell us something about LMHOSTS files.
- It is a text file that resolves NetBIOS names to IP addresses.
- It can be compared with the HOSTS file which is a static method of resolving domain names
into IP addresses.
- LMHOSTS files must be manually configured and updated.
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4. What are the main qualities of an effective and efficient network?
a. Performance
b. Reliability
c. Security
5. What are 10Base2, 10Base5 and 10BaseT Ethernet LANs?
10Base2 -
- It is an Ethernet term which means a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per second that
uses baseband signaling, with a contiguous cable segment length of 100 meters and a maximum
of 2 segments.

10Base5
- It is an Ethernet term meaning a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per second that uses
baseband signaling, with 5 continuous segments not exceeding 100 meters per segment.

10BaseT
- It is an Ethernet term meaning a maximum transfer rate of 10 Megabits per second that uses
baseband signaling and twisted pair cabling.
6. What is anonymous FTP? What is its use?
- It is an FTP that enables the users to connect to a host without a valid login and password.
- The login used is anonymous or guest, with the password usually requesting the user's ID.
- It enables a large number of users to access the files on the host without needing to set up a
login for all of them.
- It exercises a strict control over the areas an anonymous user can access.
7. Which factors mark the reliability of the network?
a. Frequency of failure
b. Downtime / Time taken for recovery.
8. Name the factors that tell us about the security of the network.
a. Virus attacks on the system.
b. Unauthorized access to the system.
9. Define Bandwidth and Latency?
- Bandwidth/ Throughput It means the number of bits which can be transmitted over the
network in a specified time.
- Latency It is the time taken by a message to travel from one side to another.

Bandwidth and latency describe the performance of a network.
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10. What is point to point link?
- Direct connection between two computers on a network is called as point to point link.
- No other network devices other than a connecting cable are required for point to point
connection.
- The cable connects the NIC card of both the devices.
11. When is a switch said to be congested?
- Sometimes a switch receives the packets faster than they can be accommodated in the shared
link. These packets are stored in the memory for sometime.
- However, after sometime the buffer space will exhaust and some packets will start getting
dropped off.
- The switch is called as congested in this state.
12. Explain a.) Uni-casting, b.) Multicasting and c.) Broadcasting
a.) Uni-casting - Message is sent from a source to a single destination node.
b.) Multicasting - Message is sent from a source to some subsets of other nodes.
c.) Broadcasting - Message is sent from a source to all the nodes in the network.
13. What are the various types of Multiplexing?
The various types of multiplexing are:
a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
i. Synchronous TDM
ii. Asynchronous TDM
c. Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)
14. Which layers of OSI are referred to as network support layers?
The following 3 layers of OSI are referred to as network support layers:
a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and
c. Network Layers
15. Which layers of OSI are referred to as user support layers?
The block of user support layers consists of:
a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and
c. Application Layer
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16. What does the Data Link Layer do?
- The Data Link Layer transforms the physical layer to a reliable link.
It takes care of:

