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Engine Room Tools, 1949, is a training manual that focuses on the correct use of
tools aboard ship. It is noteworthy because it includes tools that are specic to
the maritime trades.
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Table of Contents
Introduction
Part I, Hand Tools
Part II, Fasteners, Hoists, etc.
Part III, Measuring Instruments
2020
COPYRIGHT 1949 BY
MAST MAGAZINE ASSOCIATION
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Prepared by the Sta
of the
UNITED STATES
MARITIME SERVICE INSTITUTE
Acknowledgment
The sta of the United States Maritime Service Institute wishes to acknowledge the
valuable aid given by the following organizations in granting permission to use
material from their publications.
National Board of Fire Underwriters
Snap-on Tools Corporation
Herman H. Sticht Co., Inc.
1
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS
1. This text is divided into three parts. Each part constitutes one lesson and is
followed by its respective examination. The correct procedure is to study Part 1,
and complete and send in the examination for that part. Then study and
complete Parts 2 and 3 in the same way.
Except for certain special tools that are taken up later in connection with the
equipment on which they are used, these lessons describe the hand tools
commonly worked with in the engineering department of a ship, and explain
certain precautions that should be taken in using and caring for such tools. In
order that the coverage will be as complete and helpful as possible, the lessons
also include a description of some tools that might not be found aboard ship,
but that would be encountered in shipyards, machine shops, and other places
where maintenance and repair work is done.
The information in the lessons is extremely important to all who desire to be
completely familiar with and well trained in the knowledge and uses of hand
tools. It will aid the beginner, for example, to identify and locate the right tool for
a job and help him to perform his work more eciently. It should also contain
much of interest to engineering personnel who have picked up their knowledge
of tools more or less by chance as their work required various tools to be used.
Even engineers with long experience may gain valuable information that they
had not known about previously.
The Tools lessons will be found quite elementary in places, since they are
prepared so as to be suitable for the beginning student, as just explained. They
should be studied carefully, however, as this will enable all students to practice
the art of study (which they may not have been doing recently) and will help
them to master the more dicult engineering principles that follow in later
lessons.
2. Good tools are essential if a mechanic is to do his best work quickly, properly
and accurately. Without the proper tools and
2
the knowledge of how to use them, time is wasted, eciency is reduced, and the
person doing the work may injure himself.
Good tools are carefully made, and must be handled properly if they are to work
and last as intended. They cannot take rough usage. This is especially important
aboard ship where it may be .impossible to procure a replacement when
needed.
In general, every tool should be given. its own place on a tool rack or tool board,
or in a tool box. Some tools should be kept close by the machine for which they
are designed and on which they are used. Other tools must be stored in the tool
room. Tools should be cleaned after being used, should be oiled, in some cases,
to prevent rust, and should then be returned to their respective places.
When tools are taken care of systematically, it is much easier to nd the tool
needed. This is important, especially in an emergency. It is also possible to check
more readily to see whether any tools are missing, and, if so, which ones they
are.
A good mechanic will take care of his tools, as valuable time and possibly lives
may depend on the accomplishment of a piece of work quickly and accurately.
He will keep cutting tools sharp, grind them, if necessary, when through using
them, and store them so that their edges will not be damaged or dulled by
contact with each other or with other hard objects. He will handle delicate
measuring instruments with care, and will not keep them where they might be
damaged by heavy tools.
When work is being done, the necessary tools should be kept within easy reach,
but not where they can fall and be damaged, or where they may fall and injure
someone, as might occur from an upper level in the engine room. It is advisable
to spread canvas along a grating, if tools are to be placed on it, or if work is
being carried on where tools might drop and fall through it. Openings in the
engine or other equipment being worked on should be covered or plugged to
prevent tools, nuts, bolts, etc., from accidentally falling through the openings.
Such objects within the cylinder or crankcase of an engine, and not observed
and removed before starting up, can cause considerable damage.
Tools should never be placed on the nished parts of a machine, on the ways of
a lathe, for example. Sharp tools should not be carried in the pockets of clothing
or left protruding from work benches, as they may tear or puncture objects with
which they come in contact, including the workman.
3
Some tools can be used for several purposes, but using the wrong tool may ruin
not only it, but the work as well. If a screwdriver is used as a prying tool, it may
bend or break. If a chisel is used instead of a wrench, an important part of the
machinery may be scarred or broken.
The way in which tools are handled, and the care given to them, indicates the
quality of workmanship and the kind of engineering to be expected in your
department.
4
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 1
3. Hammers.-The hammer is a very simple striking tool, being just a weighted
head and a handle to direct its course. Several types of hammers are shown in
Fig. 1.
FIG. 1. TYPES OF HAMMERS.
The ball-peen hammer, often termed the machinist's hammer, is a very useful tool
aboard ship. The head of the hammer is made of hardened steel. The handle is
of hickory or other hardwood. The at portion of the head is called the face, and
the other end is known as the peen, the latter being used for heading rivets and
similar peening or drawing operations. The hole for the handle is the eye.
Ball-peen hammers are classed according to the weight of the head without the
handle. They vary in size from 4 ounces to 2 pounds, three popular sizes being
the 6-ounce for light work, the 12-ounce for general utility, and the 16-ounce for
heavy work.
The straight-peen hammer is used for spreading or drawing out metal in line with
the handle, while the cross-peen hammer is used for the same operation at right
angles with the handle. The claw hammer is used for driving and pulling nails.
Hammers with heads made of soft material, such as lead,
5
copper, babbitt, rawhide, wood, plastic, etc., are called soft hammers. Soft
hammers are generally used where a steel hammer might mar or injure the
work.
4. The eye in the hammer head is made with a slight taper in both directions
from the center. After the handle is inserted in the head, a steel wedge is driven
into the end. This expands the taper of the handle in the eye and wedges the
handle in both directions. If the wedge starts to come out, it should be driven in
again. If the wedge comes out and is lost, it must be replaced before continuing
to use the hammer. Never work with a hammer having a loose head. A loose
head will eventually y o, and may injure someone.
When using a hammer, it should be held near the end of the handle with the
face of the hammer parallel to the work. A grip just tight enough to control the
blow is best. The correct way to hold a hammer is shown in Fig. 2.
FIG. 2. How TO HOLD A HAMMER.
Keep the hands and the hammer handle free from grease and oil, otherwise the
hammer may slip from the grasp. It should also be remembered that oil or
grease on the hammer face may cause it to slip o the work and lead to a
painful bruise. Do not ruin the hammer handle by using it for pounding or
prying purposes.
6
5. Sledges.-Sledges, or sledge hammers, are used for heavy work. They can be
procured in both single-face and double-face types, a double-face sledge being
shown in Fig. 3, and vary in weight from 4 to 20 pounds. The handles vary in
length up to 36 inches.
FIG. 3. SLEDGE.
6. Screwdrivers.-Screwdrivers have three main parts: the handle, which is
gripped by the user; the shank, which is the steel portion extending from the
handle; and the blade, which is the end that ts into the slot of the screw.
Several types of screwdrivers are shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4. TYPES OF SCREWDRIVERS.
The standard screwdriver is used for most ordinary work and comes in a variety
of sizes. The blade must have sharp corners and t the slot in the screw closely;
otherwise it is likely to slip and damage the slot. It is also important that a
screwdriver be held rmly against the screw to prevent it from slipping and
injuring the worker or the work.
The oset screwdriver makes work possible in tight corners where the straight
type will not enter. It has one blade forged in line with the shank, and the other
blade at right angles to the shank. With such an arrangement, rst one end of
the screwdriver
7
can be used and then the other, changing ends after each swing, thus working
the screw in or out of the threaded hole.
The Phillips-type screwdriver is made with a specially shaped blade to t
Phillips-type cross-slot screws. The heads of these screws have two slots that
cross in the center. This checks the tendency of the screwdriver to slide out of
the slot onto the nished surface of the work.
The ratchet screwdriver is used to drive or remove small screws rapidly.
Some screwdrivers have handles made of insulating material, and are useful
when electrical work is being done. When a screwdriver with an insulated
handle is not available, the handles of other screwdrivers can be insulated by
wrapping them with tape.
While the screwdriver shown in Fig. 4 has a round shank, some heavy-duty
screwdrivers are made with a square shank, the construction enabling the
torque of the screwdriver to be increased by applying a wrench to the square
shank. A heavy-duty screwdriver, also a special screw-holding screwdriver, are
shown in Fig. 5.
FIG. 5. SPECIAL SCREWDRIVERS.
FIG. 6. CORRECTLY GROUND TIP.
7. The tip of a screwdriver blade should be ground so that the sides of the blade
are parallel, and the blade sides should
8
gradually taper out to the shank body, as shown in Fig. 6. If the end of the blade
is damaged, it can be made serviceable again by means of a grinding wheel. First
grind the tip straight and at a right angle to the shank. After the tip is ground
square, dress o from each face, a little at a time. Keep the faces parallel for a
short distance or have them taper in a slight amount. Never grind the faces so
that they taper to a sharp edge at the tip.
Do not use a screwdriver to check an electrical circuit where the amperage is
high. The electrical current may be strong enough to form an arc and melt the
screwdriver blade. It is also bad practice to try to turn a screwdriver with a pair
of pliers or to use it as a chisel.
Do not hold work in the hand while using a screwdriver. If the blade slips, it can
cause a bad cut. Hold the work in a vise, secure it with a clamp, or stand it rmly
on a solid surface. If such precautions are impossible, take care to have no part
of your body in front of the screwdriver blade. That safety rule applies to any
sharp or pointed tool.
8. Pliers.-Several commonly used types of pliers are shown in Fig. 7.
FIG. 7. TYPES OF PLIERS.
Side-cutting pliers are used principally for holding and bending thin material or
for cutting wire. Adjustable combination pliers have a slip joint that permits the
jaws to be opened wider at the
9
hinge for gripping large diameters. They are used principally for holding and
bending at or round stock. The various lengths and shapes of at-nose,
round-nose, and needle-nose or long-nose pliers make it possible to bend or form
metal into a variety of shapes, to hold objects in tight spots, and to make
delicate adjustments. Needle-nose pliers are helpful when recovering a washer
or nut from a place where it is hard to reach. They also make it easier to remove
and install such things as valve-spring retainer pins. They are not of heavy
construction, however, and should not be forced beyond their capacity. Their
jaws are comparatively weak, and are easily broken or sprung.
Avoid using pliers on a hardened surface, as such use dulls the teeth and causes
pliers to lose their gripping power. Do not use pliers for loosening or tightening
nuts, as the ats of the nuts will become damaged.
Diagonal-cutting pliers have short jaws with blades at a slight angle, as shown in
Fig. 8. This tool is valuable when removing and replacing cotter pins, and can be
used not only to cut the
FIG. 8. DIAGONAL-CUTTING PLIERS.
pins to the desired length but to spread the ends after the pins are in place.
They are also handy for cutting the soft wire which is passed through small
holes in nuts and bolt heads to "safety" them, or prevent them from working
loose. When diagonal-cutting pliers are used, the cut should be made with the
throat of the jaws, not with the points, as the latter use would increase the
tendency to spring the jaws apart. Once the jaws are sprung, it is dicult to cut
ne wire.
9. Nippers.-Nippers resemble pliers, but are used only for cutting, not for
holding. Various types can be used for cutting wire, rod, nails, rivets, and bolts.
For light work on soft metals the
10
FIG. 9. NIPPERS.
nippers shown at A, Fig. 9, would be used. They must not be overstrained,
however, as their thin cutting edges are easily nicked and dented. For heavier
work, the nippers shown at B are used. This type has replaceable blades, a
strong joint, and a short fulcrum that provides plenty of leverage. Nippers
should not be used to cut such material as drill rod or piano wire.
10. Shears and Snips.-Hand shears, or snips, are used for cutting sheet metal of
various kinds and thicknesses. Several commonly used types of these tools are
shown in Fig. 10.
Straight snips have blades that are at and straight on the inside surfaces. They
are designed for straight cutting but can also be used on large outside curves. It
is dicult, however, to cut circles and arcs of small radii with straight snips, the
scroll-pivoter snips being more suitable for such purposes. The blades of the
latter tool are approximately at right angles and provide clearance for following
curves.
Circular snips, with their curved blades, will handle all except the smallest curves.
They are available for either right-hand or left-hand use. Hawksbill snips can cut
inside and outside circles of small radii. Their narrow curved blades are beveled
enough to permit sharp turns without buckling the material. It should be noted,
however, that both the circular and hawksbill snips must be used carefully, as
their blades are easily sprung out of contact.
Trojan snips are slender-bladed snips used for straight or curved cutting. The
blades are small enough to permit sharp turns, and will also cut outside and
inside curves. They are sometimes known as combination snips. There are also
special snips designed for stainless steel and Monel metal. They resemble
Trojan snips, but
11
FIG. 10. SHEARS AND SNIPS.
have inlaid alloy cutting edges. They are identied by the words "For Stainless
Steel Only" stamped on them.
11. Snips do not remove any of the metal when making a cut, but work with a
shearing action that tends to roughen the edges of the material. Because of this
it is better not to cut exactly on the layout line. After the cut is made, the edge
can be dressed with a le. There is no set rule for the amount to be allowed for
dressing, but the thinner and softer the metal; the closer the cut can be made to
the layout line.
