Geog 205:

Gateway to Geography
Topic 02:
Geographic Representations
Overview of topic
How we see the world is dictated by our culture
and experiences
How we represent the world is dependent on our
culture and experiences
How we interpret the world is influenced by how
others have shaped our opinions
Technology has changed our world view
Geog 205 (Fall 2014) 2
Part I:
Introduction to Geographic
Representations
Geog 205 (Fall 2014) 3
Representations
System of symbols and images that enable
communication (sharing of meaning) and
understanding.
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Geographic Representations
Among the oldest and most important forms of human
knowledge
graphical (maps and pictures)
verbal (oral or written)
Key issues:
1. What to represent
2. How to represent it
Problems can be approached from different perspectives
Knowledge is power
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cont
Maps/oral/written representations are not
objective forms of knowledge
Hidden agendas and meanings sometimes
unintentional, sometimes not
read between the lines of the map...to discover the
silences and contradictions that challenge the apparent
honesty of the image. We begin to learn that cartographic
facts are only facts within a specific cultural perspective.
Harley (1989, 3)
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Imperfect knowledge
We do not know everything!
Our universe is infinitely complex and we have
imperfect knowledge
Scientific knowledge is a work in progress
Often many ideas compete
Disagreement/debate necessary for progress
Constant change cultural perspectives and
approaches
Seldom can we establish who, or what, is
correct
New information is often needed to resolve issues
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Part II:
Distortions of Space
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Map Scale
The amount of reduction from a globe the same
size as the Earth
Cartographic scale how much a map is reduced
from the original (how much zoom)
Geographic scale how big something is
The distinction is important
A small scale map is used to show large scale
features
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Spatial elements distorted on maps
Shape and angles
conformal
Area
equal area
Distances
Location
Detail
linked to map scale
choice of cartographer
place distortions
Not possible to
preserve area and
shape on a flat map
(except a globe)
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1:50,000 1:25,000
Map scale, areal coverage and detail
1:12,500
Large scale map shows smaller area with more detail
Small scale map shows larger area with less detail
Choice of scale depends on purpose and technology
Choice of scale determines the amount of generalization (distortion)
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Scale and symbology
12
Modified from Heywood et al (2006), Fig 2.11
Geog 205 (Fall 2014)
Latitude and Longitude
Latitude
Reference is equator
Ranges from 0-90 degrees N and S
Longitude
No natural reference point
Reference (prime meridian) at the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich England (0Long)
Ranges from 0 - 180 degrees E and W
Graticule
Arrangement of lines of latitude and longitude
on a map
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Google earth image
showing Alaska
Google earth image
showing Brazil
Brazil
8 500 000 km
2
Alaska
1 700 000 km
2
14
Source: Robin Poitras
Which is larger?
Geog 205 (Fall 2014)
Spatial distortions and maps
15
Source: Robin Poitras
Geog 205 (Fall 2014)
Source: Robin Poitras
16
Mercator (and variants)
commonly used
projections
Conformal
Basis for most
topographic maps
Geog 205 (Fall 2014)
Source: Robin Poitras
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Part III:
Distortions of Place
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It is all about perspective
Luke, you're going to find that many of the
truths we cling to depend greatly on our own
point of view.
Obi Wan Kenobi - Starwars: Episode VI - Return of the Jedi (1983)
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What is your view of the world?
Photo: D. Sjogren
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Mental maps
Everyday notions about spatial location
Based on our sensory experience and memory
Google maps and streetview
merging personal sensory experience with technology
We navigate the world at ground level (our
experience)
informed (or misinformed) by technological advances
Who controls the representations?
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Cognition and representations
Cognition/cognitive processes
Perception, thought process, prior experience and
memory
Cognitive bias and representations
Attaching importance
proximity or familiarity
Cultural biases
how we interpret information
choice of how to represent choice of words or map type
Why do certain symbols work on maps?
culturally significant know your audience
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Symbols that work know your audience
Slocum et al. (2004), Fig 4.4
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Politics of representation
Place filtered through representation
Media / popular culture
Personal / cultural interpretations
Challenges
Authorship
Who makes representations
In whose interests what is their agenda
New ways of seeing (awareness)
New ways of acting
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Part IV:
Technology and our Global View
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Data/information/misinformation
Online access to a plethora of geographic data
Raw and manipulated data in data repositories
Interactive sites for mapping
Navigation
Communication systems enable near real-time
reporting (informal and formal)
Dramatically changing our ability to learn about other
places and people
But, it comes at a price
Who controls the information flow?
What are we not being told?
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Questions for the critical user
1. What is the information you are accessing?
Where did it originate?
2. What were the objectives/biases of the creator?
How has it been manipulated, and why?
Who benefits?
3. Is the data correct or current?
4. What technology is working behind the scene
and what are its limitations?
What are limitations of data collection?
Statistical manipulation/classification techniques
appropriate?
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Google Maps on smartphone
What information is
necessary for this to work?
