Science

The Sun
The Sun is very important to you. You play in sunshine. You see in daylight. The Sun keeps you warm. Even
ancient people knew the Sun was very important. They thought the Sun was a god. The ancient Greeks
thought the Sun god drove a chariot across the sky every day. The ancient Egyptians thought the Sun god
sailed a boat across the sky. Today we know that the Sun is a star. The Sun is the star at the center of our
solar system. Earth and all the other planets orbit, or go around, the Sun. The Sun is very important to all life
on Earth.
THE SUN IS A STAR
The Sun is a stara ball of hot, glowing gas. t does not have any solid parts. t is made up mostly of
hydrogen gas and helium gas.
The Sun is huge compared with Earth. f the Sun were hollow, a million Earths could fit inside it. The Sun
looks small only because it is far away. The average distance from Earth to the Sun is !" million miles #$%&
million kilometers'. You would have to go around the world more than ",(&& times in order to travel that far
on Earth.
The force of Earth)s gravity holds you on the ground. The Sun)s gravity holds Earth and the other planets in
their orbits. t holds asteroids, comets, and dust in orbit.
The Sun is one of about *&& billion stars in the +ilky ,ay Gala-y. . gala-y is a large group of stars. The Sun
and all the other stars orbit the center of the +ilky ,ay.
ENERGY FROM THE SUN
.lmost all the energy on Earth comes from the Sun. /eat from the Sun makes Earth warm enough for life.
0lants use the Sun)s energy to live and grow. 0lants give off a gas called o-ygen. .nimals eat the plants and
breathe the o-ygen. .nimals need plants in order to live, and plants need the Sun.
You use plants to make heat and energy. You can burn wood from trees. You can burn fossil fuels called
coal, gas, and oil. 1ossil fuels formed deep underground from plants and animals that died millions of years
ago.
The Sun)s energy can also do harm. Too much sunlight can burn your skin, causing sunburn. /armful rays
from the Sun can also cause a disease called skin cancer. 2ooking right at the Sun can harm your eyes. You
need to be careful of the Sun.
HOW DID THE SUN FORM?
.stronomers believe our solar system formed about *.3 billion years ago from a swirling cloud of dust and
gas. The Sun formed first at the center of the cloud. Then the planets formed from dust and gas going
around the Sun.
Someday the Sun will burn out. t will use up all the fuel in its core. You don)t need to worry. .stronomers
say that the fuel will last several billion more years.
Flowers
Category: Science
1lower, reproductive organ of most seed4bearing plants. 1lowers carry out the multiple roles of se-ual
reproduction, seed development, and fruit production. +any plants produce highly visible flowers that have a
distinctive si5e, color, or fragrance. .lmost everyone is familiar with beautiful flowers such as the blossoms of
roses, orchids, and tulips. 6ut many plantsincluding oaks, beeches, maples, and grasseshave small,
green or gray flowers that typically go unnoticed
,hether eye4catching or inconspicuous, all flowers produce the male or female se- cells re7uired for se-ual
reproduction.
1lowers are also the site of fertili5ation, which is the union of a male and female se- cell to produce a
fertili5ed egg. The fertili5ed egg then develops into an embryonic #immature' plant, which forms part of the
developing seed. 8eighboring structures of the flower enclose the seed and mature into a fruit.
6otanists estimate that there are more than 9*&,&&& species of flowering plants. /owever, flowering plants
are not the only seed4producing plants. 0ines, firs, and cycads are among the few hundred plants that bear
their seeds on the surface of cones, rather than within a fruit. 6otanists call the cone4bearing plants
gymnosperms, which means naked seeds: they refer to flowering plants as angiosperms, which means
enclosed seeds.
1lowering plants are more widespread than any other group of plants. They bloom on every continent, from
the bogs and marshes of the .rctic tundra to the barren soils of .ntarctica. ;eserts, grasslands, rainforests,
and other biomes display distinctive flower species. Even streams, rivers, lakes, and swamps are home to
many flowering plants.
n their diverse environments, flowers have evolved to become irreplaceable participants in the comple-,
interdependent communities of organisms that make up ecosystems. The seeds or fruits that flowers
produce are food sources for many animals, large and small. n addition, many insects, bats, hummingbirds,
and small mammals feed on nectar, a sweet li7uid produced by many flowers, or on flower products known
as pollen grains. The animals that eat flowers, seeds, and fruits are prey for other animalsli5ards, frogs,
salamanders, and fish, for e-amplewhich in turn are devoured by yet other animals, such as owls and
snakes. Thus, flowers provide a bountiful feast that sustains an intricate web of predators and prey.