12
When cutting from the edge of a large sheet, it is advisable to cut from the
left-hand side. This allows the small piece being removed to curl out of the way
of the snip blades as the cut is made. Never cut with the full length of the
blades. If the points of the snips are allowed to come together, they will tear the
metal as the cut is completed. Stop each cut about 1/4 inch before the ends of
the blades have been reached, and start a new cut with the throat, which is that
part of the angle between the blades nearest to the pivot pin. Cutting in this
way, especially with heavy metal, is easier on the snips and is not so likely to
spring the blades. When the blades are sprung, hand snips are useless. Care
should also be taken to see that snips are not used to cut wire, bolts, rivets, or
nails, as such use will dent or nick the cutting edges.
Snip blades can be reground when they become dull. To do so, the blades
should be taken apart and the cutting edges ground to an included angle of 85.
Blade tension is adjusted by turning the nut on the pivot bolt, or pin, holding the
blades just tight enough to remain in any position in which they are placed. Oil
the pivot, spread a thin lm of light oil on the blades to prevent rust, and keep
the snip blades closed when they are not in use.
When cutting large sheets of metal, it is helpful to lay the metal on the bench
and make the cut with the lower handle of the snips resting on the bench top.
This lessens the strain on the worker's hand and allows him to use his weight to
advantage.
12. Bolt Cutters.-For heavy-duty cutting jobs, a bolt cutter, shown in Fig. 11, is
used. These tools are made in several sizes,
FIG 11. BOLT CUTTER.
from 18 to 36 inches in length, the larger ones being used to cut mild steel bolts
and rods up to 1/2 inch in diameter. Bolt cutters usually have special replaceable
jaws of extra-hard metal alloys;
13
the jaws therefore are brittle and will break before they will bend or dent. Any
twisting motion should be avoided when they are used. The tool shown in Fig.
11 has set screws which enable the relative positions of the blades to be
adjusted, if they should fail to meet properly after having been sharpened.
Fig. 12. PUNCHES.
13. Punches.-Several types of punches are shown in Fig. 12. These tools may be
used for a variety of jobs, but the correct punch for the job should always be
selected.
A center punch is used to make a starting mark for a drill when holes are to be
drilled in metal. If the center punch mark is not made, the drill will wander or
"walk away" from the desired center. The center punch point should be taper-
ground to an angle of about 90. Never use a center punch to remove a bolt or
pin, as the sharp point will act as a wedge and tend to tighten the bolt or pin in
the hole.
Prick punches are generally used for marking centers and lines in layout work.
Starting punches, sometimes called drifts, have a long taper
14
from the tip to the body. They are made that way to withstand the shock of
heavy blows. They may be used for knocking out rivets after their heads have
been cut o, or for freeing pins or bolts from their holes. To start a bolt or pin
that is extremely tight, use a starting punch that has a point diameter only
slightly smaller than the diameter of the object that is being removed.
After a pin or bolt has been loosened or partially driven out, it may be found
that the starting punch is too large to nish the job. A pin punch can then be
used, as it is designed to follow through the hole without jamming. Both starting
punches and pin punches must have at ends, never edged or rounded ones.
The alining, or lining up, punch is used to line up corresponding holes in adjacent
parts, for example when working on engines that have pans and cover plates.
A special punch, not shown in the illustration, is known as the soft-faced drift.
This drift is made of brass or ber and is used to remove such things as wrist
pins. It is heavy enough to resist damage to itself, but soft enough not to injure
the nished surfaces of the parts being removed.
When it is necessary to make gaskets of rubber, cork, leather, or composition
materials, a gasket punch, one type of which is shown in Fig. 12, is used to cut the
bolt holes. This punch comes in sizes to accommodate standard bolts and studs.
The cutting end is tapered to a sharp edge so as to produce clean, uniform
holes. To use the gasket punch, place the gasket material on a piece of wood
that has been cut across the grain, so that the cutting edge of the punch will not
become broken or dulled. Then hold the punch against the gasket and strike it
with a hammer, driving the punch through the gasket where holes are required.
14. Vises.-Two types of vises usually found aboard ship are shown in Fig. 13. The
machinist's vise is a heavy-duty holding tool with parallel jaws and either a xed
or swivel base. It should be used only for holding material when hacksawing,
ling, drilling, tapping, reaming, etc. It should not be used as an anvil. The utility
vise is satisfactory for general work and is designed for a variety of uses. It has a
small anvil and anvil horn as part of the back jaw. The anvil surface is broken by
a small hole into which the hardie ts. The hardie is the small tool shown in Fig.
13, just above the anvil of the utility vise. It is used for cutting heavy wire and
small rods and bars. Pipe jaws, as shown in the illustration, can
15
FIG. 13. VISES.
be mounted inside the regular jaws for holding pipes and rods. Soft jaws, which
are inserts of brass, copper, or other soft metal, can be made from scrap metal
and mounted on the jaws of a vise when the surface of the work must be
protected.
15. For satisfactory operation, keep the vise clean, oiled, and in good general
condition. The screw that operates the movable jaw should be lubricated
frequently with light grease or heavy cylinder oil. The slide should be wiped
clean every day and light machine oil spread over it. Never oil the swivel joint of
a vise, however, as its holding power would be impaired. Always tighten and
loosen a vise by holding the handle with the hands, applying the weight of the
body to secure the turning pressure. Do not hit the vise handle with a hammer.
When the vise is not in use, the jaws should be brought lightly together, with the
handle in the vertical position.
Be sure to keep ngers clear of the jaws when clamping work in the vise, and
use care to keep them from being pinched between the end of the handle and
the head of the screw, the latter accident being a very common one. When
holding heavy work in a vise, it is advisable to place a block of wood or metal
under the work as a prop to prevent it from sliding down and perhaps falling to
the oor or on the foot. Care should also be exercised to see that the vise is not
opened beyond the limit of the screw,
16
as the movable jaw may drop o and the user suer serious injury. If it is
necessary to pound against metal parts held in a vise, be sure to pound against
the back jaw, as it is heavier than the front jaw and strong enough to absorb the
shock of the blows.
16. Clamps.-When a vise is not available, a clamp can be used to hold pieces of
material together while they are being worked on. Clamps of this type are
shown in Fig. 14. A dierent kind of clamp is often used to make a temporary
fastening in the engine room when it is desired to lift or take a strain on some
object. To do so, the clamp is securely fastened to a convenient beam, as shown
in Fig. 15, and a line or small hoist then suspended from the clamp.
FIG. 14. SCREW CLAMPS.
17. Wrenches.-Fundamentally, the wrench is a tool for exerting a twisting strain,
as in turning bolts and nuts. As the majority of nuts and bolt heads are
hexagonal, or 6-sided, many wrenches are specially designed to t hex-heads
and hex-nuts.
18. Open-end Wrenches.-Solid, nonadjustable wrenches with
17
FIG. 15. BEAM CLAMPS.
openings in one or both ends are called open-end wrenches. A set of these tools
is shown in Fig. 16. Open-end wrenches with small openings are usually shorter
than wrenches with large openings, thus proportioning the lever advantage of
the wrench to the size of the work and helping to prevent breakage of the
wrench or damage to the bolt or stud.
FIG. 16. SET OF OPEN-END WRENCHES.
18
The size of an open-end wrench is usually stamped on the face, and denotes the
width of the opening between the jaws of the wrench. To determine the size of
bolt head or nut that the wrench will t, subtract 1/8 inch from the wrench size
and then multiply by 2/3. For example, a 1 5/8-inch wrench will t the nut of a
1-inch bolt, as shown by the following.
1 5/8 - 1/8 = 1 1/2
1 1/2 X 2/3 = 1 inch. Ans.
When the size of the nut or bolt is known and it is desired to nd the wrench to
t it, multiply the nut size by 3/2 and add 1/8 inch. For example, for a 3/4-inch
nut, the width of the wrench opening would be computed as follows:
3/4 X 3/2 = 9/8
9/8 + 1/8 = 10/8 = 1 1/4 inches. Ans.
19. Open-end wrenches may have their jaws parallel to the handle, or at angles
up to 90, the average being about 15. A wrench with 15 angles and a wrench
with a 90 angle are shown in Fig. 17.
The jaws of open-end wrenches are placed at an angle in order to make it easier
to work with the wrenches in close quarters, as it is frequently necessary to
tighten or loosen a nut where there is very little space in which to swing a
wrench. The procedure
FIG 17. OPEN-END WRENCHES.
19
known as opping the wrench is therefore used, that is, turning the wrench over
so that the other face is down after each stroke. In a situation such as shown in
Fig. 18, view (1), it is not possible to place the jaws of the wrench on the nut
when held in the position illustrated. However, with the wrench turned over, as
shown in views (2) and (3), it is possible to apply the wrench
FIG. 18. USE OF OPEN-END WRENCH.
to the nut and turn it in the direction for loosening. Although not shown in the
illustration, the wrench will have to be turned over at the end of each swing.
When a wrench has jaws at the 15 angle, it is possible, by means of the opping
technique, to turn a hex-nut even though the swing of the wrench is limited to
30.
There are special open-end wrenches, such as tappet wrenches, which are very
thin and have extra long handles. They are used to adjust the valves of small
internal combustion engines, and must be handled with care. A set of ignition
wrenches is used in caring for engine electrical systems.
Aboard ship, heavy-duty open-end wrenches are often needed in order to
handle large nuts. These are known as drive-up wrenches. In some cases one
man will hold the wrench on the nut, keeping a rm pulling strain on it, while
another person
20
strikes the wrench with a sledge hammer. Some wrenches are so large that a
pulling strain is taken with a chain fall, and the wrench is then struck by a heavy
ram supported by a block and tackle and wielded by several men.
20. When selecting an open-end wrench, be sure that the wrench jaws t the nut
or bolt head. If the wrench opening is too large, the wrench will slip around the
nut and round o the corners of the hex-faces, possibly springing the jaws of
the wrench at the same time. Also, always make sure that the wrench is seated
rmly on the ats of the nut.
When it is necessary to exert considerable force on a wrench, it is usually
advisable to pull instead of push. Pushing on a wrench may be dangerous, as a
sudden loosening of the nut can lead to striking some part of the body against
the machine being worked on. Whenever considerable eort is to be applied to
a wrench, make sure that the footing is secure and take precautions against
stumbling, slipping and falling.
Some wrenches are designed for a particular job, to tighten the nuts on the
handhole and manhole plates of a boiler, for example. Since the leverage of
such a wrench is proportioned to the strength of the studs and other material
being tightened, use the correct wrench, and do not add to its leverage by
slipping a piece of pipe over the end. Exceeding the designed leverage in this
manner can cause stripped threads and broken studs, nuts and other parts, and
lead to the breakdown of a piece of machinery and injury to personnel.
21. Adjustable Wrenches.-A handy all-round wrench for light work is the
adjustable open-end wrench, such as shown in Fig. 19. One jaw of this wrench is
xed; the other jaw is moved along a slide by a screw adjustment, the angle
between the jaw opening
FIG. 19. ADJUSTABLE OPEN-END WRENCH.
21
and the handle being 22 1/2. An adjustable wrench will not stand the hard
usage of an open-end wrench and must be used very carefully. It is important
that its jaws be closely adjusted to t the nut, and it should always be used so
that the force of the pull comes on the solid, or stationary, jaw, as shown in Fig.
19.
Monkey wrenches, one of which is shown in Fig. 20, are useful in many instances,
when tightening or loosening pipe unions, for example, or where the exact size
of open-end wrench is not available. When using monkey wrenches, take the
same precautions
FIG. 20. MONKEY WRENCH.
as with adjustable wrenches. Always have the jaws point in the direction of the
pull.
22. Box-end Wrenches.-Some box-end wrenches have 6 inside faces, or notches,
but most of them have 12 notches, as shown in Fig. 21, this wrench being known
as a 12-point or double-hex box wrench.
FIG. 21. BOX-END WRENCH.
There is little chance for a box-end wrench to slip o the nut, and it cannot
spread on the nut and cause undue wear. Because the sides of the box opening
are comparatively thin, the wrench is suitable for turning nuts that are hard to
reach with an open-end wrench. An oset box-end wrench is shown in Fig. 22.
When using box-end wrenches, and there is insucient room to turn the
wrench in a complete circle, it is necessary to lift it o the nut after each pull and
then place it back on in another position. In this case, therefore, after a tight nut
is started, it can often be unscrewed much more quickly with an open-end
wrench
22
FIG. 22. OFFSET BOX-END AND COMBINATION WRENCHES.
than with a box wrench. A combination wrench, as shown in Fig. 22, is therefore
helpful, using the box end for starting the nuts when loosening them, or for nal
tightening, and the open end for faster turning.
23. Socket Wrenches.-Two typical one-piece socket wrenches are shown in Fig.
23. These are heavy-duty wrenches, made with 4 inside faces for square nuts or
with 6 inside faces for hex-nuts. This type of socket wrench, however, does not
have the wide
FIG. 23. ONE-PIECE SOCKET WRENCHES.
adaptability of detachable socket wrenches, a set of which contains an
assortment of individual sockets of various sizes made to t dierent handles.
There are several types of handles, such as the T-handle, ratchet handle,
screwdriver-grip handle, and speed handle, the latter resembling a carpenter's
brace. A ratchet
23
FIG. 24. SOCKET WRENCHES.
handle, a T-handle, an extension, and a 12-point socket are shown in Fig. 24.
To use a detachable socket wrench, select a socket that ts the nut, place the
socket on the projecting lug of the handle and then place the socket over the
nut. The socket is held on the lug by a small friction catch that engages when the
socket and lug are forced together.
