1

INDEX

Chapter no. Table of Contents Pg. no.
1. INTRODUCTION TO TOPIC 2
2. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH DESIGN 8
3. STEPS IN PLANNING THE RESEARCH
DESIGN
9
4. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN 11
5. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN 18
6. ISSUE IN RESEARCH DESIGN 19
7. QUALITIES OF RESEARCH DESIGN 21
8. CONCLUSION 24
BIBLOGRAPHY 25



















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Introduction
Research comprises "creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase
the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of
this stock of knowledge to devise new applications." It is used to establish or confirm
facts, reaffirm the results of previous work, solve new or existing problems,
support theorems, or develop new theories. A research project may also be an expansion
on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments,
research may replicate elements of prior projects, or the project as a whole. The primary
purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are
documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development (R&D) of
methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research
depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities
and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic,
economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, etc.
Forms of Research
Scientific research is a systematic way of gathering data, a harnessing of curiosity. This
research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and
the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research is
funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private groups, including
many companies. Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications
according to their academic and application disciplines. Scientific research is a widely
used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such as business
schools, but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of the institution, because
the quality of research does not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily
correlate totally).
Research in the humanities involves different methods such as for
example hermeneutics and semiotics, and a different, more relativist epistemology.
Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question,
but instead explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important,
and context can be social, historical, political, cultural or ethnic. An example of research
in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method.
Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic,
and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.
Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative
works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable
body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its
search for knowledge and truth.


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Types of Research
BASIC RESEARCH
The research which is done for knowledge enhancement, the research which does not
have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for human welfare,
animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental research.
The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something.
There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.
Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. Dr.G.Smoot says
people cannot foresee the future well enough to predict what is going to develop from
the basic research E.g.:-how did the universe begin?
APPLIED RESEARCH
Applied research is designed to solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than
to acquire knowledge for knowledges sake. The goal of applied research is to improve
the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems.
This research is generally conducted on large scale basis, it is expensive. As such, it often
conducted with the support of some financing agency like government, public
corporation, world bank, UNICEF, UGC, Etc., According to hunt, applied research is an
investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems for
example: - improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve
the energy efficiency homes, offices, how can communication among workers in large
companies be improved? Applied research can be further classified as problem oriented
and problem solving research. Problem oriented research: - research is done by industry
apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies. E.g.:- WTO does problem
oriented research for developing countries, in India agriculture and processed food export
development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit of agro-
industry. Problem solving:-this type of research is done by an individual company for the
problem faced by it. Marketing research and market research are the applied research. For
e.g.:- Videocon international conducts research to study customer satisfaction level, it
will be problem solving research. In short, the main aim of applied research is to discover
some solution for some pressing practical problem.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research aims to measure the quantity or amount and compares it with past
records and tries to project for future period. In social sciences, quantitative research
refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to phenomena. The process of
measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative


4
relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative
research. Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and
commerce. Quantitative research involving the use of structured questions, where the
response options have been Pre-determined and large number of respondents is
involved.eg:-total sales of soap industry interims of rupees cores and or quantity interims
of lakhs tones for particular year, say 2008,could be researched, compared with past 5
years and then projection for 2009 could be made.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH.
Qualitative research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is
collecting, analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say.
Qualitative research research refers to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols,
metaphors, and description of things. Qualitative research is much more subjective and
uses very different methods of collecting information, mainly individual, in-depth
interviews and focus groups. The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open
ended. Small number of people is interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number
of focus groups are conducted. Qualitative research can be further classified in the
following type. I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to
understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. E.g.:-we might
interview 20 victims of Bhopal tragedy. II. Ethnography: - this type of research focuses
on describing the culture of a group of people. A culture is the shared attributes, values,
norms, practices, language, and material things of a group of people. E.g.:-the researcher
might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and study the culture and
the educational practices.
\ Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective
and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a
conclusion. This process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the
research method (scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research, or action research).
The process focuses on testing hunches or ideas in a park and recreation setting through a
systematic process. In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another
individual can conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study.
Any research done without documenting the study so that others can review the process
and results is not an investigation using the scientific research process. The scientific
research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are interlinked with the other
steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher must
review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process.
Parks and recreation professionals are often involved in conducting research or
evaluation projects within the agency. These professionals need to understand the eight
steps of the research process as they apply to conducting a study. Table 2.4 lists the steps
of the research process and provides an example of each step for a sample research study.


