248

10 Weathering
A new building gradually deteriorates. The paint chips and peels, wood dries and splits, and
even brick, building stone, and cement eventually decay and crumble. Left alone, most
buildings decompose into a pile of rubble within a few hundred years. This process of natur-
al decay is called weathering. Weathering is a general term describing all of the changes
that result from the exposure of rock materials to the atmosphere.
The spires and columns of Bryce Canyon National Park in Utah vividly show how
weathering modifies a rock body. Once a solid mass of sedimentary rock, these spires and
columns were largely created by the gradual decomposition of rock by reactions with water
and air. The loose material fell downslope and was eventually carried away by streams.
Here, weathering is controlled by vertical joints and by differences in the various layers of
colorful sedimentary strata. The intersecting joint systems produce a series of columns that
are modified during weathering into an infinite variety of forms by different bedding
characteristics. Take a moment to study this photograph. Can you see that the columns are
aligned in rows parallel to joint systems? Can you recognize certain horizons in the
249
sedimentary strata that weather much more rapidly than others? Can you see joint systems
being enlarged by weathering to separate the rocks into columns? Weathering has pro-
duced this remarkable landscape, but the effects of weathering can be seen everywhere.
From a geologic point of view, weathering is important because it transforms the solid
bedrock into small, decomposed fragments and prepares those fragments for removal by
the agents of erosion.
It would be difficult to overemphasize the importance of weathering to humans. Without
weathering, Earth would be forbidding indeed. The continents would be bare, hard rock, for
no soil cover could develop; consequently, Earth would be devoid of plant and animal life.
In addition to producing the soil on which agriculture depends, weathering produces some
other very practical products. Sand, gravel, and clay deposits are the indirect results of
weathering. Practically all aluminum ore, most iron ore, and some copper ore are formed
and concentrated by weathering. Consequently, it is important for us to understand this
important component of Earths systems.
The Nature of Weathering
To appreciate how geologic processes erode the surface of Earth, and how the
landscape evolves, one first needs to understand the nature of weatheringthe
disintegration and decomposition of rocks. By definition, weathering is different
from erosion. Weathering involves only the breakdown of rock, whereas erosion
involves the removal of debris produced by the breakdown. In reality, however,
weathering and erosion are intimately involved with one another. Weathering dis-
integrates solid rock and produces loose debris. Erosion by running water, wind,
and ice removes the debris and exposes fresh rock, which is then weathered, and
the cycle continues. The results of weathering are seen everywhere, from the de-
bris along hill slopes to decomposed monuments of antiquity (Figure 10.1).
Like metamorphism, its counterpart deep within the crust, weathering reflects
adjustments of rocks exposed to a new environment. Minerals in rocks are in equi-
librium with where they originate (in terms of temperature, pressure, and chemi-
cal environment, for example). If they are exposed to a different environment, the
elements in minerals will slowly adjust to different forms that are stable under the
new conditions. In weathering, rocks adjust and are altered to forms more stable
at low pressure, low and fluctuating temperatures, and the chemical environment
250
1. Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of rocks at Earths surface through
physical and chemical reactions with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere.
2. Physical weathering is the mechanical fragmentation of rocks from stress
acting on them. Ice wedging may be the most important type.
3. Chemical weathering involves chemical reactions with minerals that pro-
gressively decompose the solid rock. The major types of chemical weather-
ing are dissolution, acid hydrolysis, and oxidation.
4. Joints and fractures facilitate weathering because they permit water and
gases in the atmosphere to attack a rock body at considerable depth. They
also greatly increase the surface area on which chemical reactions can occur.
5. The major products of weathering are spheroidal rock forms, a blanket of
regolith, and dissolved ions. Soil is the upper part of the regolitha mixture
of clay minerals, weathered rock particles, and organic matter.
6. Climate and rock type greatly influence the type and rate of weathering.
MAJOR CONCEPTS
(A) Weathering is especially obvious on old monuments in
Europe. Here, most of the details on the gargoyles of the Notre
Dame Cathedral in Paris have been erased by weathering.
(B) Weathering is apparent from the fallen debris on many slopes. Here the
resistant sandstone butte is shrinking as weathering separates fragments that
fall and accumulate at the base of the cliff.
FIGURE 10.1 The effects of weathering are seen whenever rocks are exposed. These photographs show typical examples.