1lowers play diverse roles in the lives of humans. ,ildflowers of every hue brighten the landscape, and the
attractive shapes and colors of cultivated flowers beautify homes, parks, and roadsides. The fleshy fruits that
flowers produce, such as apples, grapes, strawberries, and oranges, are eaten worldwide, as are such hard4
shelled fruits as pecans and other nuts. 1lowers also produce wheat, rice, oats, and cornthe grains that
are dietary mainstays throughout the world. 0eople even eat unopened flowers, such as those of broccoli
and cauliflower, which are popular vegetables. 8atural dyes come from flowers, and fragrant flowers, such as
<asmine and damask rose, are harvested for their oils and made into perfumes. =ertain flowers, such as red
clover blossoms, are collected for their medicinal properties, and edible flowers, such as nasturtiums, add
color and flavor to a variety of dishes. 1lowers also are used to symboli5e emotions, as is evidenced by their
use from ancient times in significant rituals, such as weddings and funerals.
1lowers typically are composed of four parts, or whorls, arranged in concentric rings attached to the tip of the
stem. 1rom innermost to outermost, these whorls are the #$' pistil, #9' stamens, #"' petals, and #*' sepals.
Pistil
The innermost whorl, located in the center of the flower, is the female reproductive structure, or pistil. >ften
vase4shaped, the pistil consists of three parts? the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The stigma, a slightly
flared and stickystructure at the top of the pistil, functions by trapping pollen grains, the structures that give
rise to the sperm cells necessary for fertili5ation. The style is a narrow stalk that supports the stigma. The
style rises from the ovary, a slightly swollen structure seated at the base of the flower. ;epending on the
species, the ovary contains one or more ovules, each of which holds one egg cell. .fter fertili5ation, the
ovules develop into seeds, while the ovary enlarges into the fruit. f a flower has only one ovule, the fruit will
contain one seed, as in a peach. The fruit of a flower with many ovules, such as a tomato, will have many
seeds. .n ovary that contains one or more ovules also is called a carpel, and a pistil may be composed of
one to several carpels.
Stamens
The ne-t whorl consists of the male reproductive structures, several to many stamens arranged around the
pistil. . stamen consists of a slender stalk called the filament, which supports the anther, a tiny compartment
where pollen forms. ,hen a flower is still an immature, unopened bud, the filaments are short and serve to
transport nutrients to the developing pollen. .s the flower opens, the filaments lengthen and hold the anthers
higher in the flower, where the pollen grains are more likely to be picked up by visiting animals, wind, or in
the case of some a7uatic plants, by water. The animals, wind, or water might then carry the pollen to the
stigma of an appropriate flower. The placement of pollen on the stigma is called pollination. 0ollination
initiates the process of fertili5ation.
Petals
0etals, the ne-t whorl, surround the stamens and collectively are termed the corolla. +any petals have bright
colors, which attract animals that carry out pollination, collectively termed pollinators. Three groups of
pigmentsalone or in combinationproduce a veritable rainbow of petal colors? anthocyanins yield shades
of violet, blue, and red: betalains create reds: and carotenoids produce yellows and orange. 0etal color can
be modified in several ways. Te-ture, for e-ample, can play a role in the overall effecta smooth petal is
shiny, while a rough one appears velvety. f cells inside the petal are filled with starch, they create a white
layer that makes pigments appear brighter. 0etals with flat air spaces between cells shimmer iridescently.
n some flowers, the pigments form distinct patterns, invisible to humans but visible to bees, who can see
ultraviolet light. 2ike the landing strips of an airport, these patterns, called nectar guides, direct bees to the
nectar within the flower. 8ectar is made in speciali5ed glands located at or near the petal)s base. Some
flowers secrete copious amounts of nectar and attract big pollinators with large appetites, such as bats.
>ther flowers, particularly those that depend on wind or water to transport their pollen, may secrete little or
no nectar. The petals of many species also are the source of the fragrances that attract pollinators. n these
species, the petals house tiny glands that produce essential, or volatile, oils that vapori5e easily, often
releasing a distinctive aroma. >ne flower can make do5ens of different essential oils, which mingle to yield
the flower)s uni7ue fragrance.
Sepals
The sepals, the outermost whorl, together are called the caly-. n the flower bud, the sepals tightly enclose
and protect the petals, stamens, and pistil from rain or insects. The sepals unfurl as the flower opens and
often resemble small green leaves at the flower)s base. n some flowers, the sepals are colorful and work
with the petals to attract pollinators.