5
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge
or information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend
nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified is
childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This
serves as the focus of the study.

Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic
under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the
research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area. In the obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to
discover horrifying statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms
of health issues, death rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer
finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The information
discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand the magnitude of the
problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to combat
obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or
broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows
the scope of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The
knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and
narrowing the research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood
obesity as the problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be
studied based on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure
activities, or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study;
therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The
programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000
steps a day for three days a week will improve the individuals health. This purpose is
more narrowly focused and researchable than the original problem.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or
the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to
the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading


6
the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher
must specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of
individuals health can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental,
emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the individuals health is defined as physical
health. The concept of physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways.
In this case, the programmer decides to more narrowly define individual health to refer
to the areas of weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or
concepts more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer,
making it easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts
more understandable to the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific
group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males
or females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group.
Literally thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the
group to study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in
identifying the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in
the study is always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in
several ways. First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one
that is manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the researchers
efforts will be focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on
the right path during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher
identifies the group that the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the
example in table 2.4, the programmer has identified the population of the study as
children ages 10 to 12 years. This narrower population makes the study more manageable
in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan
serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study;
how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is
composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of
this text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate
in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the sample,
which is a smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study
cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller
group is used to represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the
walking program, indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be
collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed.


7
The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study.
This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought through all these decisions and
that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of
data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to
answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data
whether it is from the literature or from subjectsto answer the research question. Data
can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be
collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol
levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the
program. These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking
program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the
variables, the researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the
data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the
data will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The
results of this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to
the research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of
weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the
subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These
two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first
measurement and the second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the
data will be analyzed to determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the
differences are statistically significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of
the study. The results of the study also provide valuable information about one strategy to
combat childhood obesity in the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You
cannot conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the
study is done at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in
either false conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.




8


RESEARCH DESIGNS

The next step after stating the management problem, research purpose, and research
hypotheses and questions, is to formulate a research design. The starting point for the
research design is, in fact, the research questions and hypotheses that have been so
carefully developed. In essence, the research design answers the question: How are we
going to get answers to these research questions and test these hypotheses? The research
design is a plan of action indicating the specific steps that are necessary to provide
answers to those questions, test the hypotheses, and thereby achieve the research purpose
that helps choose among the decision alternatives to solve the management problem or
capitalize on the market opportunity

DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
(1) According to David J. Luck and Ronald S. Rubin, "A research design is the
determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted/or
the particular project. It is the heart of planning. If the design adheres to the research
objective, it will ensure that the client's needs will be served."
(2) According to Kerlinger "Research design in the plan, structure and strategy of
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control
variance."
(3) According to Green and Tull "A research design is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern
or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from
which source by what procedures."

The second definition includes three important terms - plan, structure and strategy. The
plan is the outline of the research scheme on which the researcher is to work. The
structure of the research work is a more specific scheme and the strategy suggests how
the research will be carried out i.e. methods to be used for the collection and analysis of
data. In brief, research design is the blueprint of research. It is the specification of
methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed for solving the problem.
Questionnaires, forms and samples for investigation are decided while framing research
design. Finally, the research design enables the researcher to arrive at certain meaningful
conclusions at the end of proposed study.






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STEPS IN PLANNING THE RESEARCH DESIGN:
There are four broad steps involved in planning the research design as explained below:
(1) Determining work involved in the project:
The first step in planning research design is determining the work involved in the project-
and designing a workable plan to carry out the research work within specific time limit.
The work involved includes the following:
(a) To formulate the marketing problem
(b) To determine information requirement
(c) To identify information sources
(d) To prepare detailed plan for the execution of research project.
This preliminary step indicates the nature and volume of work involved in the research
work. Various forms require for research work will be decided and finalized. The sample
to be selected for the survey work will also be decided. Staff requirement will also be
estimated. Details will be worked out about their training and supervision on field
investigators, etc.