a. Node to node delivery.
b. Framing
c. Physical Addressing
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control
f. Access Control
17. What is NIC?
- NIC stands for Network Interface Card.
- It is a peripheral card attached to a PC to helps it connect to a network.
- The MAC address of the card helps the network in identifying the PC.
18. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?
- The Network Layer aids in source-to-destination delivery of packet across multiple networks.
- It performs:
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing
19. Name the various error detection methods.
The various error detection methods are:
a. Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)
b. Longitudinal Redundancy Check (VRC)
c. Cyclic Redundancy Check (VRC)
d. Checksum
20. . What is Bit Stuffing?
- Bit stuffing means adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a 0.
- This is done so that the pattern 0111110 is not mistaken for a flag.
21. How does dynamic host configuration protocol aid in network
administration?
- In a large set up where it is difficult to manually configure the IP address of each system,
dynamic host configuration protocol comes very helpful.
- Using this protocol, the administrator can create a pool of IP addresses which are called scopes.
These can be then dynamically assigned to the systems.
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Routi ng and Switchi ng
What are Brute Force Attacks?
Brute forcing is a mechanism which is used by an attacker to break the encryption of data by
applying a set of various key.............
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How do you use RSA for both authenti cati on and secrecy?
RSA is a public key encryption algorithm. The RSA algorithms are...........
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Can you differenti ate among encodi ng, encrypti on and hashi ng?
Encoding: Basically encoding is used to protect the integrity of data as it crosses through
communication network to keep its original message.............
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If you have to generate a hash functi on then what characteri sti cs are needed i n a secure hash function?
A secure hash function should have the following characteristics:................
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What i s di gi tal si gnature? Di fferenti ate between Physi cal and Digital Si gnature
A digital signature is an electronic analogue of a written signature; the digital signature can be
used to provide assurance...........
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What i s Authenti cati on Header and how i t provides the protecti on to IP header?
Basically Authentication Header protects IP header and provides the complete authenticity to the
IP packets.............
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Expl ai n SSL Protocol . How does it protect i nternet users from vari ous threats?
The SSL protocol (Secure Socket Layer protocol) was originally developed by Netscape, to
ensure security of data transported.............
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What i s PIX fi rewal l security? How does i t di ffer from a fi rewal l ?
PIX (Private Internet Exchange)...........
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What are Mal ware? Expl ai n di fferent types of Mal ware
Malware is a software program which is developed to destroy a computer system..............
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What are replay attacks? Gi ve an exampl e of repl ay attack
Replay attacks are the network attacks in which an attacker spies the conversation between the
sender and receiver..........
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If you have to encrypt as wel l as compress data duri ng transmi ssi on then whi ch woul d you do fi rst and
why?
Data should be transmitted over any communication network in such a way that the data integrity
and authenticity.............
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What i s the goal of Informati on Security i n an organi zati on?
Mainly there are three Information security goals in an organization: Confidentiality, Integrity
and Availability..............
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What i s Symmetric-Key cryptography and Asymmetri c-Key cryptography?
Symmetric-Key Cryptography: Symmetric-key cryptography uses a single key for both
encryption and decryption. Encryption and decryption algorithm are inverse of each
other.............
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Expl ain the servi ces provi ded by IP (Internet Protocol ) - Addressi ng, Fragmentati on, Packet timeouts and
opti ons
Latest answer: Addressing: For the purpose of delivering datagram packets, IP needs to know
about the address of the destination. By including the host addressing, this task is carried out by
IP. As IP operates in an internet, its systems are designed to accept the addressing of devices
which are unique.............
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Expl ai n the cl asses of IP address
Latest answer: IP addresses are organized into classes. For convenience of humans, IP
addresses are expressed in the decimal format. Every number in each class is represented as
binary to computers..................
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Defi ne Broadcast, Unicast and Multicast.
Latest answer: Unicast: A term used in communication to describe a piece of information to
send from one point to another. There are only sender and receiver................
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What i s Network Mask?
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Latest answer: A network mask is used for determination of what subnet an IP address belongs
to. An IP address has network address and the host address.................
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Defi ne Subnetti ng.
Latest answer: A subnet describes a set of networked computers which have common IP
address routing prefix..................
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What i s the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)?
Latest answer: User datagram protocol allows computer applications to send messages as
datagram packets from source to destination on an Internet Protocol,..................
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Expl ai n TCP Wi ndowi ng concept.
Latest answer: TCP Windowing is a concept that is used for avoiding congestion in the network
traffic..................
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What i s the Domai n Name System (DNS)? What are the advantages of i t?
Latest answer: A hierarchical naming system for computer systems, services or for that matter
any resource participating in the internet...................
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What i s the TTL (Time to Li ve)? Why is i t required?
Latest answer: TTL is a value in data packet of Internet Protocol. It communicates to the
network router whether or not the packet should be in the network for too long or
discarded.................
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Expl ai n the use of Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Latest answer: Internet Control Message Protocol is one of the important protocols in the
Internet Protocol suite. It is mainly used in operating system of networked computers..................
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What i s the use of IGMP protocol ?
Latest answer: Internet Group Management Protocol: - It allows internet hosts to participate in
multicasting. The IGMP messages are used to learn which hosts is part of which multicast
groups..............
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What are Pi ng and Tracert?
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Latest answer: Ping and tracert are the commands used to send information to some remote
computers to receive some information. Information is sent and received by packets..............
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Expl ai n RSVP. How does it work?
Latest answer: Resource Reservation protocol is used to reserve resources across a network. It
is used for requesting a specific Quality of Service (QoS) from the network...............
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Expl ai n the concept of DHCP.
Latest answer: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol is used assigning IP addresses to
computers in a network. The IP addresses are assigned dynamically...............
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What are the differences between a domai n and a workgroup?
Latest answer: In a domain, one or more computer can be a server to manage the network. On
the other hand in a workgroup all computers are peers having no control on each other.............
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Expl ai n how NAT works.
Latest answer: Network Address Translation translates and IP address used in a network to
another IP address known within another network. A NAT table is maintained for global to local