The ratchet handle permits the wrench to be turned without removing it from
the nut, a gear shift often being incorporated in the construction so that the nut
can be turned in either direction without turning the wrench over.
24. Torque Wrench.-One type of torque wrench is shown in Fig. 25. This tool is
used as a socket wrench handle in order to exert the desired amount of strain
when tightening nuts and bolts. As the torque wrench is pulled, the scale or dial
of the tool
FIG. 25. TORQUE WRENCH.
24
indicates how great a twist, or torque, is exerted, and the pull is continued until
the desired reading is reached. This is very important in many cases, enabling a
workman to tighten the bolts of a crankpin bearing, for example, to the exact
tension specied by the manufacturer of the engine, and to make sure that
cylinder-head nuts are all evenly tightened according to instructions. If nuts are
tightened with too much force, the bolts may break. In the case of a crankpin
bolt, for example, with the engine in operation, such breakage would probably
cause serious damage. If cylinder-head nuts are tightened unevenly, stresses
may be set up that lead to cracking of castings, stripping of threads, etc.
The accuracy of a torque wrench reading depends in part upon the condition of
the threads of the bolt or nut and on the lubrication of the threads. Readings are
more accurate when the threads are in good condition and well lubricated.
25. Spanner Wrenches.-Several types of spanner wrenches are shown in Fig. 26.
The hook spanner works on a round nut which has a series of notches cut in its
outer surface. The hook, or lug,
FIG. 26. SPANNER WRENCHES.
25
is placed in one of the notches and the handle turned to loosen or tighten the
nut. An adjustable spanner is designed to t nuts of various diameters. Pin
spanners have a pin instead of a lug, the pin tting a round hole in the edge of
the nut. U-shaped spanners have either lugs or pins that t in notches or holes in
the top of the nut or screw plug.
26. Special Wrenches.-Several special wrenches are shown in Fig. 27. The
Allen-type wrench has a 6-sided shaft that ts into the
FIG. 27. SPECIAL WRENCHES.
hex-shaped recess of set screws and cap screws. The Bristo-type wrench has a
number of splines on the shaft, the design tending to reduce spreading. The
Spintite wrench has a hollow shaft with a hex- head, and is used for electrical
work. It should therefore have an insulated handle. The dial-wrench is a special
wrench for removing and replacing the dials of electrical and computing
equipment.
26
FIG. 28. HACKSAWS.
27. Hacksaws.-The hacksaw is a tool used to saw metal, and consists of a
handle, frame and blade. The pistol-grip type, shown in the upper part of Fig. 28
is adjustable to take various blade lengths. The straight-handled hacksaw shown
in the illustration is not adjustable, although it may be constructed with the
adjustable feature. It is also usually possible to position a hacksaw blade in any
one of four positions, so that the operator can saw downward, upward, or to the
right or left, as desired. One such use, with the blade positioned at right angles
to the frame, is shown in Fig. 29.
FIG. 29. BLADE AT RIGHT ANGLES TO FRAME.
Hacksaw blades have holes in both ends and are mounted on the frame by
means of pins attached to the frame. The blade must always be mounted in the
frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle, and should be tightened
with enough tension to hold it rigidly between the pins.
27
Blades are made of high-grade tool steel or tungsten steel, and are available
from 6 to 16 inches in length. There are two types, the all-hard blade and the
exible blade. In the exible blade, only the teeth are hardened. The pitch of a
blade indicates the number of teeth it has per inch, pitches of 14, 18, 24 and 32
being available.
28. When selecting the best blade for a job, it is necessary to consider the type
of blade and the pitch. An all-hard blade is best for sawing brass, tool steel, cast
iron, and heavy cross-section stock. A exible blade is usually best for sawing
hollow shapes and metals having a light cross section. A 14-pitch blade should
be used on machine steel, cold-rolled steel, or structural steel, as it will cut fast
and free. The 18-pitch blade, which is the blade for general purpose work, is
used on solid stock of aluminum, bearing metal, tool steel, high-speed steel, cast
iron, etc. A 24-pitch blade is used for cutting thick-wall tubing, pipe, brass,
copper, and channel and angle iron. Use the ne tooth 32-pitch blade for
thin-wall tubing and sheet metal. Some of these uses are shown in Fig. 30.
FIG. 30. USE THE CORRECT BLADE.
28
When selecting a blade, it is also necessary to consider the set, which means that
some teeth are pushed sideways in one direction and the same number in the
opposite direction, according to denite patterns. The set provides clearance for
the blade so that it will not jam and stick, and also prevents overheating the
blade. Since the blade has a thickness of about .025 inch, the set causes it to
make a cut about twice that wide. Three types of set are shown in Fig. 31.
Fig. 31. TYPES OF SET.
29. When preparing to use a hacksaw, secure the material in a vise, or with
clamps, if it is not already rmly anchored. It must be held rmly to prevent the
blade from chattering or twisting. Make sure that the hacksaw blade is the
correct one for the purpose and that it is in good condition. See that the teeth
point away from the handle, and check and adjust the blade tension.
It is often helpful to le a V-shaped nick at the starting point; the blade will then
start more easily. Hold the saw at an angle that will keep at least 2 teeth cutting
all the time, otherwise the blade will jump and individual teeth will be broken.
The right and wrong angles for various kinds of work are shown in Fig. 32.
Start the cut with a light, steady, forward stroke. At the end of the stroke, relieve
the pressure and draw the blade straight back. After the rst few strokes, make
each one as long as the hacksaw frame will allow, thus preventing the middle
teeth from overheating and wearing rapidly. Use just enough pressure on the
forward stroke to make each tooth remove a small amount of metal. As the
teeth point forward and the forward edges do the cutting, it is not necessary to
use pressure on the back stroke.
When sawing alongside a scribed line, remember to stay just
29
FIG. 32. STARTING HACKSAW CUTS.
outside that line. Use long steady strokes, about 40 to 50 strokes per minute. If
hacksaw blades are worked too fast, the heat that is generated may draw the
temper and make the- blade soft and useless. Working too fast also may break
some of the teeth, cramp and break the blade, or produce ragged and crooked
cuts. When near the end of the cut, slow down still more, so that the saw can be
controlled when the stock is sawed through. When nished with the saw, clean
the chips from the blade, loosen the tension, and return the hacksaw to its
proper place. A hacksaw should be hung up when not in use. It should not be
kept in a drawer with other tools or where metallic objects will strike the blade
teeth. Wiping the blade with an oily rag will prevent rusting.
When a saw blade is broken and a new blade is to be used, turn the work so that
the cut can be resumed on the other side, if possible. The reason is that the set
of the new blade is greater than that of the used saw, and the new blade would
possibly jam if work were continued at the same place. If it is necessary to use
the new blade exactly in the same cut, however, run it through the unnished
part very carefully before attempting to complete the job.
30. Chisels.-One of the most valuable tools aboard ship is the at cold chisel.
These chisels are usually made of octagonal
30
tool-steel bar stock, carefully hardened and tempered, and are used for cutting
purposes where snips or a hacksaw cannot be used. They are also used to shear
o rivets, to smooth castings, to split rusted nuts from bolts, etc. As shown in
Fig. 33, the cutting edge is ground slightly convex. This causes the center portion
to receive the greatest shock, and protects the weaker corners.
FIG 33. FLAT COLD CHISEL.
Chisels must be sharp to give satisfactory service. The cutting angle should be
about 60, as shown in Fig. 33, and sharpening is best done on a wet grinding
wheel. However, if a dry wheel is used, the chisel should not be pressed too
hard against the wheel, or held there for too long a time. Too much pressure or
lengthy periods of grinding will generate sucient heat to draw the temper out
of the steel. A container of water should be kept at the grinder and the chisel
dipped in it after each light cut. This cools the metal and enables the grinding to
be continued. Remember that the chisel will not be safe to use if the cutting
angle is ground too small. On the other hand, if the angle is much over 60, the
tool will not cut properly.
31. When using a chisel for ordinary work, a hammer weighing from 1 to 1 3/4
pounds should be used. However, be sure to use a hammer that is heavy
enough for the job. When using a larger chisel, a heavier hammer must be used.
Hold the chisel in the hand with the head of the chisel close to the thumb and
rst nger, and grasp it rmly, but with the ngers rather relaxed. When the
chisel is gripped in this manner, the user will not be
31
hurt so badly if he should miss the chisel and strike his hand with the hammer.
Do not look at the head of the chisel while striking it with the hammer; watch
the cutting edge.
When cutting wire or round stock with a cold chisel, the following procedure is
recommended:
(a) Mark with a scriber or le, or with chalk or colored pencil, the point
at which the cut is to be made.
(b) Hold the work in place on the anvil or other suitable support. (It is
advisable to protect the anvil with a piece of scrap metal.)
(c) Hold the chisel as shown in Fig. 34, with the cutting edge on the
mark and the body of the chisel in a vertical position.
FIG. 34. CUTTING ROUND STOCK WITH COLD CHISEL.
(d) Strike the chisel a light blow with the hammer, and then examine
the chisel mark on the work to make certain that the cut is at the
desired point.
(e) Drive the chisel into the work with vigorous blows. The last few
strokes, however, should be made lightly in order to avoid unnecessary
damage to the supporting surface.
(f) Heavier work can be cut in much the same way, except that the cut is
made about halfway through the stock from one side, then the work
turned over and the cut nished from the opposite side.
32. The cutting of sheet or plate metal with a cold chisel should be avoided
whenever possible, as stretching of the metal
32
invariably results. However, when no other means are available, the best
procedure is as follows:
(a) With a scriber, draw a straight line on the work where the cut is to
be made.
(b) Grip the work rmly in a vise with the scribed line even with or just
below the top of the vise jaws, as shown in Fig. 35. The waste metal
should extend above the jaws. In some cases it is better to place the
metal between two pieces of angle iron and clamp the whole set-up in
the vise. The angle iron then protects the tops of the vise jaws.
(c) Using a sharp chisel, start at the edge of the work and cut along the
scribed line, using the vise jaws (or the pieces of angle iron) as a base
for securing a shearing action. Hold the chisel rmly against the work
and strike it vigorously. Be sure to keep the cutting edge of the chisel
at against the vise jaws.
FIG. 35. CUTTING SHEET METAL WITH COLD CHISEL.
33. Chipping is the term applied to the method of removing metal from a surface
with a chisel, as shown in Fig. 36, which also illustrates the correct and incorrect
methods of preparing the cutting edges. When chipping steel, it is advisable to
lubricate the chisel point with light machine oil. This makes the chisel easier to
drive and helps it to cut faster than when dry. When chipping cast iron, chip
from the edges of the work toward the center to avoid breaking o corners.
34. After a chisel has been used for some time, the blows of the hammer will
cause the head to spread out until it looks like a
33
FIG. 36. CORRECT AND INCORRECT SHARPENING.
ragged mushroom. The spread-out head is rough, and will cut the hand very
easily. In some cases, pieces of the jagged edge may break away and y o with
sucient force to injure someone working nearby. The head of the chisel must
therefore be periodically ground back to its original shape, as shown in B, Fig.
37.
FIG. 37. KEEP CHISEL HEAD GROUND OFF.
Always wear goggles when chipping with a chisel. Also be careful not to send
chips ying toward other workmen or into machinery. The safest method is to
have a guard (a piece of canvas of sucient size attached to two wooden
pedestals) placed so as to catch the ying chips. Keep the hammer and the head
end of the chisel clean and free of grease and oil to prevent the hammer from
slipping.
35. Special Cold Chisels.-If it is necessary to cut keyways or slots, the cape chisel
can be used. This chisel is like a at chisel except
34
that the cutting edge is very narrow. It has the same point angle, and is held and
used in the same manner.
Rounded or semi-circular grooves should be cut with the round-nose chisel. This
chisel is also used to "draw back" a drill that has "walked away" from its
intended center.
The diamond-point chisel is tapered square at the cutting end, then ground at an
angle to provide the sharp diamond point. It is used for cutting V-grooves and
inside sharp angles. These chisels are shown in Fig. 38.
FIG. 38. SPECIAL CHISELS.
36. Files.-Files are hardened steel tools for cutting, smoothing, or polishing
metal. They vary in length, in shape, and in arrangement, or cut, of teeth, so as
to provide les for various uses. The terms commonly used to describe a le are
given in Fig. 39.
FIG. 39. FILE TERMINOLOGY.
37. Files have either single-cut or double-cut teeth. The dierence between the
two types of teeth is apparent when comparing Figs. 40 and 41. Single-cut les
have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other, the teeth being set at an angle of
about 65 with the centerline. Single-cut les are used for sharpening. tools,
nish ling, and draw-ling. They are also the best tools for smoothing the
edges of sheet metal.
35
FIG. 40. SINGLE-CUT FILE.
FIG. 41. DOUBLE-CUT FILE.
Double-cut les have criss-crossed rows of teeth, the double cut forming teeth
that are diamond-shaped and suitable for quick removal of metal and for rough
work.
38. In selecting a le for a job, it is necessary to consider its shape, which means
both the outline and the cross-sectional shape. Some of the cross-sectional
shapes of les are shown in Fig. 42.
FIG. 42. SHAPES OF FILES.
Mill les are tapered both in width and thickness, and are available with either
square or round edges, or with one safe edge, that is, an edge with no teeth. Mill
les are used for lathe work, draw-ling, and other ne, precision work. They are
always single-cut.