In addition, the questionnaire will be prepared and tested. This is how the researcher will
prepare a blue-print of the research project. According to this blueprint the whole
research project will be implemented. The researcher gets clear idea of the work involved
in the project through such initial planning of the project. Such planning avoids
confusion, misdirection and wastage of time, money and efforts at later stages of research
work. The whole research project moves smoothly due to initial planning of the research
project.

(2) Estimating costs involved:
The second step in planning research design is estimating the costs involved in the
research project. MR projects are costly as the questionnaire is to be prepared in large
number of copies, interviewers are to be appointed for data collection and staff will be
required for tabulation and analysis of data collected. Finally, experts will be required for
drawing conclusions and for writing the research report. The researcher has to estimate
the expenditure required for the execution of the project. The sponsoring organization
will approve the research project and make suitable budget provision accordingly.

The cost calculation is a complicated job as expenditure on different heads will have to
be estimated accurately. The cost of the project also needs to be viewed from the
viewpoint of its utility in solving the marketing problem. A comprehensive research
study for solving comparatively minor marketing problem will be uneconomical.





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(3) Preparing time schedule:
Time factor is important in the execution of the research project. Planning of time
schedule is essential at the initial stage. Time calculation relates to the preparation of
questionnaire and its pre-testing, training of interviewers, actual survey work, tabulation
and analysis of data and finally reports writing. Time requirement of each stage needs to
be worked out systematically. Such study will indicate the time requirement of the whole
project. Too long period for the completion of research work is undesirable as the
conclusions and recommendations may become outdated when actually available.
Similarly, time-consuming research projects are not useful for solving urgent marketing
problems faced by a company.

Preparing time schedule is not adequate in research design. In addition, all operations
involved in the research work should be carried out strictly as per time schedule already
prepared. If necessary remedial measures should be adopted in order to avoid any
deviation in the time schedule. This brings certainty as regards the completion of the
whole research project in time.

(4) Verifying results:
MR findings need to be dependable to the sponsoring organization. Researcher may
create new problems before the sponsoring organization if the research work is conducted
in a faulty manner. Such unreliable study is dangerous as it may create new problems. It
is therefore, necessary to keep effective check on the whole research work during the
implementing stage. For this suitable provisions need to be made in the research design.

After deciding the details of the steps noted above, the background for research design
will be ready. Thereafter, the researcher has to prepare the research design of the whole
project. He has to present the project design to the sponsoring agency or higher
authorities for detailed consideration and approval. The researcher can start the research
project (as per design) after securing the necessary approval to the research design
prepared.









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TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
A research design is like a roadmapyou can see where you currently are, where you
want to be at the completion of your journey, and can determine the best (most efficient
and effective) route to take to get to your destination. We may have to take unforeseen
detours along the way, but by keeping our ultimate objective constantly in mind and
using our map we can arrive at our destination. Our research purpose and objectives
suggest which route (design) might be best to get us where we want to go. but there is
more than one way to "get there from here." Choice of research design is not like solving
a problem in algebra where there is only one correct answer and an infinite number of
wrong ones. Choice of research design is more like selecting a cheesecake recipesome
are better than others but there is no one which is universally accepted as "best."
Successfully completing a research project consists of making those choices that will
fulfill the research purpose and obtain answers to the research questions in an efficient
and effective manner.

Choice of design type is not determined by the nature of the strategic decision faced by
the manager such that we would use research design A whenever we need to evaluate the
extent of a new product opportunity, or design B when deciding on which of two
advertising programs to run. Rather, choice of research design is influenced by a number
of variables such as the decision maker's attitude toward risk, the types of decisions being
faced, the size of the research budget, the decision-making time frame, the nature of the
research objectives, and other subtle and not-so-subtle factors. Much of the choice,
however, will depend upon the fundamental objective implied by the research question:
To conduct a general exploration of the issue, gain some broad insights into the
phenomenon, and achieve a better "feel" for the subject under investigation (e.g.. What
do customers mean by "good value"?).
To describe a population, event, or phenomenon in a precise manner where we can
attach numbers to represent the extent to which something occurs or determine the degree
two or more variables covary (e.g., determine the relationship between age and
consumption rate).
To attribute cause and effect relationships among two or more variables so that we can
better understand and predict the outcome of one variable (e.g., sales) when varying
another (e.g., advertising).