Weat her i ng 251
with abundant water that prevails at Earths surface. Thus, metamorphic rocks and
igneous intrusions are generally most susceptible to weathering.
Weathering, then, involves a multitude of physical, chemical, and biological
processes, but two main types of weathering are recognized: (1) physical weath-
ering and (2) chemical weathering. Physical (or mechanical) weathering breaks
the rock mass into small particles. It is strictly a physical process involving no
change in chemical composition. Chemical weathering alters the rock by chemi-
cal reactions between elements in the atmosphere and those in the rocks. Most ge-
ologists believe that chemical weathering is most important in terms of total
amount of rock breakdown. In most places, however, the two processes work
together, each facilitating the other, so that the final product results from a com-
bination of the two processes.
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
Physical weathering is the breakdown of rock into small fragments by
physical processes without a change in chemical composition. No chemical
elements are added to, or subtracted from, the rock. The most important
types of physical weathering are ice wedging and sheeting, or unloading.
Ice Wedging
Figure 10.2 includes a simple diagram showing how ice wedging breaks a rock
mass into small fragments. Water from rain or melting snow easily penetrates
cracks, bedding planes, and other openings in the rock. As it freezes, it expands
about 9%, exerting great pressure on the rock walls, similar to the pressure
produced by driving a wedge into a crack. Eventually, the fractured blocks and
(B) The effects of ice wedging in the Teton Range in Wyoming are seen in both the rugged surface of
the mountain peaks and the accumulation of fragmented debris at the base of the cliff. The rock that
forms the mountain range is a massive granite cut by numerous fractures. Ice wedging, controlled in
part by the fractures, produces the sharp, angular texture of the mountain peaks. The debris derived
from ice wedging has accumulated in conical slopes near the base of the cliff. (Courtesy of U.S.
Department of Agriculture)
(A) Ice wedging occurs when water seeps
into fractures and expands as it freezes. The
expanding wedge forces the rock apart and
produces loose, angular fragments that
move downslope by gravity and accumulate
at the base of the cliff as talus cones.
FIGURE 10.2 Ice wedging is an
important type of physical weathering in
areas where temperatures rise above and
fall below the freezing point.
What is the difference between sheeting
and stratification?
FIGURE 10.3 Growth of salt crystals
has shattered these fence posts near the
shore of the Great Salt Lake, Utah. Salty
groundwater seeps into the wood, and, as it
evaporates, salt crystals grow, expand, and
break apart the wood fibers.
252 Chapt er 10
bedding planes are pried free from the parent material. The stress generated each
time the water freezes is approximately 110 kg/cm
2
, roughly equivalent to that
produced by dropping a 98-kg ball of iron (about the size of a large sledgehammer)
from a height of 3 m. Stress is exerted with each freeze, so that, over a period of
time, the rock is literally hammered apart.
Ice wedging occurs under the following conditions: (1) when there is an adequate
supply of moisture; (2) where preexisting fractures, cracks, or other voids into
which water can enter occur within the rock; and (3) where temperatures fre-
quently rise and fall beyond the freezing point. Temperature fluctuation above
and below the freezing point is especially important because pressure is applied
with each freeze. In areas where freezing and thawing occur many times a year, ice
wedging is far more effective than in exceptionally cold areas, where water is per-
manently frozen. Ice wedging thus occurs most frequently above the timberline. It
is especially active on the steep slopes above valley glaciers, where meltwater pro-
duced during the warm summer days seeps into cracks and joints and freezes dur-
ing the night (Figure 10.2).
The process of ice wedging has been known for years, and more than 100 years
ago, ice wedging was used in some quarrying operations. Workers would drill a se-
ries of holes along the line of a desired cut and fill them with water. The expansion
accompanying freezing would split the rock apart almost as cleanly as modern
methods.
In arid regions, the growth of salt crystals in pores and cracks can also pry apart
rock. The crystals grow by evaporation of the salt-laden spray that accumulates in
the fractures of rocks exposed along the shores of salty lakes or the sea. This process
is vividly expressed in the shattering of fence posts near the shore of the Great
Salt Lake (Figure 10.3).
Sheeting
Rocks formed deep within Earths crust are under great confining pressure from
the weight of thousands of meters of overlying rocks. As this overlying cover is re-
moved by erosion, the confining pressure is released, and the buried rock body
tends to expand. The internal stresses, set up by expansion, can cause large fractures,
or expansion joints, parallel to Earths surface (Figure 10.4). The result is known
as sheeting. It can be observed directly in quarries, where the removal of large
blocks is sometimes followed by the rapid, almost explosive expansion of the quar-
ry floor. A sheet of rock several centimeters thick may burst up, and at the same
time, numerous new parallel fractures will appear deeper in the rock body. The
same process occasionally causes rock bursts in mines and tunnels, when the con-
fining pressure is released during the tunneling operation. It can also be seen in
many valley walls and in excavations for roads, where rock slumping, due to sheet-
ing, can cause serious highway problems.
Other Types of Physical Weathering
Animals and plants play a variety of relatively minor roles in physical weather-
ing. Burrowing animals, such as rodents, mechanically mix the soil and loose rock
particles, a process that facilitates further breakdown by chemical means. Pressure
from growing roots widens cracks and contributes to the rock breakdown. Lichens
can live on the surface of bare rock and extract nutrients from its minerals by ion
exchange; the presence of lichens, therefore, results in both physical and chemi-
cal alteration of the minerals. These processes may seem trivial, but the work of
innumerable plants and animals over a long period of time adds significantly to
the disintegration of the rock. Although dismissed by some geologists, recent
evidence is mounting that thermal expansion and contraction of the rock caused
by daily or seasonal temperature changes may also be an effective process of
physical weathering.
How does physical weathering break
down a mass of solid rock into small
fragments?
Weat her i ng 253
Talus
The products of physical weathering are best seen in high mountain country, where
ice wedging dominates and produces a large volume of angular rock fragments. This
material commonly accumulates in a pile at the base of the cliffs from which it was
derived. Because most cliffs are notched by steep valleys and narrow ravines, the
fragments dislodged from the high valley walls are funneled through the ravines
to the base of the cliff, where they accumulate in cone-shaped deposits known as
talus cones (Figure 10.5).
Talus cones are built up by isolated blocks loosened by physical weathering.
The blocks commonly fall separately, as almost any mountain climber can testify,
but large masses of the material on steep slopes may be moved by an avalanche.
Earthquakes may also suddenly activate large numbers of blocks loosened by
many seasons of ice wedging.
In the example shown in Figure 10.5, all of the talus has accumulated since the
last ice age, which terminated 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. This is a considerable
amount of material produced by physical weathering alone.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the breakdown of minerals by chemical reactions
with the atmosphere or hydrosphere. The three main types of chemical
reactions are (1) dissolution, (2) hydrolysis, and (3) oxidation.
During chemical weathering, rocks are decomposed, the internal structure of the
minerals is destroyed, and new minerals are created. Thus, there is a significant
change in the chemical composition and physical appearance of the rock.
Dissolution
Dissolution is a process whereby a mineral passes completely into solution, like salt
dissolving in water. Some minerals dissolve directly in water and the ions are
leached, or flushed away. Halite (salt) is perhaps the best-known example. It is ex-
tremely soluble, surviving at Earths surface only in the most arid regions. Gypsum
FIGURE 10.4 Sheeting in granite of
the Sierra Nevada occurs as erosion
removes the overlying rock cover and
reduces the confining pressure. The bedrock
expands, and large fractures develop
parallel to the surface. Ice wedging may
subsequently enlarge the fractures.
Talus Cones
FIGURE 10.5 Talus cones are piles of
rock debris that accumulate at the base of a
cliff as the result of rockfall. Most rock
fragments in talus cones are produced by ice
wedging as here in the Canadian Rockies.
(Courtesy of L. F. Hintze)
254 Chapt er 10
is less soluble than halite but is also easily dissolved by surface water. Few, if any,
large outcrops of these minerals occur in humid regions. This kind of dissolution
happens because water is one of the most effective and universal solvents known.
The structure of the water molecule requires the two hydrogen atoms to be posi-
tioned on the same side of the larger oxygen atom. The molecule thus has a con-
centration of positive charges on the side with the two hydrogen atoms, balanced
by a negative charge on the opposite side. As a result, the water molecule is polar
and behaves as a tiny magnet would. It acts to loosen the bonds of the ions at the
surface of minerals with which it comes into contact. Because of the polarity of the
water molecule, practically all minerals are soluble to some extent in water, but
those with ionic, rather than covalent, bonds are more easily dissolved.
Acid Hydrolysis
The most common dissolution reactions involve slightly acidic water. Carbonic
acid (H
2
CO
3
) is common in natural environments and forms when water com-
bines with carbon dioxides. This reaction takes place in the atmosphere and in the
root zones of plants where carbon dioxide is released into the soil. In addition,
bacteria in the soil combine oxygen with decaying organic materials to make car-
bonic acid. Consequently, water seeping through organic remains becomes more
and more acidic and its effectiveness as a weathering agent continually increases.
Other acids are also produced by plant activity and by bacterial decay of plant
and animal remains. The result is seen dramatically in regions such as the Great
Lakes area, where rivers flow through bogs and marshes and the organic acids
stain the water yellowish brown. Human activities have also produced acids that
contaminate surface waters, including sulfuric acid and nitric acid in acid rain and
sulfuric acid from mining coal or sulfide minerals. The effects of these acids are seen
in the corrosion of buildings and acidification of lakes and rivers and occasional-
ly in the destruction of their biota.
What are the products of chemical
weathering?

Weat her i ng 255
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction wherein water and another substance both
decompose into ions; the OH

ion groups with one of the fragments and the H

+
ion
with another fragment. As you examine the following reactions, observe how the
H
+
and the OH

ions are derived from splitting water molecules. Hydrolysis can

occur in pure water, but in the natural world it usually accompanies reactions with
acids; thus, this kind of reaction between a mineral and an acid is usually called acid
hydrolysis.
To simplify what is a far more complex series of reactions, we will illustrate
weathering reactions involving calcite and carbonic acid. In pure water, calcite is
not very soluble. But water with carbonic acid is capable of dissolving much more
calcite than is pure water. Carbonic acid forms when rainwater combines with car-
bon dioxide in the atmosphere or the soil by the reaction:
H
2
O + CO
2
= H
2
CO
3
(water) (carbon dioxide) (carbonic acid)
This acid may then react with calcite to form calcium and bicarbonate ions in so-
lution. This reaction may be expressed as follows:
CaCO
3
+ H
2
CO
3
= Ca
2
+
+ 2HCO
3

(calcite) (carbonic acid) (calcium bicarbonate)

Some silicate minerals may also dissolve, although not as readily as calcite. For
example, pyroxene will slowly dissolve when it is in contact with acidic waters ac-
cording to the following reaction:
MgSiO
3
+ H
2
O + 2H
2
CO
3
= Mg
2
+
+ 2HCO
3