1. Location information for the
traveler
2. Image that shows the
landscape
3. Data about the location of
roads and how they are
connected
4. Destination address and
location
A. Global Positioning System
B. Remote Sensing
C. Geographic Information
Systems
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A. Global Positioning Systems
USA system consists of:
Satellites (> 24) at ~11,000 miles altitude
Ground receiving/transmitting stations
Receivers (your car GPS, smartphone, hand held
GPS)
GPS constellation
http://www.gps.gov/multimedia/images/
Satellite launch ongoing (first group 1978-85)
Known as NAVSTAR (Navigation System for
Timing and Ranging)
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How it works in a nutshell
Satellites broadcast a
time coded signal
The times it takes for the
signals to reach receiver
are used to determine
distance from the
satellites
Distance from satellites is
converted to location
(latitude and longitude)
http://www8.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.html
http://neethutv.wordpress.com/
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Help! My car is lost!
Errors caused by:
1. Clock errors
2. Atmosphere
3. Multipath
4. Orbit errors
5. # satellites available
6. Satellite location in sky
7. User error
Intentional
1. USA government *
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Other Navigation systems
Russia GLONASS
Satellites launched after 1982
European Union Galileo
Operational after 2018
India - Navigational Satellite System
Operational by 2014
China - Compass Navigation System
Satellite launches are ongoing
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B. Geographic Information System (GIS)
A GIS is a computer system
used for storage, retrieval,
mapping and analysis of
geographic data
Involves extension of
database systems to
accommodate spatial
information analysis and
queries
Primary system used to
manage geospatial
information
Source: unknown, showing different data
layers in a GIS
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Some capabilities of GIS
Input, conversion and display spatial information
Various data is all referenced in the same geographic
space for further analysis
Analyze geometry and spatial relationships
Many applications in transportation and environmental
fields
Cartographic and Geovisualization
By integrating different types of information into maps
and digital representations help make informed
decisions
Use for modeling and forecasting
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GIS two data formats
Both can be used to
represent geographic
features
Vector data:
stored as points, lines, and
polygons
to each feature, attach a
table of attributes
Raster data:
Stored as pixels
Attributes (e.g. colour) stored
as values of the raster grid
Heywood et al. (2006), Fig 3.9
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Resolution
Spatial Resolution
Smallest thing that can be
identified (resolved)
In images usually refers to the
pixel size
Dependent on the sensor
and the distance from object
Resolution and scale are
closely linked, but they
are not the same thing
Heywood et al. (2006), Fig 3.10
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Cartographic v. Geographic Scale
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C. Remote sensing
Definition:
the science and art of obtaining
information about an object, area, or
phenomenon through the analysis of data
acquired by a device that is not in contact
with the object, area, or phenomenon under
investigation. Lillesand & Kieffer
AKA Earth Observation (EO)
Passive
System records energy that comes to it
Active
System sends out energy and records
what comes back
http://hosting.soonet.ca/eliris/remotesensin
g/bl130lec13.html
Source: unknown (shows Passive remote sensing)
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The Electromagnetic (EMR) Spectrum
Electric and magnetic fields traveling at ~ 3 x 10
8
m/s
Emitted by all objects above ~ -273C
Basis for remote sensing sensors measure EMR
http://bc1.lbl.gov/CBP_pages/educational/WoB/index1.htm
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Orbit types
Sun-synchronous
Typical of satellites with environmental applications
Examples: Landsat series, Terra, Aqua
Geostationary
Typical of meteorological and communication
satellites
These orbits allows a satellite to pass over a
section of the Earth at the same time of day
Examples: GOES series, Anik series
Near Polar Orbiting
This allows the satellite to see virtually every part
of the Earth as the Earth rotates underneath it
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Types and applications of EO imagery
Different spatial resolutions for different problems
Low resolution used for large areas high resolution
used for small areas
Different sensors detect different parts of the
EMR spectrum
give different/complementary information
Some problems require specific combinations of
resolution and wavelength
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GeoEye-1 Yushu, China (15 Apr 2010)
Post Earthquake (0.5 m resolution)
http://geoeyemediaportal.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/images/gallery/ge1/hires/yushu_china_04_15_10.jpg
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IKONOS - Natori, Japan (12 Mar 2011)
Post Earthquake (1 m resolution)
http://geoeyemediaportal.s3.amazonaws.com/assets/images/gallery/ge1/hires/natori_japan_03_12_11.jpg
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Landsat 5 Calgary (early 1990s)
Colour Infrared (30 m resolution)
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Data source: Landsat TM processed by D. Sjogren
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GOES 11 East USA (26 Aug 2011)
Hurricane Irene (1 4 km resolution)
http://goes.gsfc.nasa.gov/goescolor/goeseast/hurricane2/color_lrg/latest.jpg
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Radarsat and Envisat (Radar)
http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat2/featured_antarctica.asp
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Representations dangerous waters!
Geographic representations
Human decisions on what and how
Human choices are always accompanied by bias
Cultural undercurrents
Agendas not always obvious (intentional or not)
Technology and representations
Creates a false sense of accuracy or correctness
The same limitations apply even if the representation
came out of a computer
Lesson: Dont take anything at face
value, read between the lines.
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Applications in our Geospatial Revolution
Geog 205 (Fall 2014) 48
Episode 1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=poMGRbfgp38
Episode 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXS0bsR0e7w
Episode 3 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OePOK6nzcaY
Episode 4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9F7z9LLYxf8