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This classification is frequently used and is quite popular. Before we discuss each of
these design types, a cautionary note is in order. Some might think that the research
design decision suggests a choice among the design types. Although there are research
situations in which all the research questions might be answered by doing only one of
these types (e.g., a causal research experiment to determine which of three prices results
in the greatest profits), it is more often the case that the research design might involve
more than one of these types performed in some sequence. The overall research design is
intended to indicate exactly how the different design types will be utilized to get answers
to the research questions or test the hypothesis.

RESEARCH DESIGN
CAUSAL RESEARCH
EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH DESIGN
CONCLUSIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH
LONGITUDINAL
DESIGN
CROSS-SECTIONAL
DESIGN
SINGLE CROSS-SECTIONAL
DESIGN
MULTIPLE CROSS-SECTIONAL
DESIGNS


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A further cautionary note is needed to warn the reader that while it may appear that if
sequencing is done the sequence would be exploratory, descriptive, and then causal, that
is not always the case. For example, some companies may do an annual survey of
consumers to determine the frequency with which certain behaviors are performed (e.g.,
washing dishes by hand) followed by exploratory research that probes to gain an in-depth
understanding of the circumstances surrounding that behavior (i.e., descriptive then
exploratory rather than exploratory then descriptive). It is not hard to imagine a research
design that might sequence as exploratory, then descriptive, then exploratory again; or
causal, then descriptive. It is important to remember that because a research design is a
plan of action to obtain answers to the research questions, it is those questions that
suggest which design types are necessary and the sequence of conducting those design
types, if a sequence is needed. An example later in this chapter will be used to illustrate
this point. With these cautions in mind we will now discuss the design types in greater
detail.

1. Exploratory Research:
A marketing research study may be either exploratory or full scale. Exploratory research
is conducted when the researcher does not know how and why certain phenomenon
occurs. Here, the hypothetical solutions or actions are explored and evaluated by the
decision-maker, e.g. evaluation of quality of service of a bank/hotel/airline. Here, the
quality cannot be assessed directly as tangible features are not available.

The purpose of exploratory research is to know the unknown. Exploratory research
determines fruitful alternatives that the executive would not have perceived. This also
narrows down the scope of the investigation. Exploratory research is undertaken to get
the answer to the following question. "What alternative courses of action might solve the
problem and thereby reach the final objective?" This research is unstructured in character.
Exploratory studies are important. They may provide adequate information on a decision
situation or may greatly facilitate the design of formal research studies.

To explore means to find out or discover. Exploratory research is conducted in order to
find out causes/reasons behind a specific marketing problem. It is the starting point in all
types of research projects. The purpose of exploratory research is to define the marketing
problem precisely, collect required information/data relating to the problem and identify
alternative courses of action in order to deal with the marketing problem. For example,
advertising campaign of a company may not give positive results in terms of sales. The
failure of campaign may be due to many possible causes relating to advertising copy,
media selected, faulty pre-testing, faulty illustration give, wrong timing of ad. campaign
or finally inadequate follow-up measures to the ad. campaign. In the exploratory
research, the possible causes will be identified, the most appropriate causes will be


14
selected, hypothesis will be developed and research activity will be conducted
accordingly. Survey of consumers, retailers, sales executives and sales-force will be
useful for exploratory research. On some occasions, small scale sales survey may provide
useful data for exploratory research.

In exploratory research, the stress/focus is on the discovery of ideas/causes. For example,
sales may be declining for the last six months. Quick study may be conducted to find out
the causes/factors responsible. Such causes will be listed. Here, an exploratory
study/research may be conducted in order to find out the most likely cause so as to
introduce suitable remedial measures.