+ H
4
SiO
4
(pyroxene) (water) (carbonic acid) (ions) (silicic acid)
Acid Hydrolysis and Secondary Minerals
Another important kind of hydrolysis reaction involves the formation of new min-
erals, in addition to the dissolved ions. You might think of this as a kind of partial
solution, with some ions going into solution and being carried away at the same
time as a new mineral forms. During chemical weathering, these new minerals are
almost all hydratedthat is, they have water in their structures. The water is not
merely absorbed, as by a sponge, but actually incorporated as OH

ions into the

atomic structure of the new mineral (Figure 10.6). Most silicate minerals, espe-
cially those containing aluminum, do not simply dissolve in water. Instead, they
react to form a new mineral and free ions.
A good example of the production of secondary minerals is the chemical weath-
ering of feldspar. As you recall from previous chapters, feldspar is an abundant
mineral in a great many igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. It is there-
fore important to understand how feldspars weather and decompose to make clay
minerals. In turn, these clay minerals are transported and deposited to form the
most abundant sedimentary rock, shale (or, strictly speaking, mudrocks).
If plagioclase feldspar, the most common silicate mineral in the crust, comes in
contact with water containing carbonic acid, the following general reaction takes
place:
2NaAlSi
3
O
8
+ 2H
2
CO
3
+ 9H
2
O =
(Na-plagioclase) (carbonic acid) (water)
2Na
+
+ 2HCO
3

+ 4H
4
SiO
4
+ Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
(dissolved components) (clay mineral)
This reaction is simplified; it actually takes several steps to form clay. This
clay mineral does not contain sodium, which was present in the original feldspar.
The new mineral also has a new crystal structure, consisting of sheets of silicate
How are natural acids formed?
What are the major chemical reactions
in weathering?

256 Chapt er 10
tetrahedra that form submicroscopic crystals (see Figure 3.15). The Na
+
ion is dis-
solved in the water. Silica is also released from the minerals and goes into solution
in the water as a weak acid (H
4
SiO
4
). The water may then carry the dissolved com-
ponents away from the site of reaction. For example, the sodium eventually accu-
mulates in ocean water as dissolved salt. As a result of weathering reactions like
this, the shales that form from the accumulation of such clays are poor in sodium,
compared with their igneous precursors.
Potassium and calcium feldspars go through similar weathering reactions to
produce clays, but K
+
ions are largely retained in the soil by absorption and become
important nutrients for plants. When the plants die, the potassium is returned to
the soil. Many of the Ca
2
+
ions released by weathering are transported to the
oceans, but they eventually react with dissolved CO
3
2

to form carbonate miner-

als. These two processes leave seawater rich only in Na
+
.
The effects of chemical weathering of minerals are clearly seen with a scanning
electron microscope and are truly remarkable (Figure 10.6). Rectangular etch pits
develop on weaknesses in the crystal structure of plagioclase, shown here at a mag-
nification of 3000 times. As weathering proceeds, the pits grow and merge to de-
stroy the fabric of the rock containing the feldspar. A macroscopic example of the
effects of chemical weathering can be seen in the fragments of ancient granite
columns that were partly buried in the mud of the Nile floodplain (Figure 10.7).
Weathering destroyed the delicate carvings in the monuments as feldspar con-
verted to clay minerals.
Oxidation
Oxidation is the chemical combination of oxygen, in the atmosphere or dissolved
in water, with one mineral to form a completely different mineral in which at least
one of the elements has a higher oxidation state (higher ionic charge). Of the el-
ements that have variable charges, iron is the most important in weathering reac-
tions on Earth. In most silicates, iron is present as Fe
2+
, but in the presence of
Earths modern oxygen-rich atmosphere, Fe
3+
is the favored oxidation state. There-
fore, oxidation is especially important in the weathering of minerals that have a high
iron content, such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole. Oxidation of silicates is
commonly accompanied by hydrolysis and partial solution. In the case of olivine,
the reaction is as follows:
2Fe
2
SiO
4
+ 4H
2
O + O
2
= 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 2H
4
SiO
4
(olivine) (water) (oxygen) (hematite) (silicic acid)
In this reaction, the iron in silicate minerals unites with oxygen to form the min-
eral hematite (Fe
2
O
3
). Hematite is deep red, and if it is dispersed in sandstone or
shale, it imparts a red color to the entire rock. Limonite [FeO(OH)] is another
common weathering product. It is formed by oxidation combined with a reaction
with water.
Concluding Notes
By carefully examining the reactions above and Tables 10.1 and 10.2, you should
be able to detect a general pattern for chemical weathering. Most alkali (e.g., Na
and K) and alkaline earth (e.g., Ca and Mg) elements are removed into solution
by weathering reactions (Table 10.1) and eventually become enriched in seawater
(Table 10.2). On the other hand, the solid mineral residue becomes enriched in
Al, Siincorporated in claysand Fe incorporated in oxides. These minerals are
stable in the surface environment.
Figure 10.8 lists common minerals in order of their susceptibility to chemical
weathering. This is a powerful example of how the materials in Earths systems
are constantly changing toward equilibrium. Minerals at the top of the list weather
FIGURE 10.6 Chemical weathering of
minerals can be seen with an electron
microscope. The magnification is about 3000
times. (Courtesy of E. Berner and R. A.
Berner)
(B) Weathering corrodes amphibole to make
long needles or cones of residual material
controlled by the chain structure of the ions in
the mineral. A thin vein of clay (purple)
formed at the expense of the amphibole.
(A) Weathering creates small rectangular pits
in plagioclase feldspar. The shapes of the pits
are controlled by the internal arrangement of
ions in the minerals framework structure.
Weat her i ng 257
easily and rapidly; those at the bottom weather slowly and are resistant to change.
Note that the order shown for igneous silicate minerals corresponds to their typ-
ical temperature of formation. Thus, olivine weathers more readily than plagio-
clase and plagioclase more readily than muscovite. Moreover, these minerals
commonly weather to form minerals found low on the listminerals that are sta-
ble at the cool, wet, oxygen-rich surface of the planet.
Inasmuch as feldspars and other silicate minerals that weather into clay con-
stitute a large percentage of igneous and metamorphic rocks, an enormous amount
of clay has been produced by the weathering of these minerals throughout geologic
time. It has been calculated that sediment and sedimentary rocks have an average
thickness of 3 km throughout the ocean basins, 5 km on the continental shelves, and
1.5 km on the continents. Because clay makes up about one-third of all sedimen-
tary rocks, the total amount of clay would form a layer almost 2 km thick if spread
uniformly over the entire surface of Earth.
We have considered physical and chemical weathering as separate processes, but
in nature they are inseparable because many types of weathering processes are
usually involved in the weathering of any outcrop. Mechanical fracturing of a rock
increases the surface area, where chemical reactions take place, and permits deep-
er penetration of reactive fluids that cause chemical decomposition. Chemical
decay in turn facilitates physical disintegration. One process may dominate in a
given area, depending on the climate and rock composition, but physical and chem-
ical weathering processes generally attack the rock at the same time.
WEATHERING OF MAJOR ROCK TYPES
The weathering of rocks is influenced by a number of variables, such as the
mineral composition, the texture of the rock, and the climate in which
weathering occurs. Differential weathering is a result of differences in the
rates of weathering.
Weathering is influenced by so many factors that it is difficult to make a meaning-
ful generalization concerning the weathering of specific rock types. Limestone, for
example, may weather and erode into a soil-covered valley in a humid climate, where-
as the same formation forms a cliff in an arid climate. Similarly, a well-cemented
quartz sandstone may be extremely resistant to weathering, whereas a sandstone
with a high clay content is likely to be soft and weak and weather rapidly.
FIGURE 10.7 A column of granite
from a temple in Lower Egypt fell over and
its right side was partially buried for
hundreds of years. Moisture in the soil
facilitated hydrolysis and altered much of the
feldspar to clay. The left side of the column
was exposed only to the dry atmosphere and
remained fresh and unaltered for more than
2000 years.
258 Chapt er 10
Mineral composition is of prime importance. Some minerals, such as quartz, are
very stable and remain essentially unaltered for long periods of time; others, such
as olivine and the feldspars, are very unstable and begin to decompose almost
immediately (Figure 10.8). The texture of the rock is also very significant because
of its influence on porosity and permeability, which govern the ease with which
water can enter the rock and attack the mineral grains. Precipitation and tem-
perature are the chief climatic controls, but weathering will be influenced not
only by the total rainfall, but also by the distribution of precipitation through
time, percent of runoff, and rate of evaporation. Therefore, a given rock will re-
spond to weathering in a variety of ways, but in general the major rock groups
weather in a characteristic fashion.
Granite is a massive homogeneous rock composed of feldspar, quartz, and mica,
with minor amounts of other minerals. It forms at high temperatures, in consider-
able depth, and under great pressure, so it is out of physical and chemical equilib-
rium when exposed at Earths surface. For example, the release of pressure re-
sulting from the erosion of the overlying rocks produces expansion joints, which
aid in the development of exfoliation.
TABLE 10.1 Weathering Reactions for Common Minerals
Original General Weathering Dissolved Residual
Mineral Formula Reactions Ions Minerals
Gypsum CaSO
4
2H
2
O Dissolution by water Ca, SO
4
Halite NaCl Dissolution by water Na, Cl
Olivine (Mg,Fe)
2
SiO
4
Oxidation Fe oxides
Dissolution by acid Mg, Fe
Pyroxene Ca(Mg,Fe)Si
2
O
6
Oxidation Fe oxides
Dissolution in acid Mg, Fe, Ca
Amphiboles NaCa(Mg,Fe)
5
AlSi
7
O
22
(OH)
2
Oxidation Fe oxides
Partial solution by acid Na, Ca, Mg Clay
Plagioclase NaAlSi
3
O
8
to CaAl
2
Si
2
O
8
Partial solution by acid Na, Ca Clay
K-feldspar KAlSi
3
O
8
Partial solution by acid K Clay
Muscovite KAl
3
Si
3
O
10
(OH)
2
Partial solution by acid K Clay
Biotite K(Mg,Fe)
3
AlSi
3
O
10
(OH)
2
Oxidation Fe oxides
Partial solution by acid K, Mg Clay
Quartz SiO
2
Resists dissolution
Calcite CaCO
3
Dissolution by acid Ca
Dolomite CaMg(CO
3
)
2
Dissolution by acid Mg, Ca
Pyrite FeS
2
Oxidation SO
4
Fe oxides
TABLE 10.2 Contribution of Weathering to
Water Compositions (in parts per million)
Rain- River Ground- Ocean
Component water Water water Water
HCO
3