Flat les are general purpose les, tapering in width and thickness, and generally
used when a fast cutting tool is desired. Hand les, not shown, are somewhat
thicker than at les, but their edges are parallel.
Square les are tapered on all four sides and are used to enlarge rectangular-
shaped holes and slots. Round les serve the same purpose for round openings.
Small round les are often called rat-tail les.
The half-round le is a general purpose tool, the rounded side being used on
curved surfaces and the at face on at surfaces. When ling an inside curve, a
round or half-round le with a
36
curve most nearly matching the curve of the work should be used.
Triangular, or 3-square or 3-corner les, are tapered on all three sides. They are
used to le cutters, acute internal angles, and to clear out square corners.
Special triangular les are used to le saw teeth.
A warding le, not shown, is extremely thin and has sharply tapered edges. Its
chief use is on work where space is limited. Knife les have one thin edge and
one thick edge, and are used on keyways, slots, etc. A rasp is similar to the le
except that it has coarse teeth raised by a triangular punch, and is usually used
on wood.
39. Files are also graded according to the spacing and size of their teeth, or their
coarseness and neness. These grades are known as rough-cut, middle-cut,
bastard, second-cut, smooth and dead-smooth. Three grades of teeth are shown in
Fig. 43. The neness or
FIG. 43. GRADES OF FILE TEETH.
coarseness of le teeth is also inuenced by the length of the le. If the teeth of
a 6-inch, single-cut smooth le, for example, are compared with those of a
12-inch, single-cut smooth le, the dierence will be noted.
40. The type of material to be led, and whether it is a rough or nishing cut,
determine the grade of neness that is required. Various typical situations may
be listed as follows:
37
(a) For heavy, rough cutting, a large, coarse, double-cut le is best.
(b) For the nishing cut, use a second-cut or a smooth single-cut le.
(c) When ling cast iron, start with a bastard le and nish with a
second-cut.
(d) When ling soft steel, start with a second-cut le and nish with a
smooth le.
(e) When ling hard steel, start with a smooth le and nish with a
dead-smooth le.
(f) When ling brass or bronze, start with a bastard le and nish with a
second-cut or smooth le.
(g) When ling aluminum, lead, or babbitt metal, use a bastard le, or if
available, a oat-cut le may be used. This le has large curved teeth
and works with a planing action. It is tted with a special holder, as
shown in Fig. 44, and is sometimes known as a vixen-cut le.
FIG. 44. FLOAT-CUT FILE.
41. Never use a le unless it is equipped with a tight-tting handle. If a le is
used without the handle and it strikes something accidentally or jams to a
sudden stop, the tang may be driven into the hand.
File handles are made of wood with a ferrule, or metal strengthening ring, on
the end, and a hole to receive the tang of the le. The usual way of driving the
handle on the le is to insert the end of the tang into the hole in the handle, and
then tap the end of the handle on the bench or some other at surface. If the
tang of the le is considerably larger than the hole in the handle, the hole may
be enlarged by burning it out with the heated tang of a le. A piece of wet rag or
waste should be wrapped about the le up to the tang before the le is heated,
to prevent its temper from being drawn.
The correct way to hold a le is with the handle against the palm
38
FIG. 45. CORRECT WAY TO HOLD FILE.
of the right hand, thumb on top, as shown in Fig. 45. Hold the end of the le in
the left hand with the ngers curled under it. When ling, lean the body forward
during part of the forward stroke and straighten up at the nish. The le must
be held straight or the surface of the work will not be at. Not more than 30 or
40 strokes per minute should be taken; too much speed will cause the le to
rock, and the corners of the stock will be rounded o, as indicated in view A of
Fig. 46. Too much pressure will bend the le and tend to have the eect shown
in view B.
FIG. 46. TOO MUCH SPEED AND TOO MUCH PRESSURE.
Apply pressure on the forward stroke only. Unless the le is lifted from the work
on the return stroke, it will become dull much sooner than it should. (This does
not apply, however, when ling very soft metals, such as lead or aluminum. On
soft work, pressure on the return stroke helps to keep the cuts in the le free of
removed metal.)
42. When round surfaces are led, best results are obtained by working as
shown in Fig. 47, a rocking motion being used.
Surfaces and edges are often draw-led to make them smooth and true. In
draw-ling, hold the le at right angles to the work,
39
FIG. 47. FILING ROUND SURFACES.
FIG. 48. DRAW-FILING.
as shown in Fig. 48, and move the le sidewise along the work. A single-cut
smooth le should be used. Pressure is heaviest on the stroke made toward the
body and very light on the return. Keep the hands as close together as possible
to prevent bending the le, and watch the ends and corners of the work, as they
are easily rounded. For a smoother surface than can be obtained by draw-ling,
wrap a piece of ne emery cloth around the le and proceed as in draw-ling.
When ling work that is rotating in a lathe, long, slow cuts give best results. The
work must be rotating at high speed. For rough work, a double-cut at le is
generally used. For nishing work, a mill le gives better results, as it is a
single-cut le and has a shearing action. Too much ling of a piece of work in a
lathe, however, will, as a rule, spoil it by making it out of round.
40
43. A new le should be broken in by using it rst on brass, bronze, or smooth
cast iron. Most of the damage to new les is caused by using too much pressure
during the rst few strokes, so it is necessary to use a light pressure to prevent
tooth breakage. A new le should not be broken in on a narrow surface, such as
the edge of sheet metal, because the narrow edge is likely to break o the sharp
points of the teeth. A new le should never be used to remove the scale on cast
iron; always use old, worn les for removing such scale. A le should never be
used on material harder than itself.
During the operation of ling, small particles of the work are likely to clog the
teeth of the le and scratch the material being led. This condition is known as
pinning. Pinning is sometimes the result of putting too much pressure on the
le, especially if it is a new one. To avoid pinning, therefore, be sure that the le
is broken in properly. Rubbing chalk on a le before using it will also help to
prevent pinning.
Pinning can also be prevented by cleaning the le frequently. This is done by
means of a le card, an example of which is shown in Fig. 49. When cleaning a
le, lay it at on the bench and draw
FIG. 49. FILE CARD.
the bristles of the le card back and forth across the le parallel to the cuts. If a
few chips are stubborn and will not come out, remove them with the pick that is
included with the le card.
To prevent scratching or cutting too deep when ling wrought iron, steel, or
hard ber, apply a little oil to the surface of the le.
41
However, do not use oil when ling cast iron, as it causes the cast iron surface to
glaze over and become hard and slick.
44. A le is easily dulled by rough or improper handling, and les therefore
should not be stored in a drawer or box where they can rub against each other
or against other tools. It is best to store them, in separate holders, or in holes
cut in a wooden block. Do not use a le for prying or pounding. The tang is soft
and bends easily, the body is hard and extremely brittle, and even a slight bend
may cause a le to snap in two. Bending or pounding a le, therefore, will not
only injure the le but may cause steel particles to be thrown into the eyes. For
similar reasons a small rat-tail le should not be salvaged to be used as a prick
punch or center punch.
45. Drills and Drilling.-There are many occasions when it is necessary to drill
holes in metal, using a twist drill, a tool that does its work by slicing metal away
as it rotates. With holes up to 1/4 inch in diameter, the drilling may be done by
hand, using a hand drill or breast drill to hold and turn the drills. A brace is
ordinarily used when drilling holes in wood. These hand drilling tools are shown
in Fig. 50.
Twist drills are also used for cutting larger holes in metal, up to 4 inches in
diameter, but for such purposes are usually operated by power drilling
equipment.
FIG. 50. HAND DRILLING TOOLS.
42
Twist drills are made of carbon steel or high-speed alloy steel. Carbon steel drills
are satisfactory for the general run of work and are less expensive, although
they may lose their hardness if heated excessively. High-speed drills are used on
tough metals and at high speeds. They will keep on cutting when red hot, but
should be cooled in still air; if cooled quickly they may crack or split.
The drill shank is the end that ts into the chuck of the hand drill, electric drill or
drill press. Straight-shank drills are used to drill holes up to about 1/2 inch in
diameter. Larger holes are usually drilled with the taper-shank drill. The
square-shank drill is made to use in a brace. The dierent shanks are shown in
Fig. 51.
FIG. 51. TWIST DRILL SHANKS.
Twist drills are available with either 2, 3, or 4 utes (the spiral grooves formed
along the sides), but drills having 3 or 4 utes are used for following smaller
drills or for enlarging cored holes, and are not suitable for drilling into solid
stock. The spiral utes provide several advantages:
(a) They give a correct rake angle to the lips, as shown in Fig. 52.
(b) They cause chips formed while drilling to curl tightly so that they
occupy the minimum amount of space.
43
(c) They form channels through which such chips can escape from the
hole.
(d) They allow the lubricant, when one is used, to ow easily down to
the cutting edge of the drill.
FIG. 52. RAKE ANGLE.
46. Drill Sizes.-The twist drills used most frequently are those made in fractional
sizes, from 1/64 inch up to 1 inch in diameter, although larger sizes are also
found aboard ship. The size of the drill is stamped on the shank. Because the
drills vary 1/64 (0.0156) inch from one size to the next, two other identication
systems have been developed for special sizes:
(a) Number drills, ranging from No. 80 (0.0135 in.) to No. 1 (0.228 in.).
(b) Letter drills, ranging from A (0.234 in.) to Z (0.413 in.).
Tables of drill sizes will be found in Marine Engineering Tables, issued later in the
course.
If the size number has worn o the drill shank, the size can be checked with a
drill gage, Fig. 53, for the number drills, with a drill stand for fractional drills, or
with a micrometer for any kind of drill. When measuring a drill with a
micrometer, measure from
FIG. 53. DRILL GAGE.
44
the outside of one margin to the outside of the other margin (see Fig. 54) at the
point of the drill. The shank diameter of a straight-shank drill is usually a few
ten-thousandths of an inch smaller than the point diameter.
47. Use of Lubricant.-When drilling, some materials require no lubricant while
others require a lubricant peculiar to their nature. The following tabulation may
be used as a guide:
Materials to be Drilled Lubricant
Tool steel, copper Oil
Soft steel, wrought iron Oil or soda water
Babbitt, brass, cast iron No lubricant (dry)
Glass Turpentine
48. Drill Terminology.-Before a drill is used on any kind of work, it is important
that it be correctly ground and sharpened. If a drill is not in proper condition for
work, it will drill with diculty, make a hole that is rough or o size, and perhaps
break while in use. It is important, therefore, to become familiar with the various
parts of the drill, as identied in Fig. 54, so that the work of grinding and
sharpening can be carried out most eciently.
The dead center is the sharp chisel edge at the extreme tip end of the drill. It is
formed by the intersection of the cone-shaped surfaces of the point and should
always be in the exact center of the axis of the drill.
The point of a drill is the entire cone-shaped surface at the cutting end. It should
not be confused with the dead center.
The heel of a drill is the portion of the point back of the cutting lips or edges.
The lip clearance angle is the angle at which the drill point is ground o just back
of the lips.
The margin is the narrow strip which extends the whole length of the utes,
being part of a cylinder that is interrupted by the utes and by what is known as
body clearance.
The portion of the drill back of the margin is of slightly less diameter than the
margin, and the dierence is known as body clearance. Body clearance reduces
the friction between the drill mid the walls of the hole, while the margin insures
that the hole is of the right size.
The web is the metal column, Fig. 55, which separates the utes.
45
FIG. 54. TWIST DRILL TERMINOLOGY.
It runs the entire length of the drill between the utes, gradually increasing in
thickness toward the shank.
49. Drill Lips.-It has been determined that for work on mild steel and for
general purpose work, the lips of a twist drill should be ground to a 59 angle, or
with an included angle of 118, as shown in Fig. 56. In this illustration the angle
is measured by a drill gage. (Note that both lips are exactly the same length.) If
the angle is too great, the point will be too at to center properly; if the angle is
too small, the hole will be drilled less rapidly than it should be, and more power
will be required to drive the drill. If the point is on center but the cutting edges
are ground at dierent angles,
46
Fig. 55. DRILL WEB.
the drill will bind on one side, as shown in the left-hand view of Fig. 57, and as
only one lip will do the work, that edge will wear rapidly. When the cutting edges
are not the same length, the hole will be larger than the drill, as shown in the
center view.
50. Lip Clearance Angle.-For most drilling, the heel of the drill should be
ground away from the cutting lips at an angle of from 12 to 15 at the
circumference of the drill, as shown in the right-hand view, Fig. 57. This angle is
known as the lip clearance angle. Examples of incorrect lip clearance grinding
are shown in Fig. 58.
The drill at the left, Fig. 58, has been ground without any lip clearance whatever;
in the center example, the lip clearance angle is so large that the cutting edges
of the drill have broken down because of insucient support; in the illustration
on the right, the lip clearance angle is too small.
47
FIG. 56. CORRECTLY GROUND DRILL.
FIG. 57. EXAMPLES OF LIP GRINDING.
51. Rake Angle.-The rake angle of a drill is the angle of the utes in relation to
the work, as shown in Fig. 52. It is usually between 22 and 30. If the rake angle
is too small, it makes the cutting edge so thin that it may break under the strain
of the work. The rake angle also partly governs the tightness with which the
chips curl, and hence the amount of space they occupy.
48
FIG. 58. EXAMPLES OF INCORRECT LIP CLEARANCE GRINDING.