The objective of exploratory research is to generate/discover new ideas. The
secondary/published data can be used for exploratory research as such data are easily
available. If the services of respondents are used (for survey purpose), they should be
given full freedom to express themselves. The same rule should be made applicable to
focus groups. Exploratory research is useful for the study of marketing problems about
which sufficient information/details are not available. Exploratory study needs to be
flexible in its approach.
Exploratory Research is used:
To define the problem more precisely
To identify relevant courses of action i.e. find the most likely alternatives, which are
then turned into hypotheses.
Isolate key variables and relationships for further examinations.
Gain insights for developing an approach to a problem.
Establish priorities for further research.

Once a hypothesis is formulated, research is used to determine if the hypothesis was
correct. Hypothesis is tentative answers to questions that serve as guides for most
research projects
Exploratory research may also be involved when the perceived problem is much less
general; it is used to develop the most promising hypotheses. The findings of exploratory
research should be regarded as tentative or as an input to further research. Typically, such
research is followed by further exploratory or conclusive research. The analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
In general, exploratory research is meaningful in any situation in which the researcher
does not have enough understanding to proceed with the research project.



15
2. Conclusive Research Design
Conclusive Research Design is typically more formal and structured than exploratory
research. It is based on large representative samples, and the data obtained are subjected
to quantitative analysis. Conclusive Research is designed to assist (he decision maker in
determining, evaluating and selecting the best course of action to take in a given
situation. As shown in the figure conclusive research designs may be either descriptive or
causal and descriptive designs may be either cross-sectional or longitudinal.

(A) Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is undertaken when the researcher desires to know the
characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, occupation, income or education. The
objective of descriptive research is to answer the "who, what, when, where and how" of
the subject under study/investigation.

Descriptive studies are normally factual and simple. However, such studies can be
complex, demanding scientific skill on the part of researcher.

Descriptive studies are well structured. It tends to be rigid and its approach cannot be
changed often and again. In descriptive studies, the researcher has to give adequate
thought to framing research questions and deciding the data to be collected and the
procedure to be used for this purpose. Data collected may prove to be inadequate if the
researcher is not careful in the initial stages of data collection.

Descriptive research designs are used for some definite purpose. Descriptive research
cannot identify cause and effect relationship.

Descriptive research is designed to describe the present situation or the features of a
group or users of a product. In marketing, such research is undertaken to know the
characteristics of certain groups or users of a product such as age, sex education, income
etc. Such research studies are based on secondary data or survey research.
The major objective of descriptive research is to describe something - usually market
characteristics or functions
A major difference between exploratory and descriptive research is that descriptive
research is characterized by the prior formulation of the hypotheses. Thus, the
information needed is clearly defined. As a result, descriptive research is preplanned and
structured. It is typically based on large representative samples A formal research design
specifies the methods for selecting these sources of information and for collecting data
from those sources.



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Uses of Descriptive Research:
Descriptive research is conducted for the following reasons
1. To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, or
organizations, or market areas. For e.g. we could develop a profile of the "heavy
users" (frequent shoppers) of prestigious department stores such as Shoppers Stop.
2. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain
behavior e.g. the percentage of heavy users of prestigious department stores who also
patronize discount department stores.
3. To determine the " perceptions of product characteristics. For e.g. how do households
perceive the various department stores in terms of salient factors of the choice criteria?
4. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For e.g.: to what
extent is shopping at department stores related to eating out?
5. To make specific predictions. For e.g. what will be retail sales of Shoppers stop
(specific store) for fashion clothing (specific product category) in the Mumbai area
(specific region)?
6. To collect demographic information of consumers/users of a product under study.
7. For finding out views and attitudes of customers, e.g. how many customers prefer
branded goods or ISI marked goods.
8. Make predictions about future marketing trends, consumer needs or expectations or
possible sales after n years.
9. To discover the relationship between certain variables, e.g. sale of toothpaste among
rural population and urban population or rate of savings among low, middle and higher
income groups.

Descriptive research can be divided into the following two categories:

(a) Cross-sectional studies
Cross-sectional study is a study involving a sample of elements from the population of
interest at a single point of time. It is a study concerned with a sample of elements from a
given population. Such sample may deal with households, dealers, retail stores and other
entities. Information/data on a number of characteristics are collected from the sample
elements. Such data are analyzed for drawing conclusions. Cross sectional studies include
field studies and surveys.