0.5 58 93 28
SO
4
2
2 11 32 905
Cl

1 7 5 19,400
Ca
2+
1 15 27 412
Mg
2+
0.5 44 6 1,290
Na
+
1 6 9 10,800
K
+
0.5 2 1 380
Fe
2+
0.6 1.6 0.1
Si
4+
6 18 2
Why is seawater so rich in sodium,
calcium, and magnesium?

Weat her i ng 259
Feldspars weather rapidly by chemical reaction with water and are altered to
various clay minerals. Calcium plagioclase is least resistant, followed by potassium
feldspars. Mica weathers somewhat more slowly than most feldspars but is easily
attacked along its cleavage planes by water, and oxidation of iron and ion exchange
are common. Micas alter, with little change in structure, to chlorite and clay min-
erals. In contrast, quartz is very resistant to both chemical and physical weather-
ing and remains essentially unaltered as the other minerals are decomposed.
Therefore, it constitutes the most significant particle or fragment produced by the
weathering of a granite.
Basalt is a fine-grained rock composed mostly of feldspar, olivine, and pyrox-
ene. The surface of a basalt flow is generally vesicular and very porous, and the
interior of the rock body is commonly broken by a system of columnar joints.
Therefore, flows are highly permeable and susceptible to decomposition. Olivine,
pyroxene, and calcium plagioclasethe most common minerals in basaltare all
highly susceptible to chemical weathering. Quartz is not present in basalt, so most
minerals in this rock are eventually converted to clay and iron oxides. The ulti-
mate weathering product is a red or brown soil.
Sandstone is composed mostly of quartz grains, with varying amounts of small
rock fragments, feldspar, and clay minerals. The quartz in sandstone is highly re-
sistant to chemical weathering, so chemical decomposition of the rock consists
largely of an attack on the cement. The major cementing materials in sandstones
are calcite, iron oxide, and quartz.
Limestone is composed mostly of the mineral calcite, although it generally con-
tains some clay and other impurities. It is the most soluble of the common rock
types, and (except in extremely dry climates) solution is the dominant weathering
process. In most limestone regions in humid climates, solution activity enlarges
joints and bedding planes and forms a network of caverns and caves; the lime-
stone formations in such regions typically form valleys. In arid regions, where so-
lution activity is at a minimum, limestones form cliffs.
Shale commonly weathers faster than most other rocks because it is fine-grained
and soft. Because it contains a high proportion of clay, it has the ability to absorb
and expel large amounts of water.
FIGURE 10.8 Relative susceptibility to
weathering varies widely among common
minerals found at Earths surface. Minerals
at the top of the diagram react to form
minerals near the bottom that are stable at
low temperatures and pressures and in the
presence of abundant water and oxygen. The
ultimate weathering products of many rocks
are clays, quartz, and oxides of aluminum
and iron.
Clay
Aluminum oxide
Iron oxide
Olivine
Ca-plagioclase
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
Na-plagioclase
K-feldspar
Muscovite
Quartz
Pyrite
Halite
Gypsum
Calcite
Dolomite
Least
stable
Most
stable
Slow weathering Rapid weathering
Stable in
atmosphere
Unstable in
atmosphere
Dissolve and
reprecipitate
Why do various rock types weather in
different ways?