52. Recommended Angles for Various Materials.-The following tabulation
states the lip angles and lip clearance angles that are recommended for
common materials:
Materials to be drilled Drill Angles
Heat-treated steels, drop forgings,
Brinel hardness No. 250.
125 included angle
12 lip clearance
Cast iron, soft
90 included angle
12 lip clearance
Brass
118 included angle
12 lip clearance
Slightly at face of cutting lips
Copper
100 included angle
12 lip clearance
Wood
60 included angle
12 lip clearance
53. Grinding a Drill.-After the instructions have been studied carefully,
considerable practice is still needed in order to learn how to grind a drill
correctly. To secure this practical experience, it is advisable to begin by selecting
a correctly ground drill; a 1/4-inch or 3/8-inch size would be suitable for the
purpose. Take the drill to the grinder, and without turning on the grinder,
observe just how the drill must be held in order to secure the correct shape of
the point and the desired angles. The way in which the drill is held against the
grinding wheel is shown in Fig. 59.
49
FIG. 59. GRINDING A DRILL.
Next take a drill that needs grinding badly, and start up the grinder and try to
shape the point of the old drill to be exactly like the correctly ground drill.
Remove very little metal at rst and examine the drill frequently in order to note
the progress made. Also take the same precautions that are explained in Art. 30
in connection with the sharpening of chisels. By working and observing carefully
it will soon become apparent how the drill must be held in order to secure the
desired results. Check the lip angle and lip clearance angle, and when the drill
appears to be ground properly, try drilling a hole in a piece of soft steel scrap.
Note whether the drill cuts smoothly and rapidly, or whether it jumps and
chatters. Do the chips curl away evenly from both lips? Is the hole the right size?
Examine the heel of the drill; if there are shiny spots, it is indicated that the lip
clearance angle is too small. If the drill will not cut at all, it is probably because
there is no lip clearance. Be careful to keep both lips the same length, and have
the included angle as previously recommended.
Always protect drills from nicks and rust. See that they are ground properly
before putting them away, and then store them carefully.
54. Drilling.-When drilling with a twist drill, the following procedure is
recommended:
(a) Locate the exact position of the hole by drawing two lines
50
on the work at right angles, the lines crossing each other at the point which is to
be the center of the hole. Make a light mark with a prick punch where the lines
intersect, and check to make sure that the prick punch mark is located exactly
where they cross. Then use a center punch to sink the mark deep enough to
receive the point of the drill. Select a sharp, properly ground drill of the desired
size; insert the shank in the chuck and fasten it tightly in position. Grip the work
rmly in a vise unless it is stationary. Arrange to do the drilling horizontally, if
possible. Put a drop of lubricant, if needed, in the impression made by the
center punch. Place the point of the drill in the center punch impression and
begin drilling, making sure to keep the drill at right angles to the surface of the
work. Keep a steady, rm pressure on the drill.
(b) When the drill has started to cut and has made an impression larger than the
center punch mark, lift it from the work and note whether the impression is
concentric with the cross lines. If it is not concentric, as shown in the left-hand
view, Fig. 60, use a round-nose chisel to make a nick in the impression on the
side of the center toward which the drill should be drawn. The chisel cut is
shown in the center view, Fig. 60.
FIG. 60. HOW TO DRILL BACK TO CORRECT CENTER.
(c) Put another drop of lubricant in the impression and continue drilling until the
point of the drill just breaks through the metal. Then ease o on the pressure
and drill slowly until the hole is completed. If the drill catches while nishing the
hole, work the drill back and forth carefully until it cuts through the work. When
the hole is completed, withdraw the drill immediately by pulling it back as it
continues to turn.
55. Portable Power Drills.-A portable electric drill is used in much the same
way as a hand drill. The chuck shaft, or arbor, is
51
geared to the motor to obtain the desired speed. Small drills are geared up for
high speed, but the larger drills are geared down so that the chuck will turn
slowly enough to prevent damage to the drill from burning. Portable power
drills can also be used for such operations as bung, polishing, and grinding.
With the addition of a special attachment which converts the rotary motion of
the drill into a reciprocating motion, a portable power drill can be used for
making holes in concrete and similar materials. The same attachment can also
be employed to adapt the machine for lighting riveting work.
Except for the smallest units, the extension cable of portable electric drills
should include a ground lead from the drill casing, and a clip for connection of
the ground lead to ground. The clip should be fastened to a grounded
conductor, such as the conduit at the outlet box, before the drill is placed in
operation. This precaution protects the operator of the drill from electrical shock
in case the insulation of the wiring within the power drill casing should fail,
resulting in a short circuit.
Portable electric drills are susceptible to short circuits because of their small
clearances and the metallic dust produced when they are used. These
conditions can be improved by periodically blowing through the motors with
clean dry air. Since dampness is another reason that may cause the machines to
deteriorate, they should always be stored in a dry place when not in actual use.
It is also advisable that they be regularly tested for insulation resistance.
Before a portable power drill is used, the extension cable should be inspected
carefully to -make sure that it is not frayed or crimped to such an extent that
wiring is exposed. Care should also be taken that the cable does not drop or lie
in water. The operator of the drill should wear leather gloves and keep his
footgear dry, especially where dampness may be present.
56. Drill Press.-A small drill press, such as might be used aboard ship, is shown
in Fig. 61. This drill press has a separate motor which drives the drill spindle and
chuck by means of a V-belt.
One advantage of the drill press over the portable electric drill is that speed
control is provided. Four steps are usually found on the motor pulley and four
on the spindle pulley. The drill press in the illustration is arranged for high
speed, with the belt on the largest step of the motor pulley.
52
FIG. 61. DRILL PRESS.
The feed pressure is easily controlled on this drill press by means of a feed
wheel with long handles. A depth stop is provided to stop the progress of a drill
at a predetermined depth, which is important when drilling holes that do not go
all of the way through the material.
When using a drill press, it is very important to hold the drilled material securely.
Never try to hold it down by means of the hands, as the drill may catch or jam
and spin the material around at high speed, endangering everyone within range.
The best method is to use a drill vise or some other form of clamping device. A
drill vise, also a V-block and clamp used to hold round objects, are shown in Fig.
62. Use the drill vise for small jobs, and clamp larger pieces of stock to the drill
table.
It is usually advisable to protect the drill table by placing a block of wood
beneath the work, thus preventing the drill from touching and scarring the drill
table as it completes the drilling of a hole.
57. Heavy-duty Ratchet Drill.-When the hole to be drilled is too large for an
electric drill, and the piece to be drilled cannot be taken to a drill press, a
heavy-duty ratchet drill can be used. In order to use the drill, some arrangement
must be made to apply
53
FIG. 62. DRILL VISE AND V-BLOCK.
1. ratchet sleeve
2. base
3. upright
4. adjustable arm
5. bolt
6. steel plate
7. bolt
8. drill
9. ratchet handle
10. ratchet
11. clamp
FIG. 63. RATCHET DRILL AND "OLD MAN."
54
pressure upon it. The arrangement may utilize blocking, depending upon the
nature and position of the work, or a device known as an "old man" may be
used. A ratchet drill set up in an "old man" is shown in Fig. 63.
As shown in the illustration, the base of the device is bolted or clamped in
position, and the adjustable arm is placed at the proper height so that the
pointed tip of the ratchet ts into one of the countersunk holes in the lower face
of the arm. The position of the arm is then adjusted so that the drill is lined up
properly, and the arm is bolted securely on the upright. By turning the ratchet
sleeve so as to screw it upward, the drill is held securely between the arm and
the work, and drilling can be begun. The drill is turned by pulling on the ratchet
handle. In order to feed the drill into the work, a rod is placed in one of the small
holes at the upper end of the ratchet sleeve, and by means of this leverage the
ratchet sleeve can be held from turning during part of the stroke of the ratchet
handle, thus lengthening the drill assembly and feeding the drill through the
work. The amount of feed given is determined by the nature of the work being
done, and can be judged by the amount of pull needed to move the ratchet
handle.
58. Pilot Holes.-A small hole, used to guide and mark the path for a larger drill,
is known as a pilot hole. It is a good policy to drill these small guide holes for any
drill size larger than 3/16-inch, as it is dicult to start a large drill in a center
punch mark, the large drill having a tendency to drift from the center. The pilot
hole guides the larger drill all the way through the metal and helps to keep it "on
the course." No special drills are required, just select the pilot drill according to
the size of the nished hole that is to be made, a 1/8-inch drill, for example,
being satisfactory for drilling a pilot hole for a 3/8-inch drill.
59. Keep a drill cutting all the time it is in contact with the metal. Apply pressure
steadily and uniformly to insure continuous cutting. Remember that both too
much pressure and too little pressure can cause overheating of the drill.
After a hole has been drilled, the burrs must be removed. An easy way to
remove them is to use a drill about twice the diameter of the hole. Hold the drill
in the hand and rotate the point against the burrs. Do not burr a hole too much,
however, as the hole should
55
be a true cylinder and should not be countersunk at either end unless so
specied.
60. Countersinks.-A countersink is used to shape the ends of drilled holes to t
screw, bolt, and rivet heads of the countersunk type. The 3-ute 82 countersink
is usually used, although other point angles are available for special purposes.
Countersinks are made in a number of sizes, but any one size can be used on
several dierent sizes of hole.
61. Counterbores.-A counterbore is used to cut recesses in metal surfaces for
llister-head bolts and screws, and for similar purposes, working best when
used in a drill press or lathe. The pilot end of the tool is smooth, and is guided
by the hole drilled for the bolt or screw. A countersink and a counterbore are
shown in Fig. 64.
62. Solder.-Solder is used to join pieces of metal, to make metal joints and
seams leakproof, and to connect electric wires so that they will be good
conductors.
Soft solder is used most often in sheet metal and electrical work, and is usually a
combination of 50 per cent tin and 50 per cent lead, known as half-and-half
solder. Solder is manufactured in both bar and wire forms, some wire solders
having hollow centers which are lled with acid or rosin core uxes.
Half-and-half solder begins to melt at a temperature of 358F, and becomes a
liquid at 415F. It does not have much strength, and should never be used
where heavy stresses will be applied to the soldered parts. Solders containing 55
per cent to 70 per cent tin are stronger and can withstand heavier stresses than
half-and-half solder, but no soft solder approaches the strength of the hard
solders.
Hard solders are made of alloys of copper, zinc, silver, and tin. They will
withstand considerable stress, pressure and vibration, and may be used to
solder high-pressure pipe connections, gasoline and oil piping joints, etc. The
hard solders must be melted with a blowtorch or welding torch; soldering irons
do not conduct enough heat to melt them.
63. Soldering Irons.-Soldering irons, or coppers, are available in various
weights, but the size used should depend on the
56
FIG. 64. COUNTERSINK AND COUNTERBORE.
requirements of the work to be done. As a general rule it is best to select the
largest size that is convenient to handle. The points of soldering irons should be
rather blunt for ecient heat conduction, three dierent shapes being shown in
Fig. 65. The pointed shape is used for utility work; the stub shape is used for at
seams that require considerable heat; and the bottom type is best for soldering
the seams of pans, trays, etc. An electric soldering iron, with interchangeable
tips, can be used for light work and is especially good for work on electrical
connections.
64. Blowtorch.-Soldering irons can be heated in various ways, but the gasoline
blowtorch is one of the most convenient means aboard ship. As shown in Fig.
66, blowtorches are usually equipped with
57
FIG. 65. SOLDERING IRON POINTS.
a hook and curved rest to hold the soldering iron while the point is exposed to
the ame of the torch.
Before using a blowtorch it is advisable to consider the danger of re. Do not
light or use the torch near openings where explosive gases may be present,
where gasoline has been spilled, or where inammable material may be ignited.
It is good practice to have a re extinguisher handy whenever a blowtorch is
used.
1. soldering-iron rest
2. soldering-iron hook
3. valve
4. fuel pump
5. fuel pan
6. burner tube
FIG. 66. BLOWTORCH.
58
In order to use a blowtorch, the tank must contain clean, white (unleaded)
gasoline, and the pump on the tank must be operated to build up sucient
pressure to cause the gasoline to spray through the burner tube when the valve
is opened. A piece of sheet metal or other convenient means is then used to
shield the end of the burner tube and the valve is opened slightly, allowing liquid
gasoline to collect in the fuel pan. With the valve closed and the blowtorch
placed so that it is clear of inammable material and is not subjected to violent
air currents, ignite the gasoline in the fuel pan and permit the ame from the
burning gasoline to envelop and heat the burner tube. When the burner tube is
hot, open the valve slightly, so as to permit a ne stream of gasoline to be
discharged from the tank. The gasoline should vaporize immediately and burn
with an almost colorless, light-blue ame. Be sure to open the valve wide
enough to permit satisfactory operation. When the torch is burning
satisfactorily, the valve can be opened or closed slightly in order to adjust the
ame to the desired intensity. A blue ame indicates good combustion
conditions. While the torch is in use it is necessary to work the pump a few
strokes periodically in order to maintain pressure in the tank.
To extinguish a blowtorch, close the valve. After the torch has been
extinguished, it is good practice to loosen the lling plug and relieve the
pressure within the tank. When the pressure has been relieved, the lling plug is
tightened again. The valve is then opened slightly and left open. If the valve is
not left open, the metal around the valve will contract and the valve may stick so
tight that it will be damaged.