and local to mapping of IPs................
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What i s PPP protocol ? Explai n PPP packet format.
Latest answer: Point to Point protocol helps communication between 2 computers over a serial
cable, phone line or other fiber optic lines. E.g. Connection between an Internet Service Provider
and a host................
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What i s IP Spoofi ng and how can i t be prevented?
Latest answer: IP spoofing is a mechanism used by attackers to gain unauthorized access to a
system. Here, the intruder sends messages to a computer with an IP address indicating that the
message is coming from a trusted host...............
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Expl ai n IP datagram, Fragmentati on and MTU.
Latest answer: IP datagram can be used to describe a portion of IP data. Each IP datagram has
set of fields arranged in an order. The order is specific which helps to decode and read the stream
easily..............
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What i s an appli cati on gateway?
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Latest answer: An application gateway is an application program that runs on a firewall
between two networks. An application gateway is used for establishing connection between
client program and destination service..................
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Expl ai n Ci rcui t Level Gateway.
Latest answer: A circuit level gateway is used to find if a session in TCP handshaking is
legitimate or not. It can be considered as a layer between application layer and transport
layer..................
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What i s 'Gateway Of Last Resort'?
A Gateway of Last Resort or Default gateway is a route used by the router when no other known
route exists to transmit the IP packet. Known routes are present in the routing table.................
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What are swi tches? Explai n the concepts of Layer-3 switches.
Latest answer: It is a device that connects multiple network segments.
A switch analyzes the MAC address and then determines where to send the data..............
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What i s Router? Expl ai n components of Routers.
Latest answer: The way switches connect multiple computers, a router connects multiple
networks. Routers comprise of data consisting of large tables of networks and
addresses..................
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Overvi ew of OSI l ayer.
Latest answer: OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
The OSI reference model gives an overview of the layered communications and computer
network protocol design...................
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Expl ai n di fferent layers i n the OSI model.
Latest answer: Application Layer: Closest to the end user, Interact directly with the software
application.
Presentation Layer: Translates application to network format, and vice versa, Works to transform
data into the form that the application layer can accept, Formats and encrypts data to be sent
across a network.........................
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Expl ai n the concept and capabi li ti es of Unicast IP Addresses.
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Latest answer: It is an IP address that uniquely identifies a host in a network.
The datagram with a unicast IP address is received and processed by only a single host.
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What i s IP Mul ti casti ng?
Latest answer: It is an IP address that identifies a particular group of hosts in network.
This group of hosts is called a multicast group..............
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Expl ai n the cl asses of IP addresses. Why do we need them?
Latest answer: Class A:
Range: from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255.
Leftmost bit: 0.
First 8 bits: netid.
Remaining 24 bits: hostid..............
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What i s Subneti ng? Explai n the advantages of usi ng Subneti ng.
Latest answer: Subneting is dividing a network into several subnets.
This is usually done for the following purposes:..................
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What i s Superneti ng? Expl ai n the concept of custom Subneti ng.
Latest answer: Supernetting or Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) : It is a way to
aggregate multiple Internet addresses of the same class..............
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What i s VLSM, Variabl e l ength subnet masking?
Latest answer: VLSM is a means of allocating IP addressing resources to subnets according to
their individual need rather than some general network-wide rule................
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What i s Data Fragmentaion? Expl ai n how Data Fragmentai on works.
Latest answer: Fragmentation occurs when storage space is used inefficiently due to which
storage capacity and performance is reduced................
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Expl ai n the concepts and capabi li ti es of IP Datagram.
Latest answer: Data transmitted over an internet using IP is carried in messages called IP
datagrams. Like all network protocol messages, IP uses a specific format for its
datagrams...................
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What i s MAC address?
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Media Access Control address is an identifier for assigned to most network adapters or Network
Interface Cards by the manufacturer for the purpose of identification...............
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Describe the Packet Format of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)?
The fields of the packet format of ARP are as follows:
-Hardware type: It is a 16-bit field . Each LAN has been assigned an integer based on its type.
For example, Ethernet is given the type 1.
-Protocol type: This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example, the value of this field for
IPv4 protocol is 0800.
-Hardware length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in bytes. For
example, for Ethernet the value is 6.
-Protocol length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes. For
example, for IPv4 protocol the value is 4.
-Operation: This is a 16-bitfield defining the type of packet. Two packet types are defined: ARP
request (1), ARP reply (2).
-Sender hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
sender. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
-Sender protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the sender. For the IP protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
-Target hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical address of the
target. For example, for Ethernet this field is 6 bytes long.
-Target protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (for example, IP)
address of the target. For IPv4 protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
What are the advantages of IPv6 over IPv4?
the next generation IP, or IPv6 has some advantages over IPv4 that can be summarized as
follows:
- Larger Address Space: An IPv6 address is 128 bytes long where IPv4 has 32-bit address only,
this is a huge increase in the address space.
- Better Header Format: IPv6 uses a new header format which simplifies and speeds up the
routing process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
- New Options: IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
- Allowance for extension: In IPv6 new technologies can easily embedded.
-Support For Resource Allocation: In IPv6, flow label has been added to enable the source to
request special handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as
real-time audio and video.
-Support For More Security: The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of the packet.
What are the different design goals of ATM?
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cell relay protocol.
The Design Goals of ATM are as follows:
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- A technology is needed to take advantage of high rate transmission media and less susceptible
to noise degradation for maximizing the data rates.
-The system must interface with existing systems and provide wide-area inter-connectivity
between.
-The implementation of design must be cheaper enough so that everyone can afford it. If ATM is
to become the backbone of international communications, as indeed, it must be available at low
cost to every user who wants it.
-The new system must be able to work with and support the existing telecommunication
hierarchies.
- The new system must be connection-oriented to ensure accurate and predictable delivery.
- One objective is to move as many of the functions to hardware as possible (for speed) an
eliminate as many software functions as possible (again for speed).

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