Why do rocks weather at different
rates?
260 Chapt er 10
Differential Weathering
As can be seen from the preceding brief descriptions, different rock masses, or dif-
ferent sections of the same rock, weather at different rates. This variation is known
as differential weathering. It occurs on a broad scale, from the great sandstone
ridges of the Appalachian Mountains to delicate etching of thin layers in sedi-
mentary rock. The more-resistant zones stand out as ridges, and the weaker zones
form depressions. Differential weathering can lead to the formation of unusual
shapes and forms, such as the spindles and pinnacles in Bryce Canyon (see the
chapter-opening photograph) or pits and caverns on a rock face. Differential ero-
sion on dikes of igneous rocks can form trenches or walls, depending on whether
the dike is harder or softer than the surrounding rock.
Differential weathering can be seen everywhere a rock is exposed. Study the
photo of Bryce Canyon and you will notice that each layer has its own weather-
ing characteristics. The white layers erode most rapidly and tend to form slender
columns. The thicker beds of sand are more resistant, whereas the interbeds of silt-
stone and shale weather rapidly. Thus, the horizontal layers are etched into ridges
and furrows, which are responsible for much of the beauty in this scene.
PRODUCTS OF WEATHERING
The major products of weathering are (1) rock bodies modified into
spherical shapes; (2) a blanket of loose, decayed rock debris, known as
regolith, of which soil is an important part; and (3) ions in solution.
Geometry of Weathered Rock Fragments
The breakdown of rocks and the shapes of most rock fragments are inherited from
patterns of joints, bedding, cleavage, and other planes of structural weakness in
the parent rock material. The best way to appreciate how joints, bedding planes,
and other planes of weakness influence the geometry of rock fragmentation is to
compare and contrast outcrops of several rock types and consider the shape of
the fragmented material that weathering has produced (Figure 10.9).
Importance of Fractures and Joints. Almost all rocks are broken into a system
of fractures that greatly influence the weathering of rock bodies in two ways. First,
they effectively cut large blocks of rock into smaller ones, thereby increasing the
surface area where chemical reactions take place. The importance of joints in
weathering processes can be appreciated by considering the amount of new surface
area produced by jointing. Consider, for example, a cube of rock that measures
10 m on each side (Figure 10.10). If only the upper surface of the cube were exposed
and the rock were not jointed, weathering could attack only the exposed top surface
of 100 m
2
. If the block were bounded by intersecting joints 10 m apart, however,
the surface area exposed to weathering processes would be 600 m
2
. If three
additional joints cut the cube into eight smaller cubes, the surface exposed to
weathering would be 1200 m
2
. If joints 1 m apart cut the rock, 6000 m
2
of rock
surface would be exposed. Obviously, a highly jointed rock body weathers much
more rapidly than a solid one. The breakdown of a rock along a system of jointing
planes is known as joint-block separation. Figure 10.9A shows a basalt flow that
broke into hexagonal columns as it cooled.
Besides providing a larger surface area for chemical decomposition, joints also
act as a system of channels through which water can more readily penetrate a rock
body. Joints thus permit physical and chemical weathering processes to attack the
rock from several sides, even hundreds of meters below the surface.