65. Fluxes.-A ux is a chemical preparation (powder, paste, or liquid) used to
keep the metal clean so that the solder will stick to it. If a ux is not used, the
heat will cause oxides to form on the metal surface and prevent the solder from
adhering rmly. A list of common uxes and the metals on which they are used
is given in the following:
Metals Fluxes
Brass, copper, tin Rosin
Lead Tallow, rosin
Iron, steel Borax, sal-ammoniac
Galvanized iron, zinc Zinc chloride
59
Fluxes are either corrosive or non-corrosive. The commonly used corrosive
uxes; zinc chloride and sal-ammoniac, corrode the metal if allowed to remain
on it after soldering. They should therefore be completely removed by a
thorough washing after the work is done. 'It is for this reason that rosin, a
non-corrosive ux, is used when soldering electrical connections. The rosin is
used in powdered form, or as a liquid core in wire solder.
Zinc chloride can be prepared by dissolving small pieces of zinc in commercial
hydrochloric acid, commonly known as muriatic acid. The zinc should be added
a little at a time until the bubbles stop rising, and a little undissolved zinc
remains in the solution. It is important to note that the gas released when these
bubbles reach the surface is hydrogen, which is highly explosive. It is therefore
advisable to practice the same precautions as with storage batteries, that is,
keep the room well ventilated and avoid the use of open ames.
The solution should be strained and then diluted to the correct strength by
pouring it into an equal amount of water. (Always pour the acid into the water; it
is dangerous to pour water into acid.) The resultant liquid is zinc chloride, also
known as "cut-acid" or "killed acid." It is recommended that a few small pieces of
zinc be placed in the liquid in order to neutralize any free acid that may remain.
As acid uxes eat away metal, they must be stored in pottery or glass
containers.
Paste uxes, commercially manufactured, are available in cans of various sizes.
These uxes, which contain grease for counteracting corrosion, are substitutes
for acid uxes.
66. Tinning.-Tinning means to spread a thin layer of solder on the surfaces of
the metals that are to be soldered together, causing the solder to adhere to the
metal and make a rm union with it. The purpose of tinning is to prepare the
surfaces so that they will unite readily in the process of soldering and make a
rm joint. It is recommended that all metals, except lead and tin, be tinned
before soldering. Lead and tin need only to be scraped clean.
Copper, brass and ungalvanized iron may be prepared to receive solder by
cleaning the surfaces and applying zinc chloride. Galvanized iron or sheet zinc
should be cleaned with muriatic acid before the solder is applied. Where a metal
has become tarnished, it is necessary to remove the tarnish and expose the
bare, clean
60
metal before tinning it; otherwise the solder ordinarily will not adhere to the
metal.
67. Tinning the Soldering Iron.-The point of a soldering iron must be tinned
before it will do a good job of soldering, tinning in this instance referring to the
process of coating the point with solder to prevent oxidation when heated. The
general steps in the tinning procedure are as follows:
1. File the faces of the point (or rub them with emery cloth) until they are
smooth and at.
2. Heat the point hot enough to melt the solder readily, but do not heat it red
hot.
3. Rub the faces of the point on a sal-ammoniac brick, applying a small amount
of solder to the point as it is rubbed on the sal-ammoniac. The solder will form a
thin bright lm on the faces of the point.
4. If a sal-ammoniac brick is not available, the point can be tinned by rubbing it
in pulverized rosin and solder.
When a soldering iron is overheated, the tinning is destroyed. If this happens,
the point should be allowed to cool, and then should be led and retinned.
68. Dipping Solution.-When a soldering iron is heated, the scales that tend to
form on the point can be removed by dipping the point in a dipping solution,
which is made of one part of sal-ammoniac powder mixed with 40 parts of
water. Only the tip of the point should be dipped in the solution and it should be
withdrawn quickly. The tinned point will emerge bright and clean.
A soldering iron should never be dipped into zinc chloride or other acid solution,
as the acid may spatter into the eyes or on the skin and clothing, and possibly
cause blindness or severe burns.
69. Soldering Procedure.-Ordinary soldering is done by heating the material to
a temperature that will melt the solder, and then applying the solder to it. The
procedure that will help to secure strong, neat soldering is as follows:
1. Clean the surfaces to be soldered. Solder will not stick to dirt or grease. Do
not depend on the heat and ux to remove all of it.
61
2. Use a well-tinned soldering iron. In some cases it is advisable to have two of
them, heating one while soldering with the other.
3. Use the proper ux.
4. Control the heat. Do not allow the soldering irons to overheat, but have them
hot enough to melt solder readily.
5. Keep the soldered surfaces close together to insure a strong bond.
6. Do not handle or move a soldered job until the solder has "set" and has
partially cooled. Solder is weak and brittle during the process of solidication.
The ideal way to apply solder is to ow it on. To preheat the surfaces so that the
solder will ow on, the point should be held as shown in Fig. 67. When the
surfaces are hot enough, the point is moved slowly along the seam. Note that
the solder is added to the seam, and that the point is held in such a manner that
it heats the metal in advance of the owing solder. Keep one face of the point
at against the work so that the heat will be conducted rapidly to the metal.
FIG. 67. APPLYING SOLDER.
It is often easier to solder sheet metal if the seam is "tacked" rst. This is done
by applying small drops of solder at intervals along the seam, as shown in Fig.
67, one drop at a time being picked up and applied with the tip of the soldering
iron.
Sweat soldering is used when the contacting surfaces of two pieces of metal are
to be soldered together. First the surfaces are tinned and then they are placed
together and a soldering iron or blowtorch used to heat them and "sweat" them
together. Pipe ttings, lugs, and electrical terminals are soldered in this manner.
70. Electric Wire Splicing.-The proper methods of splicing
62
electric wires should be clearly understood, as breakdowns have been traced to
faulty splicing with its resulting loose connections and opening of circuits. Loose
connections also cause increased electrical resistance and may lead to a re
because of the sparking or heating that is likely to occur at such faulty joints.
The requirements of a good splice are:
1. That it be both mechanically and electrically secure without solder.
2. That it be soldered well and neatly to prevent corrosion.
Wire used for lighting and power purposes has a rubber covering which is
usually protected on the outside with cotton braid. The wire itself is made of
copper and is often tinned to prevent corrosion. In order to make a splice with
this wire, a pair of pliers and a good sharp pocketknife are necessary. The knife
is used for stripping the insulation from the wire, the sharp edge of the knife
blade being used for cutting the insulation and the back of the blade for
scraping, so as to prevent dulling of the cutting edge.
Insulation should not be cut away as shown in (1), Fig. 68, because this kind of
cut is liable to nick the wire. A wire can be easily broken if it is nicked, and the
cross section of the wire is also reduced at the nicked point, thereby increasing
the resistance to ow of current.
The correct way to cut the insulation is to whittle it o in a manner similar to
sharpening a pencil, as shown in view (2), Fig. 68. When the rubber and braid
have been removed for a sucient distance, the remaining rubber is then
scraped o until the metal shines. Do not scrape o the tinning, however.
To make a tap splice, strip about 4 inches of insulation o the end of the wire to
be connected, and strip about 1 1/2 inches of insulation o the running wire.
Hold the wires rmly and make one turn with the connecting wire on the
running wire. Then pass the end of the connecting wire beneath itself, as shown
in view (4), Fig. 68, and make about 6 turns around the running wire, in the
opposite direction. A tap splice, correctly made, is shown in view (4); an
improper splice is shown in view (3).
A xture splice is largely used in wiring xtures or in places where it is necessary
to connect wires of dierent sizes. First, strip the insulation o each of the two
wires for a distance of 5 inches and then scrape the wires clean. Hold the wires
rmly, as shown in view (5A). Then twist the wires together with the pliers,
63
FIG. 68. ELECTRIC WIRE SPLICES.
64
making three complete turns, as shown in (5B). Make sure that both wires twist.
If only one wire twists and the other remains straight, the joint will not hold and
it will be loose. Cut both ends to the same length and bend the twisted portion
close to the long wire, as shown in (5C). Straighten out the two ends, as shown in
(5D), and then wrap the ends around the long wire in the same direction as the
twist. The completed splice is shown in (5E).
The Western Union splice is the most common splice used in connecting wires.
Strip o about 5 inches of the insulation and scrape as explained previously.
Hold the wires rmly in position, as shown in (6A). Then make 5 or 6 turns with
one wire, as in (6B), and the same number of turns in the other direction with
the other wire, as in (6C). Cut the ends of the wires o short and pinch the ends
down with pliers so as to be sure that no sharp points remain to stick out and
cut through the insulating tape that is applied after the joint is soldered. Make
sure that the turns are tight and close together and that there is no movement
when the splice is nished, (6D).
In view (7), a Western Union splice is shown as it would be used in a twin
conductor. The important point to note here is that the splices are placed so
that they cannot touch each other.
71. Soldering Electrical Splices.-The following procedure should be carried out
when preparing electric wires for soldering and in soldering the connection:
1. Heat the soldering iron.
2. Clean the wires to be soldered, removing insulation and scraping the surface
of the wires, as explained previously, until they are bright and clean.
3. If the wires are not previously tinned, place a thin lm of ux on them. (Rosin
is recommended for electrical connections.) Do not use an excess of ux,
however.
4. Test the soldering iron for temperature by touching the tip to the solder. If the
iron has to be held on the solder in order to melt it, the iron is not hot enough.
However, if the solder melts at once, the iron is ready for use.
5. Tin the soldering iron, as previously explained.
6. With the iron hot and tinned, tin each wire by bringing the
65
iron in contact with the wire, at the same time touching the point of contact with
the solder.
7. Splice the two wires together, as explained previously. Then apply a thin lm
of ux and bring the soldering iron in contact with the solder and the splice, as
shown in Fig. 69. When sucient solder is melted on the splice, remove the
solder and iron. Hold the connection securely until the solder hardens.
Fig. 69. SOLDERING AN ELECTRICAL SPLICE.
If the temperature of the material being soldered is not brought up to the
melting point of the solder, the result will be a "cold soldered" connection. Such
a joint might give the appearance of proper bonding, but the electrical continuity
of the circuit would be poor, and the poorly soldered connection would oer
high resistance to a ow of electric current.
After electrical splices are soldered they should be carefully taped in order to
avoid short circuits. The splice should rst be covered with rubber tape, and
then friction tape should be wound over the rubber tape.
72. Terminals.-When an electrical conductor is to be sweated into a terminal, it
is advisable to select a terminal lug that will take all of the strands snugly in its
shank, and which at the same time has the same external diameter as the braid
on the conductor, for this gives a neat nished appearance. Use a knife to cut
away all of
66
the braid and rubber insulation for a distance equal to the depth of the hole in
the lug, as shown in Fig. 70. With the point of the knife, clean out every bit of
rubber that remains in the spaces between the outer layer of strands, and then
spread all of the strands out so that they can be cleaned thoroughly for tinning.
However, do not spread them enough to bend them much out of their original
position, as it is necessary to pack them in as close as possible when sweating
them into the terminal. It is also advisable to cut away
FIG. 70. SWEATING CONDUCTOR IN TERMINAL LUG.
the outer braid around the rubber insulation for about 3/8 inch in order to avoid
burning. If the braid should catch re while the solder is being applied, it might
burn suciently to require an extra amount of tape and result in a poor
appearance.
A blowtorch is used on this type of job, and the ame of the torch is played
freely on the copper strands, solder and ux being applied until the entire
exposed length is thoroughly tinned and all of the wires are bonded together.
While still hot, wipe the surface with a rag so that the end of the conductor will
slip into the lug. If the lug is not already tinned on the inside, clean it with emery
cloth and hold it with a pair of pliers in the blowtorch ame, applying solder and
ux until the hole is full of molten solder. Place the end of the conductor in the
ame again in order to bring it up to the same temperature as the solder in the
lug, and then insert
67
the conductor in the lug, taking care to keep the hands clear of the overowing
hot solder. Let the ame play on the terminal and lug for a few seconds in order
that the molten solder and strands of wire will mix thoroughly, and then remove
from the ame and cool with a water-soaked rag or piece of waste. The shank of
the lug should be cleaned with emery paper, and rubber tape and friction tape
applied as shown in Fig. 70. A coating of black insulating varnish should then be
added.
73. Direct Flame Soldering.-As explained in the preceding article, some
soldering work can be done more easily with a direct ame than with a soldering
iron. A blowtorch can be used on larger jobs, but in other cases an alcohol torch
is more useful.
FIG. 71. ALCOHOL TORCH.
An automatic alcohol torch, shown in Fig. 71, is a self-contained unit, with two
separate compartments. One compartment contains a supply of alcohol for the
wick, the other contains the alcohol for the jet of ame. When the wick is lighted,
the heat from its ame heats the jet tube, which causes the alcohol to vaporize
and build up a pressure. The pressure forces some of the alcohol vapor out
through the small jet opening, where it is ignited to form a hot, light blue ame.
When the ame is passed over an electrical splice, for example, and rosin core
solder applied, the joint can be soldered very eciently.
Another type of automatic soldering iron, suitable only for use with alternating
current, has two electrodes, a built-in transformer, and a pistol grip. By pressing
on the grip, a trigger switch is closed, current is passed through the electrodes,
which are shaped for convenient application to the joint, and almost
instantaneous soldering is achieved.
74. Safety Precautions.-Fuel used in blowtorches or similar equipment
presents a dangerous re hazard, so it must be used and
68
stored with the greatest care. Do not ll a blowtorch or an alcohol torch near an
open ame or where a spark might ignite it. Do not attempt to solder a can or
tank that has contained gasoline, alcohol, etc., unless it is rst thoroughly
steamed for several hours. Be sure to disconnect an electric soldering iron when
through using it. Be careful where a hot soldering iron is placed; it may start a
re or burn yourself or a shipmate.