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Field studies are conducted is the life situations such as schools, factories, institutions,
etc. Here, the inter-relations among variables are studied under real setting. The cross-
sectional analysis involves counting the simultaneous occurrence of the variables of
interest. Field studies have certain merits and limitations. The important merit is that such
studies are close to real life and cannot be criticized on the ground that they are away
from real settings or are artificial. Field studies are also socially significant. However
such studies are scientifically inferior to laboratory and field experiments. There is also
lack of precision in the measurement of variables.

Cross-sectional study is possible through survey. Survey research is wide in scope.
Detailed information can be collected from a sample of large population. This method is
also economical as more information can be collected per unit of cost. The time required
for sample survey is also less than a census-inquiry. However, in survey research, more
importance is given to information collection and not to in-depth analysis. Secondly,
survey research needs more time and money when conducted on a large scale.

(b) Longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies are based on panel methods and panel data. A panel is a sample of
respondents who are interviewed not only once but thereafter from time to time. Here
data to be collected relate to same variables but the measurements are taken repeatedly.
For example, purchase of grocery products by families/ households at regular intervals.
Such data will reflect/indicate change in the buying behavior of families/households.
There are many advantages and limitations of panel data. Panel data are suitable when the
researcher undertake detailed analysis. Similarly, panel data are more comprehensive as
compared to data collected from individual families. Finally, panel data collected is more
accurate as compared to data collected through survey. These advantages of panel data
improve the quality of research findings and conclusions.

There are certain limitations of panel data. For example, panels used for data collection
may not be representative samples. Panel members may not be co-operative or may leave
the panel membership. As a result, the representative character of the original sample
may be adversely affected. Secondly, panel members may report wrong data. Their
interest may reduce gradually and they may supply information in a casual manner. Their
sense of participation/responsibility may reduce. This will affect the quality of data and
also of findings.

(B) Casual Research:
Casual research design is the third type of research design. As the name indicates, casual
design investigates the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. This


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design measures the extent of relationship between the variables. Casual research designs
attempt to specify the nature of functional relationship between two or more variables.

Casual research is useful to show the impact of one variable on the other. For example,
price and market demand relationship or relationship between market competition and
sales performance. Even the positive/negative effect of advertising on sales can be
studied through casual research. The relationship between the casual factors can be
studied through casual research. In addition, the variables which create effect on other
variables can be studied in depth through casual research.

Data for casual research can be collected through field survey with the help of a
questionnaire or by conducting laboratory experiments / controlled experiments.
Laboratory experiments are possible in the case of testing of new products or package
design.

The casual research design is based on reasoning. The designs for casual research can be
divided into three categories:
(a) Historical
(b) Survey
(c) Experimental.

IMPORTANCE / UTILITY OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is important as it prepares proper framework within which the research
work/activity will be actually carried out Research design acts as a blue print for the
conduct of the whole research project. It introduces efficiency in investigation and
generates confidence in the final outcome of the study. Research design gives proper
direction and time-table to research activity. It keeps adequate check on the research
work and ensures its completion within certain time limit. It keeps the whole research
project on the right track.

Research design avoids possible errors as regards research problem, information
requirement and so on. It gives practical orientation to the whole research work and
makes it relevant to the marketing problems faced by the sponsoring organization.
Finally, it makes the whole research process compact and result-oriented. A researcher
should not go ahead with his research project unless the research design is planned
properly.




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Design Research Issues
There seems to be a tendency among academics to find many different ways of looking at
research and thus create numerous categories and approaches to describing their research
activities. At the European Conference on Research Methodology for Business and
Management Studies at the IE Business School in Madrid last week a distinguished panel
of academics discussed the importance of design research (DR) or design science
research (DSR). All four speakers argued for the importance of design and it is not easy
to disagree with such a proposition. But it was possible to interpret what they said in
different ways as the term design can play more than one role in the way we describe
research.
The first is that any research programme which is intended to lead to a degree or a
publication needs to be planned and the options adopted in the plan may be referred to as
the research design. If a research programme is undertaken without a carefully conceived
research design then its success will be a question of serendipity and sometimes some
people are lucky. The meaning of the word design in this context is not problematic.