Weat her i ng 261
(E) Exfoliation occurs when the solid rock mass comes apart in a series of
shells or plates that roughly conform to the shape of the outer surface.
Exfoliation can occur on a very large scale, such as on this dome in
Yosemite National Park, California, or on a very small scale, with the
individual plates being only a millimeter or less thick.
(F) Shattering occurs when a rock is subjected to severe stress that
ruptures the rock into sharp, irregular, angular blocks. Ice wedging
shatters rock outcrops in nature. Repeated cycles of heating and
cooling may also cause shattering. Blasting bedrock with explosives
produces shattering artificially.
(A) Joint-block separation results when prominent fractures divide the
rock into small blocks. The Devils Post Pile in California is an excellent
example, where columnar joints control the geometric patterns of rock
breakup.
(B) Bedding-plane separation occurs along a bedding zone of weakness
in sedimentary rocks and causes the rock to break up into slabs.
Foliation in metamorphic rock causes similar type of weathering.
(C) Jointing is commonly the major type of structural weakness in granite
and related rocks and causes the rock to break up into large blocks.
Spheroidal weathering then rounds the edges of the fragments.
(D) Granular disintegration in granite is common, producing crumbly
spheroidal boulders. The disintegrated material consists of feldspars
weathered to clay and quartz grains. The dissolution of calcite cement
in a sandstone also causes granular breakdown.
FIGURE 10.9 The geometric patterns of rock disintegration depend on the composition, texture, and structure (especially layers and joints) of
the parent rock body.
261
FIGURE 10.10 A system of joints cutting a rock body greatly increases the surface area exposed to weathering.
(A) A surface of bedrock, 10 m long and 10
m wide, with no joints, exposes a total area of
100 m
2
to weathering processes. A set of joints
10 m apart would expose more rock to the
atmosphere and would increase the surface
area vulnerable to weathering to 600 m
2
.
(B) Three additional joints, dividing
the block into eight cubes, would
increase the surface area to 1200 m
2
.
(C) If joints 1 m apart cut the rock,
the surface area exposed to
weathering would be increased to
6000 m
2
.
(A) Joint systems cut a rock body into
angular blocks.
(B) On each block,
weathering proceeds
inward from the joint face.
(C) The corners of the block are
soon completely decomposed,
so the weathered rock assumes
a spherical or ellipsoidal shape.
FIGURE 10.11
Spheroidal weathering occurs
because the edges and corners
of a joint block are easily
decomposed.
Spheroidal Weathering
In the weathering process, there is a universal tendency for rounded (or spherical)
surfaces to form on a decaying rock body regardless of the original shapes of the
rock fragments. The sphere is the geometric form that has the least amount of sur-
face area per unit of volume. A rounded shape is produced because weathering at-
tacks an exposed rock from all sides at once, and decomposition is most rapid
along the corners and edges of the rock (Figure 10.11). As the decomposed mate-
rial falls off, the corners become rounded, and the block eventually is reduced to
an ellipsoid or a sphere. Once the block attains this shape, it simply becomes small-
er with further weathering. This process is known as spheroidal weathering.
Examples of spheroidal weathering can be seen in almost any exposure of rock
(Figure 10.12). It can also be seen in the rounded blocks of ancient buildings and
monuments. The original blocks had sharp corners and were fitted together with
precision. The edges are now completely decomposed, and each block has assumed
an ellipsoidal or spherical shape. In nature, spheroidal weathering is produced
both at the surface and at some depth.
262 Chapt er 10
Weat her i ng 263
Exfoliation is a special type of spheroidal weathering in which the rock breaks
apart by separation along a series of concentric shells or layers that look like cab-
bage leaves (Figure 10.9E). The layers, essentially parallel to each other and to
the surface, develop by both chemical and physical means. Exfoliation may in-
volve sheeting in rocks such as granite; if they are brought to the surface after
deep burial, they have a tendency to expand upward and outward as the over-
lying rock is removed. In cold climates, ice wedging along the sheeting joints
helps to remove successive layers gradually. The increase in volume of mineral
grains associated with the chemical weathering of feldspar might also promote
exfoliation. Exfoliation causes massive rocks, such as granite, to develop a spher-
ical form characterized by a series of concentric layers ranging from boulders
to a mountain.
Regolith
The results of weathering can be seen from the driest deserts and the frozen waste-
lands, to the warm, humid tropics. The most obvious product of weathering is a
blanket of loose, decayed rock debris known as regolith, which forms a discontin-
uous cover over the solid, unaltered bedrock below it. The term regolith comes
from the Greek work rego, meaning blanket (blanket rock). It is a layer of soft,
disaggregated rock material formed in place by the decomposition and disinte-
gration of the bedrock that lies beneath it. Within the regolith, the individual grains
or small groups of mineral particles are easily separated, one from the other. The
thickness of the regolith ranges from a few centimeters to hundreds of meters, de-
pending on the climate, type of rock, and length of time that weathering process-
es have been operating. The transition from bedrock to regolith can be seen in
road cuts and stream valleys.
Gravel, sand, silt, and mud deposited by streams, wind, and glaciers are some-
times referred to as transported regolith, in order to distinguish them from the
residual regolith produced by weathering. Many types of transported regolith, or
surficial deposits, have been identified, and we will learn more about them in later
chapters dealing with rivers, glaciers, and wind.
A regional view of the regolith and its relationship to bedrock is given in Fig-
ure 10.13. The photograph shows exposures of bedrock limited to certain areas of
resistant limestone and sandstone strata, which form discontinuous cliffs along the
upper part of the mountain front. On the steep canyon walls, little soil is retained,
and bedrock is exposed from the base to the top of the canyon. The sketch in (B)
was made from the photograph and outlines the rock outcrops. In (C), the out-
FIGURE 10.12 Spheroidal weathering
shapes natural outcrops like these jointed
and weathered granite blocks from near
Prescott, Arizona.
(D) The structure of the bedrock consists of rock layers warped into broad folds, some of which are cut by canyons. Compare with (A).
(A) The Wasatch Range in central Utah displays contrasting areas of bedrock and regolith.
(B) Outcrops of bedrock appear in cliffs and canyons. Slopes are covered with regolith.
(C) The discontinuous blanket of regolith almost completely covers some formations, while others are exposed as discontinuous cliffs.
Outcrops of bedrock form holes in the regolith cover.
FIGURE 10.13 The relationship between bedrock and regolith is depicted in the photograph and diagrams.
264 Chapt er 10
Weat her i ng 265
cropping bedrock is not shown, so the regolith appears as a thin, discontinuous
blanket with holes where bedrock is exposed. Sediment fills the valley in the
foreground, but the regolith there is not shown in the diagram. If you carefully
study the pattern of exposed bedrock areas (B), you can see that the strata are
warped into broad folds, shown in (D), which form the internal structure of the
mountains.
Soil
The uppermost layer of the regolith is the soil. It is composed chiefly of small par-
ticles of rock, new minerals formed by weathering, plus varying amounts of de-
composed organic matter. Soil is so widely distributed and so economically im-
portant that it has acquired a variety of definitions, and you should be aware that
the term, as used by engineers, geologists, farmers, and soil scientists, has some-
what different definitions.
The transition from the upper surface of the soil down to fresh bedrock is a soil
profile, which shows a rather systematic sequence of layers, or horizons, distin-
guished by composition, color, and texture. These are shown in Figure 10.14 for a
humid temperate climate. The A horizon is the topsoil layer, which often is visibly
divided into three layers: A
0
is a thin surface layer of leaf mold, especially obvious
on forest floors; A
1
is a humus-rich, dark layer; and A
2
is a light, bleached layer. The
B horizon is the subsoil, which contains fine clays and colloids washed down from
the topsoil. It is largely a zone of accumulation and commonly is reddish in color.
The C horizon is a zone of partly disintegrated and decomposed bedrock. The in-
dividual rock fragments are often weathered, spheroidal boulders that may be
completely decomposed. The C horizon grades downward into fresh, unaltered
bedrock.
Several special kinds of soils are worth noting here. The major soil orders are
described in Table 10.3 and their distribution is shown in Figure 10.15. Some soils
are noteworthy because they are ore deposits. For example, aluminum does not mi-
grate far during weathering, and, in fact, it may be concentrated as a residual de-
posit as other elements are removed. The enrichment may be great enough to form
aluminum orebauxite. Iron is also insoluble in the presence of dissolved oxygen
What is the ultimate origin of soil?
R
e
g
o
l
i
t
h
A horizon
B horizon
C horizon
Unaltered bedrock
Decaying vegetation
FIGURE 10.14 A soil profile for a temperate climate shows the transition from bedrock to regolith through a sequence of layers, or horizons,
consisting of successively smaller fragments capped by a dark layer of decomposed organic material.
Alfisols
Andisols
Aridosols
Entisols
Gelisols
Histosols
Inceptisols
Mollisols
Oxisols
Spodosols
Ultisols
Vertisols
Rocky land
Sand
Ice
FIGURE 10.15 Principal soil types of the world are shown on this map. The various soils are classified based on obvious physical characteristics
including organic matter and clay content, the degree of nutrient depletion, soil chemistry, and origin or age of the soil. See Table 10.3 for a description
of the major features of each type of soil. Note the strong control of climate on soil types. (Modified after U.S. Department of Agriculture)
TABLE 10.3 Major Types of Soil
Soil General Typical Geographic or Geologic Setting
Order Characteristics
Andisols Soils that from by weathering of volcanic parent material Common in volcanic areas like Japan, Alaska,
and Pacific Northwest
Entisols Only slightly weathered with minimal development of soil Young surfaces, slopes, and sand dunes
horizons. Similar to parent material
Aridosols Thin A and B horizons with little organic matter Arid regions
Carbonate deposits (caliche) common in B horizon
Gelisols Soils with a dark organic surface layer underlain by Arctic regions of North America and Russia
permafrost
Histosols Dark soils dominated by decomposed organic matter Typically in poorly drained low-lying areas
Inceptisols Well developed A horizon, but little clay. Still retain Relatively young surfaces or resistant
weatherable minerals. bedrock
Mollisols Dark organic-rich A-horizon. Nutrient-rich parent material. Common in grasslands of stable platforms
in temperate climates
Alfisols Thin A horizon and clay and nutrient-rich B horizon Semi-arid to humid climates; good
agricultural soil
Spodosols Strongly leached A-horizon with aluminum and iron-rich Coniferous forests in cool temperate climates
B-horizon
Vertisols Clay-rich soils that shrink when dry and swell when wet Tropical regions with wet and dry seasons
Oxisols Deeply weathered with oxidized iron apparent in B horizon Humid tropical to subtropical regions of low
Red or yellow relief
Ultisols Highly weathered clay-rich B horizon with high concentrations Warm, humid regions; with fertilizer they can
of aluminum and low in nutrients be used for agriculture
266 Chapt er 10
Weat her i ng 267
and also accumulates in soils. Intensely weathered soils are typically red because
of the presence of secondary iron oxide minerals formed by weathering. Such
residual laterites may also be enriched in other insoluble elements such as nickel
and make ore deposits. (see Figure 10.18)
As do so many other aspects of weathering, the type and thickness of soil de-
pend on a number of factors, the most important of which are parent rock com-
position, topography, and time. The mineral composition of the bedrock strongly
influences the type of soil because the bedrock provides the chemical elements
and mineral grains from which the soil develops. Pure quartzite, for example, con-
tains 99% quartz and is extremely deficient in minerals that can weather to make
clays. Its decomposition produces a thin, infertile soil poor in plant nutrients (Fig-
ure 10.16A).
Topography affects soil development because it influences the amount and rate
of erosion and the nature of drainage. Flat, poorly drained lowlands develop a
bog-type soil, rich in decomposed vegetation and saturated with water, whereas
steep slopes permit rapid removal of regolith and inhibit the accumulation of
weathered materials. Well-drained uplands are conducive to thick, well-developed
soils (Figure 10.16B).
Time is important in soil development in that it takes time for physical and
chemical processes to break down the bedrock. In Figure 10.16C, the young lava
flow has a very thin, patchy soil, whereas the older flow has had time for a thick
soil layer to develop.
(B) The influence of topography is apparent from the contrast
between slope soils and valley soils. Thick soils can form on flat or
gently sloping surfaces, but steep slopes permit only thin soils to
develop.
(C) The influence of time can be seen in areas of volcanism. Thick
soils have developed on old lava flows, in contrast to thin soils on
younger flows.
(A) The influence of rock type is illustrated by the difference between a
layer of quartzite and a layer of shale. Quartzite resists chemical
decomposition, so the soils produced from it are thin and poorly
developed. Shale is much more susceptible to chemical weathering and
forms thicker soils.
Quartzite Shale
Thin
soil
Thick soil
FIGURE 10.16 Topography, rock type, and time also affect the
thickness of soil.
Bedrock
Thick soil
Thin soil
No soil
Thick
soil
Bedrock
Old flow
thick soil
Young flow
thin soil
268 Chapt er 10
Ions in Solution
The ions dissolved in water are almost invisible products of weathering. A chem-
ical analysis of rainwater compared with river water illustrates the effectiveness of
chemical weathering in dissolving and transporting many elements (Table 10.2).
Fresh rainwater contains relatively little dissolved mineral matter, but surface
water soon dissolves the more soluble minerals in the rock and transports ions
away in solution (Figure 10.17). Each year the rivers of the world carry about 4 mil-
lion metric tons of dissolved materials to the oceans (Table 10.2). It is not surpris-
ing, then, that seawater contains 3.5% (by weight) dissolved salts, most of which
were derived from the continents by chemical weathering.
The major source of ions in solution are carbonate rocks. About 45% of the
dissolved material in rivers is derived from carbonates, even though they consti-
tute only about 16% of the continental area exposed to weathering. Evaporites
are also made of very soluble mineralssalts of potassium, sodium, magnesium,
chlorine, and sulfate. Despite the fact that they make up only about 1% of the area
of the continents, fully 18% of the ions in solution in rivers appear to be derived
from evaporites. If we consider only one constituent, about 80% of the chloride in
the Amazon River comes from halite dissolution, not from the weathering of sili-
cate minerals. Other rocks are much less soluble than carbonates and evaporites.
Silicate rocks account for more than 80% of the land area but only about 35% of
the dissolved constituents of river water. The effect of susceptibility of rock types
to chemical weathering is the important factor here.
CLIMATE AND WEATHERING
Climate is the single most important factor influencing weathering. It
determines not only the type and rate of weathering, but also the charac-
teristics of regolith and weathered rock surfaces. Intense chemical
weathering occurs in hot, humid regions and develops a thick regolith.
Chemical weathering is minimal in deserts and polar regions.
Climate is of major importance in weathering because rainfall, temperature, and
seasonal changes all directly affect the style and rates of weathering. The influ-
ence climate has on weathering is apparent in the striking contrasts of the soil in
the tropics, deserts, and polar regions (Figure 10.18).
In physical weathering, perhaps the most important temperature changes are
the ones that produce continual cycles of freezing and thawing that result in re-
peated expansion of water ice in the rock and soil, and thus mechanical frag-
mentation. The rate of chemical reactions (and biological activity) also tends to
increase as temperature increases. Commonly, a 10C increase in temperature
doubles reaction rates.
FIGURE 10.17 Dissolved ions are one
of the major products of chemical
weathering. Here, along the margins of a salt
pan in Death Valley, California, the salts
once dissolved in river water accumulated in
a shallow lake that then evaporated. The
volume of salt in these evaporite deposits
reveals the amount of dissolved materials.

