Gray iron

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Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has
a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the
fracture it forms, which is due to the presence of graphite.[1] It is
the most common cast iron and the most widely used cast material
based on weight.[2]
It is used for housings where tensile strength is non-critical, such
as internal combustion engine cylinder blocks, pump housings,
valve bodies, electrical boxes, and decorative castings. Grey cast
iron's high thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity are often
exploited to make cast iron cookware and disc brake rotors.[3]

1 Structure
2 Classifications
3 Advantages and disadvantages
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading

Structure
A typical chemical composition to obtain a graphitic microstructure
is 2.5 to 4.0% carbon and 1 to 3% silicon. Silicon is important to
making grey iron as opposed to white cast iron, because silicon is
a graphite stabilizing element in cast iron, which means it helps the
alloy produce graphite instead of iron carbides. Another factor
affecting graphitization is the solidification rate; the slower the rate,
the greater the tendency for graphite to form. A moderate cooling
rate forms a more pearlitic matrix, while a fast cooling rate forms a
more ferritic matrix. To achieve a fully ferritic matrix the alloy must
be annealed.[1][4] Rapid cooling partly or completely suppresses
graphitization and leads to formation of cementite, which is called
white iron.[5]
The graphite takes on the shape of a three-dimensional flake. In
two dimensions, as a polished surface will appear under a
microscope, the graphite flakes appear as fine lines. The graphite
has no appreciable strength, so they can be treated as voids. The
tips of the flakes act as preexisting notches; therefore, it is
brittle.[5][6] The presence of graphite flakes makes the Grey Iron
easily machinable as they tend to crack easily across the graphite
flakes.Grey iron also has very good damping capacity and hence it
is mostly used as the base for machine tool mountings.
Classifications
In the United States, the most commonly used classification for
gray iron is ASTM International standard A48.[2] This classifies
gray iron into classes which corresponds with its minimum tensile
strength in thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi); e.g. class
20 gray iron has a minimum tensile strength of 20,000 psi
(140 MPa). Class 20 has a high carbon equivalent and a ferrite
matrix. Higher strength gray irons, up to class 40, have lower
carbon equivalents and a pearlite matrix. Gray iron above class 40
requires alloying to provide solid solution strengthening, and heat
treating is used to modify the matrix. Class 80 is the highest class
available, but it is extremely brittle.[5] ASTM A247 is also
commonly used to describe the graphite structure. Other ASTM
standards that deal with gray iron include ASTM A126, ASTM
A278, and ASTM A319.[2]
In the automotive industry the SAE International (SAE) standard
SAE J431 is used to designate grades instead of classes. These
grades are a measure of the tensile strength-to-Brinell hardness
ratio.[2]
Properties of ASTM A48 classes of gray iron[7]
Cla
ss
Tensile
strength
[ksi]
Compressi
ve
strength
[ksi]
Tensile
modulus
(E) [10
6
psi]
20 22 33 10
30 31 109 14
40 57 140 18
60 62.5 187.5 21
Properties of SAE J431 grades of gray iron[7]
Gra
de
Brinell
hardness
t/
h

Description
G18 120187 1 Ferritic-pearlitic
00 3
5
G25
00
170229
1
3
5
Pearlitic-ferritic
G30
00
187241
1
5
0
Pearlitic
G35
00
207255
1
6
5
Pearlitic
G40
00
217269
1
7
5
Pearlitic

t/h = tensile strength/hardness

Advantages and disadvantages[edit]
Gray iron is a common engineering alloy because of its relatively
low cost and good machinability, which results from the graphite
lubricating the cut and breaking up the chips. It also has good
galling and wear resistance because the graphite flakes self
lubricate. The graphite also gives gray iron an excellent damping
capacity because it absorbs the energy.[3]
Relative damping capacity of various metals
Materials
Damping
capacity

Gray iron (high carbon
equivalent)
100500
Gray iron (low carbon
equivalent)
20100
Ductile iron 520
Malleable iron 815
White iron 24
Steel 4
Aluminum 0.465654

Natural log of the ratio of successive amplitudes

Gray iron also experiences less solidification shrinkage than other
cast irons that do not form a graphite microstructure. The silicon
promotes good corrosion resistance and increase fluidity when
casting.[5] Gray iron is generally considered easy to weld.[8]
Compared to the more modern iron alloys, gray iron has a low
tensile strength and ductility; therefore, its impact and shock
resistance is almost non-existent.