75. Welding.-The term fusion welding is often encountered in marine
engineering texts, and means that the parts to be welded are melted together,
sometimes with the addition of extra metal. Welders often do this work with
electric arc welding equipment or with oxyacetylene gas torches.
Electric arc welding is used on the joints of large pipe lines, for repairing iron
and steel castings, and for welding other structures and plates. An arc welding
set-up is shown schematically in Fig. 72.
Most arc welding is done with metal electrode ller rods, which are coated with
ux suitable to the material being welded. The electrode is held in a spring-jaw
holder which is connected by a heavy insulated cable to the generator or other
power source. To
FIG. 72. ARC WELDING SET-UP.
69
provide a return for the arc current, another cable, called the ground, connects
the metal being welded to the power source. The ground cable has a clamp-type
terminal for easy attachment and removal.
The end of the metal electrode and nearby portions of the metal being welded
are melted by the heat of the arc, and they are thus fused together. The
electrode supplies the extra metal that is usually required to make a strong
weld.
The arc of arc-welding equipment has a temperature of about 5,000F, and a
few minutes exposure to the ultra-violet rays of the arc will produce a
"sunburn." To protect the face and eyes, arc welders wear a heavy face mask
with a dark glass window. They also wear leather jackets and aprons to protect
their bodies from the heat.
Oxyacetylene welding, or gas welding, is done with a welding torch, which mixes
the acetylene and oxygen gases to provide fuel for the ame. Two heavy hoses
are connected to the torch, one leading to the acetylene supply, the other to the
oxygen supply. Portable gas welding units have high-pressure steel containers
of the gases, often mounted' on a two-wheel cart, as shown in Fig. 73.
FIG. 73. PORTABLE OXYACETYLENE WELDING UNIT.
70
Regulating valves control the pressure released from the steel asks to the hose
lines, while hand valves on the torch regulate the amount of each gas that is
released inside the torch and also control the mixture.
Additional metal necessary for gas welds is obtained from a welding rod, the
rods being selected by diameter and by the kind of material suitable to the
welding job. Fluxes are used as required.
An oxyacetylene ame is capable of producing a maximum temperature of
about 6,300F, the size of the ame being regulated by the torch valves and by
the size of the tip used on the torch.
An explanation of the symbols and other terms used in fusion welding will be
found in Marine Engineering Tables.
76. Brazing.-Brazing, a process by which two metal parts are united by the
addition of molten metal, but without fusion of the parts themselves, may be
accomplished by means of a welding torch. The ller metal, known as spelter,
has a lower melting point than the metal being brazed. Most brazing is done on
iron or steel parts, using brass or bronze ller metal rod, and the temperature
required is from 1,700F to 1,800F.
Silver solder, an alloy of tin, zinc and copper, is also used for brazing, melting at a
temperature of from 1,160 to 1,510F. Powdered borax is used as a ux for
brazing and silver soldering, and commercial uxes are also available.
Sal-ammoniac may be used as a ux for brazing copper.
After the ux has been applied, the parts to be brazed are heated to a
temperature above the melting point of the ller metal rod. The rod is then
melted by the heat of the part, and the molten ller metal ows smoothly along
the uxed crack or joint.
77. Abrasives.-Abrasives are materials that wear away other materials by
frictional contact. They must be harder than the material on which they are
used, and vary from coarse grits used for fast cutting, to powders as ne as
talcum and used only for polishing. The abrasive particles are used in the form
of powder, paste, sheets, belts, disks, grinding wheels, etc.
There are both natural and articial abrasives. Flint and garnet grits of ordinary
sandpaper, also emery and corundum, are natural abrasives, and silicon carbide
and aluminum oxide are articial abrasives.
71
The size of an abrasive particle, or grain, is determined and designated by the
number of the mesh through which the grain will pass. If a sieve has 46 spaces
per linear inch, the grains that just pass through that mesh are size 46. Abrasive
grains range in size from 4 to 280; abrasive ours, powdery ne, range from 280
to 600. There are 28 standard sizes, and it will be found that the grain size is
marked on abrasive sheets, disks, grinding wheels, etc.
GARNET
SILICON CARBIDE
ALUMINUM OXIDE
FLINT
PAPER
EMERY
CLOTH
400
320 or 10/0
240 or 7/0 5/0 VERY FINE
220 or 6/0 4/0
3/0
180 or 5/0 3/0
150 or 4/0 2/0
2/0 FINE
120 or 3/0
0 0
100 or 2/0
1/2 1/2
80 or 0 1
1 1 1/2
60 or 1/2 MEDIUM
2
50 or 1 1 1/2
40 or 1 1/2 2 2 1/2
36 or 2 COARSE
30 or 2 1/2 3 3
24 or 3 3 1/2
20 or 3 1/2 VERY COARSE
16 or 4
FIG. 74. ABRASIVE GRAIN SIZES.
The left-hand column of Fig. 74 includes the commonly used sizes of abrasives.
Note that the systems used for int paper and emery cloth vary somewhat from
the system used for garnet paper and articial abrasives.
Ordinary int and garnet sandpapers are made by using hide glue to bond the
grains to a tough paper backing sheet. As this type of bond disintegrates when
used with liquids, the better grades of garnet paper are bonded with special
resins, and may be used with water or oil for wet sanding.
78. Grinding Wheels.-The term "emery wheel" is often incorrectly used in
referring to grinding wheels, for emery wheels have
72
been largely replaced by aluminum oxide and silicon carbide wheels. Aluminum
oxide wheels are best for grinding materials of high tensile strength, such as
carbon steels, alloy steels, malleable iron, wrought iron, tough bronze, and
tungsten. Silicon carbide wheels are used to grind materials of low tensile
strength, such as aluminum, bakelite, brass, common bronze, cast iron, copper,
leather, and rubber.
Grinding wheels are graded according to softness and hardness. Soft wheels
should be operated at slower speeds, as the grains wear away rapidly and the
wheel is easily broken. Medium-hard and hard wheels are operated at higher
speeds.
The abrasive grains of grinding wheels are held together by special bonds, and
the type of bond aects the uses of the wheel. Shellac bond wheels are used for
sharpening tools and nish grinding. Silicate bond wheels are used when the
heat generated in grinding must be kept at a minimum, large diameter,
slow-turning wheels usually being of this type. Vitried wheels are bonded with
clay or int at high temperatures. These wheels are porous and do not clog with
metal as rapidly as other wheels. Vitried wheels of coarse grain are used where
rapid removal of metal is desired. Fine-grain wheels are used for precision
grinding.
Vulcanite wheels are bonded with rubber by a vulcanizing process, and are strong
and tough. Thin wheels used for "cutting-o" and for high-speed grinding are
rubber-bonded. Resinoid wheels are bonded with synthetic resins, and may be
operated at high speeds. They are especially good for fast rough grinding.
A 14- or 16-grain wheel should be used for coarse, rough grinding on castings,
etc., while a 24-grain wheel is satisfactory for general shop work. A 46-grain
wheel is recommended for most small-tool grinding, and a 60-grain wheel for
grinding twist drills and lathe cutting tools. A tabulation giving the
manufacturer's markings which enable the various types, grades and grain sizes
of grinding wheels to be identied, will be found in Marine Engineering Tables.
Slow-turning oil-stone wheels, which are soft and porous, are best for grinding
keen edges on plane irons, knives, and other wood cutting tools. An abrasive
wheel of this kind should be soaked with kerosene while it is being used.
Grinding wheels are also manufactured in a great variety of shapes, sizes, and
bores (diameter of arbor hole), sectional views of several dierent types being
shown in Fig. 75.
73
FIG. 75. GRINDING WHEELS.
79. Bench Grinder.-An ordinary bench grinder mounts two wheels of the same
size, shape, and bore, as shown in Fig. 76. They are from 1/2 to 1 inch thick, 6, 8,
or 10 inches in diameter, and have an arbor hole of 1/2 to 1 inch in diameter.
Usually one wheel is coarse for rough grinding, the other ne for tool
sharpening and nish grinding.
Bench grinders should be suciently heavy and rigid to minimize vibration, and
should be securely mounted in place. They should be provided with shields and
guards for the safety of personnel. The shield should be adjustable and
provided with nonshatterable glass. Tool rests should be kept adjusted close to
the
FIG. 76. BENCH GRINDER AND WHEEL MOUNTING.
74
wheel, the space between wheel and tool rest being about 1/16 inch, never over
1/8 inch. This prevents the work from being caught between the wheel and the
rest. The tool rest should be securely clamped after each adjustment. The
adjustment should never be made while the wheel is in motion.
The ends of the shaft should be threaded so that the nuts on both ends will tend
to tighten as the shaft revolves. In other words, to remove the nuts they should
both be turned in the direction the shaft revolves when the wheel is in motion.
80. Mounting Grinding Wheels.-Before mounting them on the shaft, grinding
wheels should be closely inspected to make sure that they have not been
damaged in any way, and all contacting surfaces of the wheel and grinder
should be checked to see that they are free from foreign material. Some
mechanics tap a new wheel lightly with a small piece of metal and check for the
"ring" that indicates a sound wheel. The wheels should t freely on the shaft;
they should not be forced on, nor should they be too loose.
A thin cushion of compressible material should be tted between the wheel and
the washers, as shown in Fig. 76. If blotting paper is used for this purpose, it
should not be thicker than 0.025 inch. If rubber or leather is used, it should not
be thicker than 1/8 inch. When tightening the nuts that hold the wheel, care
should be taken to tighten them just enough to hold the wheel rmly; an
excessive clamping strain may damage the wheel or its associated parts. After
mounting a wheel, care should be taken that the guards and shields are
properly replaced.
81. Speeds of Grinding Wheels.-Grinding wheels should not be operated at
peripheral speeds that exceed those listed in the following, except upon distinct
recommendation of the grinding wheel manufacturer. Speeds are given in feet
per minute (fpm).
Vitried and Silicate Bonds
Soft Medium-hard Hard
5,500 fpm 6,000 fpm 6,500 fpm
Vulcanite and Resinoid Bonds
Soft Medium-hard Hard
6,500 fpm 8,000 fpm 9,500 fpm
75
Note that the speeds stated are the maximum speeds based on the strength of
the wheels and not on their cutting eciency. The best speeds for cutting may
be considerably lower.
To determine the revolutions per minute (rpm) needed to obtain a given
peripheral speed with a wheel of a given diameter, the following tabulation may
be used:
For a peripheral speed of Divide
2,500 feet per minute 9,550 by diameter of wheel, in inches
3,000 11,460
3,500 13,370
4,000 15,280
4,500 17,190
5,000 19,100
5,500 21,010
6,000 22,920
6,500 24,830
7,000 26,740
7,500 28,650
8,000 30,560
8,500 32,470
9,000 34,380
9,500 36,290
To use the tabulation in connection with an 8-inch wheel, for example, to nd
the revolutions per minute needed to give a peripheral speed of 6,000 fpm, note
the number opposite 6,000, which is 22,920, and divide the number by 8.
(22,920 / 8 = 2,865). An 8-inch wheel is therefore operated at 2,865 rpm in order
to have a peripheral speed of 6,000 fpm.
The table can also be used to determine the largest wheel that can safely be
used on a grinder which turns at a constant speed. This is done by dividing the
factor corresponding to the desired peripheral speed by the spindle speed. For
example, if the maximum safe peripheral speed for a certain type of wheel is
5,500 fpm and the spindle speed is 3,500 rpm, then 21,010 / 3,500 = 6, and a
6-inch wheel is the largest that can safely be used under the given conditions.
If the spindle speed is adjustable, it may be speeded up as the wheel wears
down, thus maintaining the most ecient peripheral speed. Under these
conditions it is extremely important, when
76
the worn-out wheel is replaced with a new one of larger diameter, that the
spindle speed be reduced to prevent the wheel from breaking. It is strongly
recommended that the means of adjusting spindle speed be locked up and
placed in the control of an authorized person only.
82. Precautions in Use of Grinding Wheels.-All new wheels should be run at
full operating speed for at least 1 minute, during which time the operator should
stand at one side, out of the path of ying pieces, in case the wheel should be
defective and break. If the wheel is chipped, or uneven in any way, it should be
dressed before the grinding of ne tools is attempted.
When grinding is being done, the work should not be forced against a cold
wheel, but applied gradually, giving the wheel an opportunity to warm up. This
precaution minimizes the chance of breakage, and especially applies when
working in a cold room, or when using new wheels that have been stored in a
cool place.
Grinding on the at sides of straight wheels is often hazardous and should not
be allowed when the sides of the wheel are appreciably worn or when any
considerable or sudden pressure is brought to bear against the sides of the
wheels.
All arbors, adapters, or other machine parts on which wheels t, should be
periodically inspected and maintained to size. Also, if a grinding wheel should
break, a careful inspection should be made to make sure that the hood has not
been damaged, nor the anges bent or sprung out of true or out of balance. The
spindle and nuts should also be carefully inspected.
Wheels used in wet grinding should not be allowed to stand partly immersed in
the water. The water-soaked portion may throw the wheel dangerously out of
balance.
All wet tool grinders which are not so designed as to provide a constant supply
of fresh water, should be thoroughly drained at the end of each day's work and
a fresh supply provided just before starting.