Weat her i ng 269
Most chemical reactions, such as hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation, require
the presence of water, so the total amount of precipitation in an area is clearly a
major factor in weathering (Figure 10.15). But many factors such as the intensity
of rain, seasonal variations, infiltration, runoff, and the rate of evaporation combine
to influence weathering and weathered products in a given region.
The extent and style of chemical weathering are not controlled entirely by tem-
perature and total water supply; weathering may be greatly affected by other con-
ditions. For example, many reactions are controlled by the waters acidity (hydro-
gen ion concentration), which is expressed as the pH value, ranging from 1 (acid)
to 14 (alkaline). Iron, for example, becomes 100,000 times as soluble at pH 6 as it
is at pH 8.5. Tropical climates typically support lush vegetation that yields organ-
ic acids. As a result, forested areas experience higher rates of chemical weathering
than in otherwise similar areas that lack such growth. Some studies suggest weath-
ering to be eight times as high as in forested areas as compared to nonforested
areas, other things being equal. Moreover, high temperatures and abundant water
can also increase the rate of bacterial activity, important in the production of acid.
The relative importance of various types of weathering under different climat-
ic conditions (temperature and rainfall) is shown in Figure 10.19. High tempera-
ture and high precipitation cause intense chemical weathering. Physical weather-
ing dominates in regions of low temperature and low rainfall. Perhaps the best
way to appreciate the influence of climate on weathering is to consider variations
in the types and thicknesses of soils from the equator to the poles, as shown in Fig-
ure 10.20. This diagram summarizes the relationships between the amount of chem-
ical weathering and variations in precipitation and temperature.
In humid, tropical climates, extreme chemical weathering rapidly develops thick
soils to depths greater than 70 m (Figure 10.20). In central Brazil, the zone of de-
cayed rock is more than 150 m thick. Under such conditions, the feldspars are com-
pletely altered to clays, and all soluble minerals are leached out. Only the most in-
soluble materials (such as silica, aluminum, and iron) remain in the thick, red soil
(Figure 10.18). These are not good soils for continued agriculture, because plant nu-
trients are leached away by the abundant rainfall. The high temperatures in trop-
ical zones speed chemical reactions, so chemical decomposition is very rapid. Frost
action, of course, is essentially nonexistent in the tropics, except on the tops of high
mountains.
(A) Arctic weathering profile. Thin soils, with partly decomposed rock
fragments, develop in polar regions. Physical weathering is dominant.
(B) Tropical weathering profile. Thick red (oxidized) soils develop in tropical
regions. Chemical weathering dominates.
FIGURE 10.18 Climate is one of the important controls on the type of soil found in an area.
FIGURE 10.19 The relative
importance of various types of weathering
depends on temperature and rainfall. This
diagram shows that strong chemical
weathering occurs where both temperature
and precipitation are high. Physical
weathering is strongest where the mean
annual temperature is between 10 and
10C and precipitation is between 25 and
100 cm. Weathering is at a minimum where
annual precipitation is below 25 cm.
270 Chapt er 10
In the low-latitude deserts, north and south of the tropical rain forests, chemi-
cal weathering is minimal because of the lack of precipitation. Moreover, organic
matter is not abundant. Consequently, the soil is thin, and exposures of fresh, un-
altered bedrock are common. Physical weathering is evident, however, in the fresh,
angular rock debris that litters most slopes.
In the temperate regions, precipitation ranges from humid to subarid, and tem-
peratures range from cool to warm. Both chemical and physical processes operate,
and the soil and regolith develop to depths of several meters. The agricultural
breadbaskets of the world are not in the tropics where soil is thickest, but in these
temperate zones. Here, soils are moderately thick and have retained their nutrients.
Moreover, temperate soils are commonly enhanced by added deposits of wind-
blown dust.
In the polar regions, weathering is largely physical. Temperatures are too low
for much chemical weathering, so the soil typically is thin and unproductive (Fig-
ure 10.18). It is composed mostly of angular, unaltered rock fragments. In per-
mafrost zones (areas where water in the pore spaces of soil and rock is perma-
nently frozen), the surface layer melts during the summer but freezes again in the
winter. This unique condition produces polygonal ground patterns, which result
from thermal contractions and the differential thawing and freezing.
RATES OF WEATHERING
The rate at which weathering processes decompose and break down a
solid rock body depends on three main factors: (1) susceptibility of the
constituent minerals to weathering, (2) climate, and (3) the amount of
surface exposed to the atmosphere.
A consideration of the rate at which weathering proceeds is a good way to review
its controlling factors. Rates of weathering can be calculated by measuring the
amount of decay on rock surfaces of known age. Tombstones, ancient buildings, and
monuments, for example, provide datable rock surfaces for estimating rates of
weathering. These studies show that in some climates, several centimeters of rock
can be decomposed in a few decades, whereas the same rock remains unaltered in
other climates.
Moderate
chemical
with ice wedging
Slight
weathering
of any
kind
Moderate
chemical
Strong
chemical
20
10
0
+10
+20
50 100 150 200 0
Precipitation (cm /year)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(

C
)
S
l
i
g
h
t
p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
M
o
d
e
r
a
t
e
p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
S
t
r
o
n
g
p
h
y
s
i
c
a
l
Why are thin soils produced in both
polar and desert regions?