Mechanical Properties of Gray Iron - Composition
Microscopically, all gray irons contain flake graphite dispersed in a silicon-
iron matrix. How much graphite is present, the length of the flakes and
how they are distributed in the matrix directly influence the properties of
the iron.
The basic strength and hardness of the iron is provided by the metallic
matrix in which the graphite occurs. The properties of the metallic matrix
can range from those of a soft, low carbon steel to those of hardened,
high carbon steel. The matrix can be entirely ferrite for maximum
machinability but the iron will have reduced wear resistance and strength.
An entirely pearlitic matrix is characteristic of high strength gray irons,
and many castings are produced with a matrix microstructure of both
ferrite and pearlite to obtain intermediate hardness and strength. Alloy
additions and/or heat treatment can be used to produce gray iron with
very fine pearlite or with an acicular matrix structure.
Graphite has little strength or hardness. It decreases these properties of
the metallic matrix,however, the presence of the graphite provides several
valuable characteristics to cast iron. These include:
The ability to produce sound castings economically in complex
shapes such as water cooled engine blocks.
Good machinability even at wear resisting hardness levels and
without burring.
Dimensional stability under differential heating such as in brake
drums and disks.
High vibration damping as in power transmission cases.
Borderline lubrication retention as in internal combustion engine
cylinders.
The properties of gray iron are primarily dependent on its
composition.
The lower strength grades of gray iron can be consistently produced
by simply selecting the proper melting stock. Iron castings in the
higher strength grades require close control of their processing as
well as their composition.
The majority of the carbon in gray iron is present as graphite which has
little strength or hardness. Increasing amounts of graphite result from
increasing the total carbon content of the iron. This decreases the
strength and hardness of the iron, but increases other desirable
characteristics listed above. An appreciable silicon content is also
necessary in gray iron because this element causes the precipitation of
the graphite in the iron. The silicon also contributes to the distinctive
properties of gray iron. It maintains a moderate hardness level even in
the fully annealed condition and thus assures excellent machinability.
Silicon also imparts corrosion and elevated temperature oxidization
resistance to gray iron. The effects of carbon, silicon and phosphorous on
the tensile properties of gray iron are combined into a number called the
carbon equivalent by the following equation:
% Silicon + % Phosphorous Carbon Equivalent = % Total Carbon + 3
This equation indicates the relative amount of the eutectic that forms
during solidification of the iron with 4.3% as 100% eutectic composition.
This equation also, in effect, indicates that on the basis of percent by
weight, the silicon and phosphorous contents of gray iron influence its
tensile properties in the same manner as its total carbon content but only
by one third as much. Other characteristics such as thermal shock
resistance and properties in the foundry do not follow this relationship.
Gray irons can be alloyed to increase their strength and hardness as cast
or to increase their response to hardening by heat treatment. Gray iron
can be annealed to a low hardness to increase machinability. Of course,
this also decreases its strength.