2ike virtually all forms in nature, flowers display many variations in their structure. +ost flowers have all four
whorlspistil, stamens, petals, and sepals. 6otanists call these complete flowers. 6ut some flowers are
incomplete, meaning they lack one or more whorls. ncomplete flowers are most common in plants whose
pollen is dispersed by the wind or water. Since these flowers do not need to attract pollinators, most have no
petals, and some even lack sepals. =ertain wind4pollinated flowers do have small sepals and petals that
create eddies in the wind, directing pollen to swirl around and settle on the flower. n still other flowers, the
petals and sepals are fused into structures called a floral tube.
1lowers that lack either stamens or a pistil are said to be imperfect. The petal4like rays on the edge of a
sunflower, for e-ample, are actually tiny, imperfect flowers that lack stamens. mperfect flowers can still
function in se-ual reproduction. . flower that lacks a pistil but has stamens produces pollen, and a flower
with a pistil but no stamens provides ovules and can develop into fruits and seeds. 1lowers that have only
stamens are termed staminate, and flowers that have only a pistil are called pistillate.
.lthough a single flower can be either staminate or pistillate, a plant species must have both to reproduce
se-ually. n some species with imperfect flowers, the staminate and pistillate flowers occur on the same
plant. Such plants, known as monoecious species, include corn. The tassel at the top of the corn plant
consists of hundreds of tiny staminate flowers, and the ears, which are located laterally on the stem, contain
clusters of pistillate flowers. The silks of corn are very long styles leading to the ovaries, which, when ripe,
form the kernels of corn. n dioecious speciessuch as date, willow, and hempstaminate and pistillate
flowers are found on different plants. . date tree, for e-ample, will develop male or female flowers but not
both. n dioecious species, at least two plants, one bearing staminate flowers and one bearing pistillate
flowers, are needed for pollination and fertili5ation.
>ther variations are found in the types of stems that support flowers. n some species, flowers are attached
to only one main stem, called the peduncle. n others, flowers are attached to smaller stems, called pedicels,
that branch from the peduncle. The peduncle and pedicels orient a flower so that its pollinator can reach it. n
the morning glory, for e-ample, pedicels hold the flowers in a hori5ontal position. This enables their
hummingbird pollinators to feed since they do not crawl into the flower as other pollinators do, but hover near
the flower and lick the nectar with their long tongues. Scientists assign specific terms to the different flower
and stem arrangements to assist in the precise identification of a flower. . plant with <ust one flower at the tip
of the pedunclea tulip, for e-ampleis termed solitary. n a spike, such as sage, flowers are attached to
the sides of the peduncle.
Sometimes flowers are grouped together in a cluster called an inflorescence. n an indeterminate
inflorescence, the lower flowers bloom first, and blooming proceeds over a period of days from the bottom to
the top of the peduncle or pedicels. .s long as light, water, temperature, and nutrients are favorable, the tip
of the peduncle or pedicel continues to add new buds. There are several types of indeterminate
inflorescences. These include the raceme, formed by a series of pedicels that emerge from the peduncle, as
in snapdragons and lupines: and the panicle, in which the series of pedicels branches and rebranches, as in
lilac.
n determinate inflorescences, called cymes, the peduncle is capped by a flower bud, which prevents the
stem from elongating and adding more flowers. /owever, new flower buds appear on side pedicels that form
below the central flower, and the flowers bloom from the top to the bottom of the pedicels. 1lowers that
bloom in cymes include chickweed and phlo-.
The life cycle of a flowering plant begins when the seed germinates. t progresses through the growth of
roots, stems, and leaves: formation of flower buds: pollination and fertili5ation: and seed and fruit
development. The life cycle ends with senescence, or old age, and death. ;epending on the species, the life
cycle of a plant may last one, two, or many years. 0lants called annuals carry out their life cycle within one
year. 6iennial plants live for two years? The first year they produce leaves, and in the second year they
produce flowers and fruits and then die. 0erennial plants live for more than one year. Some perennials bloom
every year, while others, like agave, live for years without flowering and then in a few weeks produce
thousands of flowers, fruits, and seeds before dying.
,hatever the life cycle, most plants flower in response to certain cues. . number of factors influence the
timing of flowering. The age of the plant is criticalmost plants must be at least one or two weeks old before
they bloom: presumably they need this time to accumulate the energy reserves re7uired for flowering. The
number of hours of darkness is another factor that influences flowering. +any species bloom only when the
night is <ust the right lengtha phenomenon called photoperiodism. 0oinsettias, for e-ample, flower in winter
when the nights are long, while spinach blooms when the nights are shortlate spring through late summer.
Temperature, light intensity, and moisture also affect the time of flowering. n the desert, for e-ample, heavy
rains that follow a long dry period often trigger flowers to bloom.