Weat her i ng 271
In places, rates of weathering have been measured on volcanic ash and
basaltic lava flows that have been dated by radiometric means. For example, on
the subtropical island of St. Vincent in the West Indies, a volcanic ash deposit-
ed 4000 years ago has weathered to produce a layer of clay soil 2 m thick. Soils
have also formed on the ash deposits resulting from the 1883 eruption of the
equatorial volcano Krakatua. Measurements made 45 years after the Krakatua
eruption showed a new soil nearly 50 cm thick. Of course, the rates of weathering
are much lower in polar climates and in the arid deserts.
The Egyptian pyramids provide an interesting example of rates of weather-
ing in arid climates. The Great Pyramid of Cheops, near Cairo, was originally
faced with polished, well-fitted blocks of travertine limestone. These blocks pro-
tected the rock in the pyramid core from weathering until the outer, polished
layers were removed, about 1000 years ago, to build mosques in Cairo. Since
then, without the rock facing, weathering has attacked all four main rock types
used in the construction of the pyramid. The most least weathered rock in the
pyramid is a granite, which today remains essentially unweathered. Also resis-
tant is a hard, gray limestone, which still retains marks of the quarry tools used
to carve its final shape. The shaly limestone and fossiliferous limestone used for
other blocks, however, have weathered rapidly. Individual building blocks have
weathered to spherical forms. Many of these blocks have a zone of decayed
minerals as deep as 20 cm. Most of the weathered debris remains as talus on
individual tiers and around the base of the pyramids. During the last 1000 years,
the volume of weathered debris produced from the pyramid has been calculat-
ed to be 50,000 m
3
.
Near Saqqarah, Egypt, on older pyramids built nearly 4600 years ago, deeper
weathering has occurred, with talus debris nearly covering the steps. Some of
the smaller pyramids in the area are completely covered by their own weath-
ered debris.
In Mexico, pyramids built nearly 2000 years ago have also been deeply weath-
ered. Some were completely covered by their own weathered debris (see the
GeoLogic essay on the next page).
FIGURE 10.20 Climate controls the
type and extent of weathering because of the
combined effects of precipitation,
temperature, and vegetation. (Other
variables are also involved, such as those
shown in Figure 10.16.) Weathering is most
pronounced in the tropics, where
precipitation, temperature, and vegetation
reach a maximum. Conversely, a minimum of
weathering is found in deserts and polar
regions, where these factors are minimal.
Compare this cross section with the map in
Figure 10.15.
Tem
perature
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
c
m
)
Equator North Pole
Chemically
altered
bedrock
Unaltered bedrock
20
30
100
0
200
300
10
0
100
50
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(

C
)
Low-latitude deserts Tropics Temperate
regions
Arctic
regions
Latitude
Regolith
Regolith
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Vegetation
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
Weathering of the Pyramids
272
5. Most of the delicate carvings in the solid rock are de-
stroyed, only being preserved where collapse or over-
hangs had protected them from the attack by water and
air.
6. Some of the temples have now been partially recon-
structed, revealing their former grandeur. New stone
was quarried and carefully placed to recreate the an-
cient buildings. But so extensive was the weathering
that it was unclear how many steps ascend to the top
of a temple or even how many wide platforms break
the profile.
Interpretations
Considering the location, landscape, and present system
of slopes, could the pyramids have been covered by de-
position of sediment from running water, wind, or lakes?
The principal conclusion you can draw from these obser-
vations is that the monuments were not covered with sed-
iment transported in from some other area, but simply
covered in their own weathered debris. Weathering is a
rapid process capable of producing a regolith in only a
few hundred years in a temperate climate. The products
of weathering are spheroidal boulders, decomposed rock
fragments, and soil.
GeoLogic Weathering of Mexican Pyramids
When Europeans first entered the highland valleys of cen-
tral Mexico, they found tree-covered mounds dotting the
landscape. Eventually, archeologists discovered that these
mounds were not natural at all, but were the weathered
remnants of the buildings of a once great city. Teotihuacan
was at its zenith about 400 AD but the city was abandoned
and partially destroyed about 700 AD. In the photograph,
you can see that the classic Mesoamerican architecture ap-
pears to be wonderfully preserved. But that is a popular
misconception. The temples with their staircases, platforms
and altars were restored after careful archeological work.
Study the mounds to the left; the low rounded conical hills
covered with grass and a few trees. These are the unrestored
segments of the Teotihuacan complex.
Observations
1. After Teotihuacan was abandoned some 1300 years ago
the buildings and monuments were left to decay as a re-
sult of weathering.
2. A regolith, in some places more than 1 m thick, topped
the ruined structures. It consisted of decomposed rock
fragments, clay, and organic material from plants that col-
onized the newly created soil.
3. Once angular building stones are now spheroidal,
crumbly, and ill-fitting.
4. Numerous blocks of rock are scattered over the weath-
ered structures.

Weat her i ng 273
KEY TERMS
A horizon (p. 265)
B horizon (p. 265)
C horizon (p. 265)
chemical weathering (p. 251)
differential weathering (p. 260)
dissolution (p. 253)
exfoliation (p. 263)
granular disintegration (p. 261)
horizon (p. 265)
hydrolysis (p. 255)
ice wedging (p. 251)
joint-block separation (p. 260)
leach (p. 253)
oxidation (p. 256)
permeability (p. 258)
physical weathering (p. 251)
porosity (p. 258)
regolith (p. 263)
shattering (p. 261)
sheeting (p. 252)
soil (p. 265)
soil profile (p. 265)
spheroidal weathering (p. 262)
talus cone (p. 253)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List five ways in which the effects of weathering are ex-
pressed in natural outcrops of bedrock.
2. Discuss the processes involved in the most important types
of physical weathering.
3. Which rock types are most susceptible to chemical weath-
ering?
4. Discuss the chemical reactions involved in chemical weath-
ering of feldspar.
5. Explain why joints are important in weathering processes.
6. How does soil originate?
7. Why are mudrocks (dominated by clay minerals) the most
common sedimentary rocks?
8. Explain how rock types, topography, and time influence the
types of soil produced by weathering.
9. Why is quartz sand so abundant in clastic sedimentary
rocks?
10. What is spheroidal weathering?
11. Draw a schematic diagram showing variations in weather-
ing from arctic regions to the tropics.
12. How do the pyramids of Egypt and Mexico provide infor-
mation on rates of weathering?
13. Put these rock types in the order by which they would
weather the fastest: granite, rock salt, gabbro, sandstone,
mica schist, shale, serpentinite, and gypsum. Assume that
the climate is humid and temperate.
14. Which rock type, limestone, granite, or basalt, would weath-
er to form the most clay? Which would be most susceptible
to oxidation?
15. Compare the soil map in Figure 10.15 with the climate map
in Chapter 9. Comment on the distribution of different soil
types in each of the major climates.
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Berner, E. B., and R. A. Berner. 1996. Global Environment:
Water, Air, and Geochemical Cycles. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
Prentice Hall.
Bland, W., and D. Rolls. 1998. Weathering : An Introduction to the
Scientific Principles. New York: Arnold.
Colman, S. M., and D. P. Dethier. 1986. Rates of Chemical Weath-
ering of Rocks and Minerals. New York: Academic Press.
Goldich, S. S. 1938. A study in rock weathering. Journal of Geol-
ogy 46:1758.
Ollier, C. D., and C. Pain. 1996. Regolith, Soils and Landforms.
New York: Wiley.
Yotsu, E. 1988. The Nature of Weathering. Tokyo: Sozosha.
Earths Dynamic Systems Website
The Companion Website at www.prenhall.com/hamblin
provides you with an on-line study guide and additional
resources for each chapter, including:
On-line Quizzes (Chapter Review, Visualizing Geology,
Quick Review, Vocabulary Flash Cards) with instant feedback
Quantitative Problems
Critical Thinking Exercises
Web Resources
Earths Dynamic Systems CD
Examine the CD that came with your text. It is designed
to help you visualize and thus understand the concepts
in this chapter. It includes:
Slide shows about weathering of man-made structures
Slide shows with examples of results of weathering, including
talus cones
Web links to more information about soils
A direct link to the Companion Website
MULTIMEDIA TOOLS