Section Effect
A very important influence on the properties of gray iron is the effective
thickness of the section in which it is cast. The thicker the metal in the
casting and the more compact the casting, the slower the liquid metal will
solidify and cool in the mold. As with all metals, slower solidification
causes a larger grain size to form during solidification. In gray iron, slower
solidification produces a larger graphite flake size. The cooling of a casting
from red heat is in effect a heat treatment. A slower cooling of the casting
will produce a lower hardness in the metallic matrix.
Alternately, iron that is cast into a section that is too thin will solidify very
rapidly and can be file hard. A casting with separate sections that are
appreciably different in thickness can have differences in graphite size and
matrix hardness between the thick and thin sections even though the
entire casting was poured with the same iron. These differences in
structure produce differences in mechanical properties.
Classes of Gray Iron
Gray irons are commonly classified by their minimum tensile strength. A
class 30 gray iron indicates that it has a nominal tensile strength of
30,000 psi. In the International Standard or Sl System a similar iron
would be grade 220 with a tensile strength of 220 MPa (megapascals) or
220 newtons per square millimeter. A class designation may be used to
indicate a grade of iron even when tensile strength is not an important
consideration and may not be specified or tested. However, when the
class designation is used in conjunction with a standard specification that
requires a minimum tensile strength, then actual tensile tests are made to
determine if the metal meets this requirement.
In a particular size or type of casting, gray irons can also be satisfactorily
designated by their Brinell hardness, (see Table 2). This designation has
the advantage of using a nondestructive test that can be applied in
routine inspection. These methods of designation are satisfactory for most
applications because the common engineering properties of gray iron can
be related to its strength and hardness.
The chemical composition of gray iron is not commonly specified because
it does not assure obtaining specific mechanical properties. However, for
special applications some aspect of chemical composition may be specified
to assure the suitability of the iron for a specific need. For example, an
alloy content range may be specified to assure an adequate response to
heat treatment or to provide strength or oxidization resistance in service
at a red heat. A minimum carbon content may be specified to provide
adequate thermal shock resistance.
Table 2. Grades of Automotive Gray Iron Castings Designated by Brinell Hardness as in Specification SAE J431
SAE Grade Specified Hardness BHN* Minimum Tensile Strength for Design Purposes Other Requirements
G1800 187 max 18,000 psi 124 MPa
G2500 170-229 25,000 psi 173 MPa
G2500** 170-221 25,000 psi 173 MPa 3.4% min C and microstructure specified
G3000 187-241 30,000 psi 207 MPa
G3500 207-255 35,000 psi 241 MPa
G3500b** 207-255 35,000 psi 241 MPa 3.4% min C and microstructure specified
G3500c** 207-255 35,000 psi 241 MPa 3.5% min C and microstructure specified
G4000 217-269 40,000 psi 276 MPa
* Hardness at a designated location on the castings.
**For applications such as brake drums, disc and clutch plates to resist the thermal shock
Mechanical Properties of Gray Iron - Hardness
Hardness is the most commonly determined property of metal because it
is a simple test and many of the useful properties of metal are directly
related to its hardness. Within a class or type of gray iron, hardness is a
good indicator of its engineering properties, but this relation is not useful
between types of gray iron because differences in graphite structure have
more of an effect on tensile properties than on hardness. Specifying the
hardness at a designated place on each casting is an excellent method of
establishing consistency of castings in production quantities where the
type of iron being used has been established as satisfactory for the
application. Compression strength does correlate very well with hardness
for all types of iron because hardness is essentially a compression test.
Hardness usually gives a good indication of tool life in machining,
however, the presence of free carbides in the microstructure will reduce
the machinability much more than it increases the hardness.
The typical hardness ranges available in gray iron are listed in Table 3.
The Brinell hardness test is used for all irons because the Brinell test
impression is large enough to average the hardness of the constituents in
the microstructure. Rockwell hardness B or C scale tests can be used
satisfactorily on machined surfaces where the supporting surface is also
machined. Several Rockwell tests should be made and averaged, but
extreme values should be discarded because of inordinate influence by a












flake or a hard constituent.
A conversion chart between Rockwell and Brinell hardness values can be
used accurately for steel but deviations from this relation for steel occur
with gray irons. This deviation increases with high carbon equivalent
irons. The amount of flake graphite present influences the two tests
differently. This is evident from a comparison of microhardness test
results on the matrix of gray irons compared to standard Rockwell C
values on the same irons. The microhardness impressions do not include
the graphite flakes that are present under the Rockwell C hardness
indenter.
For this reason the hardness of gray iron should not be compared directly
to the hardness of other metals for an indication of properties such as
machinability or wear resistance. However, some effective hardness
conversions can be made between selective types of hardnesses.
The hardness is affected by the processing of the gray iron as well as the
composition because these factors influence the microstructure. Hardness
is also related to other properties of gray iron as described in the following
sections.



Microstructure




Table 3. Hardness Ranges for Gray Irons
Type of Gray Iron Matrix Microstructure around Flake Graphite Brinell Hardness
Soft-Annealed All Ferrite 110-140
Ordinary Pearlite and Ferrite 140-200
Higher Strength Fine Pearlite 200-270
Alloyed-Acircular Bainite 260-350
Austenitic (Ni-Resist) Austentite 140-160
Heat Treat Hardened Martensite 480-550
Hardened and Tempered Tempered Martensite 250-450
Chilled (white iron) Pearlite and Carbides 400-500




IMPORTANCE:
1. Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This
type of cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive strength.
Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily
machinable but brittle. Some examples of this type of cast iron are
FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15. The numbers indicate ultimate tensile
strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15% silicon.