83. Dressing a Grinding Wheel.-When a grinding wheel gets out-of-balance or
out-of-round, it is necessary to dress, or true, the wheel. This can be done by
means of a "star" type steel dressing tool, as shown in Fig. 77. To dress the
wheel, the tool is held against the grinding wheel and moved sideways across
the periphery as the wheel revolves. The work must be done carefully, however,
and
77
FIG. 77. GRINDING-WHEEL DRESSING TOOLS.
the operation requires considerable skill. Wheels which cannot be balanced by
dressing should be removed from the machine.
After a grinding wheel has been used for some time it will become clogged with
metal, dirt, grease, etc., or the abrasive grains will become rounded or dull. The
dressing tool may then be used to clean and sharpen the wheel, as it will cut
away the clogged surface and break up the rounded grains so that new, sharp
cutting edges are exposed.
A precision grinding wheel may be dressed by a special tool in which diamonds
are mounted, the tool being mounted in a xture designed for the purpose.
84. Oil Stones.-An oil stone is often used to sharpen ne cutting tools or to
"stone down" shoulders, small scars, or other imperfections, on crankpins,
journals, and other engine parts. Oil stones are classied as articial and natural
stones, which means that they are either manufactured by bonding together
such abrasives as aluminum oxide or silicon carbide, or are made from pieces of
natural stone. Both types are available in various grades of hardness and
neness and in a variety of shapes. A very convenient form of oil stone is the
"combination" stone, which is coarse on one side and ne on the other.
The operation of using an oil stone to bring the cutting edges of tools to a ne
degree of keenness is known as honing. Tools may
78
be honed to remove the feather-edge left by the grinder, or may be sharpened
on the oil stone without recourse to the grinder.
To hone a chisel, knife, scraper or other cutting tool, it is customary to work rst
on the coarse side of a combination oil stone, as this side cuts more rapidly, and
then bring the tool to a very keen edge on the smooth side of the stone. To
prevent glazing of the stone and to oat away the minute pieces of steel that are
ground o during the honing operation, a' little water or oil is used on the stone
in the process. Water is used on coarse-grained natural stones; oil is used on
medium and ne-grained natural stones and on all articial stones.
Considerable practice and skill is required to produce the desired keen edge on
a ne cutting tool, the exact procedure depending partly upon the type of tool
involved. To sharpen a chisel or similar tool on an articial stone, for example,
place a few drops of light oil on the stone and hold the tool so that the ground
area, or facet, at the blade's cutting edge bears evenly against the stone. Apply
only a moderate pressure, and with the cutting edge leading, stroke the tool on
the stone, relieving the pressure as the tool is brought back, with a sliding
motion, for the next forward stroke. After a few strokes on one side, turn the
tool over and hone the other side. As the strokes are continued, frequently
reversing the side being honed, the cutting edge will gradually be improved.
During the last part of the honing, less pressure is used, and as a nal touch,
with the facet held lightly on the stone, the blade is given one forward diagonal
stroke, rst on one side and then the other.
In order to keep the surface of an oil stone at and even, tools should be
sharpened on the whole surface of the stone, not in the middle part only. This is
aided by turning the stone end for end occasionally. However, if the surface of
an oil stone should become uneven, it may be trued by rubbing the stone
against a at and true sandstone or emery brick, or by grinding it against the
side of a grindstone.
By taking proper care of an oil stone, glazing will be prevented, the sharpness of
the grit retained, and the life of the stone lengthened. However, if dirty oil is left
on the stone after it is used, the dust will be carried into the stone as the oil
dries. It is therefore advisable to wipe o an oil stone thoroughly as soon as
possible after using it. Also, if an oil stone is left exposed to the air or allowed to
remain dry for a long period, it will tend to become
79
hard. It should therefore be kept in a box having a closed cover, with a few
drops of clean oil left on the surface of the stone.
If an oil stone should become glazed or gummed up, a good cleaning with
gasoline or ammonia will help to restore its cutting qualities. Turpentine should
not be used on an oil stone, however, as it causes the stone to deteriorate
rapidly. If necessary, the stone can be scoured on sandpaper fastened to a
perfectly smooth board, or on loose emery spread on a at surface.
85. Coated Abrasives.-Emery, a natural abrasive, is a black or grayish-black
variety of corundum. When ground to a powder, it is used for grinding and
polishing. It is relatively soft when compared to silicon carbide and aluminum
oxide, and is therefore more useful with soft metals than with hard metals. It is
not suitable for use with wood.
Emery is bonded with glue to form a coating on both cloth and paper backings,
emery cloth in 9 in. X 11 in. sheets being the most common form. Emery cloth is
valuable for polishing metals, but when a cutting cloth is desired, aluminum
oxide should be used.
Crocus cloth is an extremely ne polishing abrasive, the cloth backing being
coated with ferrous oxide. It is used like emery cloth, but is so ne that its
surface feels smooth to the nger tips.
Flint sandpaper is coated with crushed quartz, the abrasive being bonded to the
paper with glue. It is generally used for sanding of wood and paint, and is
commonly applied in the forms of sheets (9 in. X 11 in. is the standard size).
Sandpaper comes in several grits, or degrees of neness. No. 4/0 is the nest
grit, Nos. 3/0, 2/0, 1/0, 1/2, 1 1/2, 2, 2 1/2, and 3, being progressively coarser
grits.
Glue-bonded abrasives absorb and give o moisture rapidly, and their work
value is dependent in great measure on their moisture content. They should be
stored, if possible, in a cool, even temperature, where the relative humidity will
be somewhere between 35 and 65 per cent. If sandpaper is stored near steam
lines, for example, where it will dry out, it loses practically all of its work value
and cannot be brought back by adding moisture. If it absorbs too much
moisture, however, it can be slowly dried out to the proper degree of moisture
and the work value will be considerably restored.
86. Other Abrasives.-Valve-grinding compound is made of ne
80
abrasive powders (emery or articial) mixed with oil or grease. The abrasive
action is obtained by coating the valve face with compound and rubbing it
against the valve seat.
Rouge is a polishing material used for very ne work on metal surfaces. It is
made of ferric oxide and supplied in bar form.
87. Goggles.-The purpose of wearing goggles is to protect the wearer from ying
particles. dust, gases, corrosive liquids, and injurious light rays. As most eye
injuries that have occurred aboard ship could have been prevented by the
wearing of goggles, they should be worn when using grinders, drills, lathes, or
other machine tools; when working in boilers, changing gauge glasses, using air
hose and mixing boiler compound; and while scaling, chipping and wire
brushing, scrubbing with strong cleansers, particularly overhead, painting
overhead, welding, etc.
88. Types of Goggles.-Cup goggles with hardened glass lenses give considerable
protection against impact, as they can withstand very heavy blows. If properly
tted, they also keep out small particles. This type of goggle should be used
where there is danger of heavy ying pieces, such as bolt and rivet heads, or
where high-velocity paint chips or steel splinters may possibly result from such
operations as chipping or chiseling. Cup goggles are also made in the cover glass
type so that a man who must wear prescription glasses while working can be
protected with goggles. Although these are heavier than regular cup goggles,
they often t some men better than the regular type and may be preferred
whether or not glasses are worn.
Lightweight goggles, made entirely of transparent plastic, do not provide the
maximum protection of cup goggles, but have a wide range of vision, good
ventilation, and should provide ample protection against normal hazards of
scaling, painting, grinding, etc. These goggles can be worn over prescription
spectacles and are adaptable to a wide range of facial sizes.
Spectacle-type goggles with hardened glass lenses can be obtained with or
without side shields, and come in various sizes of lens and bridge. As they can
be folded and carried in a case, they are particularly suited for the use of
personnel who inspect or supervise jobs on which the men are required to wear
goggles.
For men who have to wear prescription glasses on the job, there are available
corrective lenses that have been hardened to make
81
the glass just as strong as in ordinary goggles. In addition to protection for the
eyes, which might be cut should a blow break the dress glasses, these special
goggles are not subject to breakage should they be dropped accidentally.
It should be noted that the better grades of goggles have curved rather than at
lenses, the glass being curved to increase the strength and resistance to impact.
These lenses are curved the same amount on both surfaces and therefore do
not aect the vision.
89. Fitting Goggles.-In the majority of cases where men complain of headaches
or eyestrain from wearing goggles, the cause is not in defective lenses but rather
in a poor t which causes excessive pressure on the nose or forehead. Proper
adjustment can usually correct the trouble..
Cup goggles can be adjusted only by changing the distance between the eye
cups. This is usually done by removing the lens retaining rings and lengthening
or shortening the chain that connects the eye cups.
The lightweight plastic goggles have no adjustment other than the tension of the
head band. The band should be adjusted so that when it rests above the ears
and low around the back of the head it is possible to slip two ngers easily
under it.
Spectacle-type goggles come in three bridge sizes, of which the medium or
23-mm size will t the majority of individuals. Steel frame goggles usually have
adjustable nose pads which can be twisted with needle-nose pliers until the
pads rest at against the sides of the nose. The bows are adjusted to t the ears
by bending gently between the ngers, and the vertical angle of the goggles is
changed by bending the bows where they join the rims.
90. Care of Goggles.-Goggles should be kept clean by the men to whom they
are issued; soap and water are satisfactory for the purpose. Before the goggles
are issued to another man, however, they should be sterilized. This is done by
immersing the goggles in a solution made by diluting one part of 40%
formaldehyde in 9 parts of water, or by immersing them in a 10% solution of
Lysol. The disinfectant should then be washed o with soap and water and a
new head band installed.
One of the chief objections to goggles is that they fog up in hot weather. There is
no absolute cure for this condition, although
82
several special preparations which reduce fogging to a considerable extent are
available. Plain castile soap rubbed on and then wiped clear with a soft cloth will
also help. The use of sweat bands on the forehead will stop perspiration from
dripping on the lenses.
When lenses become scratched or pitted and head bands become worn or dirty,
it is not necessary to discard the goggles. Spare lenses, head bands, and other
parts of high-grade goggles can be obtained and replacements can be made. By
having a supply of spares on hand, goggles can be kept in good condition at all
times.
83
ENGINE-ROOM TOOLS, PART 1
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Instructions : -Study the lesson very carefully before considering the
examination questions. Then read each question slowly and be sure that you
understand it. When answering the questions, always take sucient time,
prepare the answers in your own words, and do your best work. In arranging
your answers, please leave space between them so that the instructor will be
able to write in helpful explanation, should you make an error or overlook an
important point. After the answers are completed, check them again very carefully;
make sure that all questions are taken care of; correct each error that you nd; and
mail your work to us.
1. What general precautions should be taken when using tools on engine-room
equipment or at an upper level in the engine room?
2. Explain the main advantages of using a torque wrench on an engine.
3. (a) Explain how a new grinding wheel is installed, and what adjustments are
necessary.
(b) What precautions should be taken when rst using the new grinding wheel?
4. What is the maximum permissible speed, in rpm, for operation of a 7-inch
hard vitried-bond grinding wheel?
5. A bench grinder turns at 3,300 rpm and is equipped with medium-hard
vulcanite-bond grinding wheels. What is the largest wheel that can safely be
used?
6. Describe the procedure followed when using a bench grinder to sharpen a
cold chisel.
84
7. (a) What special precaution should be taken when holding heavy work in a
vise?
(b) Explain how a vise should be cleaned and oiled.
8. What are soft jaws, and where and why used?
9. (a) How should the drill table be protected when a drill press is used?
(b) What is a pilot hole and how is it used?
10. (a) Explain how to locate the exact position where a hole is to be drilled.
(b) Explain how to check to make sure a drill is drilling in the exact desired
position.
(c) How is a drill drawn into the proper drilling position, if it tends to "walk
away"?
11. What will be the indications that the following items are wrong with a drill? .
(a) Length of lips unequal.
(b) Insucient lip clearance angle.
(c) Cutting edges have dierent angles.
12. (a) Explain the procedure to be followed when lighting o a gasoline
blowtorch.
(b) When a blowtorch is extinguished at the end of a job, what precautions
should be taken?
13. (a) What type of ux is used when soldering electrical connections? Why?
(b) Explain the complete operation of making and soldering an electrical
connection.
14. (a) What is silver solder? (b) How is it used?
85
15. (a) Explain the precautions that should be taken when "breaking in" a new
le.
(b How should les be stored when not in use?
16. (a) What is "pinning"?
(b) What can be done to prevent it?
17. (a) An open-end wrench is stamped with the number 2, indicating width of
opening, in inches. It will t the nut of what size stud? Show all work.
(b) An open-end wrench is needed for use on the nuts of 1-inch studs. How
would the wrench be marked? Show work.
18. What wrench should be used for tightening the nuts on manhole plates and
handhole plates of a boiler? Why?
19: (a) When placing a hacksaw blade in the frame, which way must the teeth
point?
(b) What is the dierence between the all-hard hacksaw blade and the exible
blade?
(c) What kind of blade is recommended for cutting heavy cross-section stock?
(d) What kind of blade is recommended for stock with a light cross section?
20. (a) What is meant by the pitch of a hacksaw blade?
(b) What is meant by the set of a hacksaw blade?
21. (a) Explain the care to be given an oil stone after it has been used.
(b) How are the cutting powers of a glazed oil stone restored?
22. What type of nippers are used to cut drill rod or piano wire?
23. Explain how an "old man" is used.
86
24. How should goggles be sterilized?
25. What precautions should be taken when storing the reserve supply of
sandpaper and emery cloth?
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