The second way in which design needs to be considered is described by Peffers et al.
(2004) when they argue for the needs for a design science research methodology (DSRM)
which they describe as an important discipline oriented to the creation of successful
artifacts (sic). It is not difficult to see that research aimed at the creation of successful
artifacts offers a different set of challenges to what researchers normally face in business
and management studies. Hevner (2004) supports the view that design science research is
different to information systems research and they call for collaboration between the two
approaches.
This seems to be a reasonable use of the word design and it is worth noting that in certain
cases the results of this type of research may not lead to a completed artifact but perhaps
only to a detailed blueprint for its development. Again there is not cause for confusion
here.
The third way the word design is used has roots in the work of Simon (1969) who wrote
about the study of natural systems and the study of artificial ones. According to van Aken
(2005) and based on the Simon distinction, there are two domains of study which are the


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explanatory sciences and the design sciences. Explanatory sciences include physics,
biology, economics and sociology. Examples of design sciences are engineering and
medicine. van Aken argues that there are differences in the core missions of these two
groups of knowledge. van Aken argues that The core mission of an explanatory science
is to develop valid knowledge to understand the natural or social world, or more
specifically to describe, explain and possibly predict. The core mission of a design
science, on the other hand, is to develop knowledge that can be used by professionals in
the field in question to design solutions to their field problems.
I am not sure how useful this distinction between explanatory science and design science
really is. Anything which bears the name science should be explanatory and therefore the
expression explanatory science does not add any value. The term design science does not
do much for us either mostly because the word design can be used in multiple ways as
described above.
This does not in any way reduce the status of the research. It is not appropriate to regard
this type of work as mere consulting because of its practical dimension. When developed
in this way these research results can be used by professionals in the field in question to
design solutions to their field problems. In fact the findings of the research orientated in
this way will directly offer a solution to such problems. Of course not every academic in
every university will agree with the need for the translation of the new theoretical
contribution into practical guidelines for management but there is increasing support for
this approach.

















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10 Distinctive Qualities of Qualitative Research
Researchers conduct qualitative research because they acknowledge the human condition
and want to learn more, and think differently, about a research issue than what is usual
from mostly numerical quantitative survey research data. Not surprisingly, the unique
nature inquiry is characterized by a distinctive set of attributes, all of which impact the
design of qualitative research one way or the other. The 10 unique attributes of
qualitative research are the:
1. Absence of truth With all the emphasis in qualitative research on reality
and the human condition, it might be expected that qualitative inquiry is in the
business of garnering the truth from participants. Instead of truth, the
qualitative researcher collects information from which some level of
knowledge can be gained. The researcher does not acquire this information
and knowledge in a vacuum but rather in a context and, in this way, the
research data are a product of various situational factors. For this reason,
qualitative researchers do not talk about the truth of their findings but rather
the plausibility of their interpretations.
2. Importance of context A relevant factor in the elusiveness of truth is the
central and significant role context plays in qualitative research. Whether it
be the physical environment or mode by which an in-depth interview (IDI),
group discussion, or observation is conducted the outcomes in qualitative
research hinge greatly on the contexts from which we obtain this data.
3. Importance of meaning Although the goal of all research is to draw meaning
from the data, qualitative research is unique in the dimensionality of this
effort. Qualitative researchers derive meaning from the data by way of
multiple sources, evaluating any number of variables such as: the context, the
language, the impact of the participant-researcher relationship, the potential
for participant bias, and the potential for researcher bias.
4. Researcher-as-instrument Along with the emphases on context, meaning,
and the potential for researcher subjectivity, qualitative research is
distinguished by the fact it places the researcher at the center of the data-
gathering phase and, indeed, the researcher is the instrument by which
information is collected. The closeness of the researcher to the research
participants and subject matter instills an in-depth understanding which can
prove beneficial to a thorough analysis and interpretation of the outcomes;
however, this intimacy heightens concerns regarding the researchers ability to
collect (and interpret) data in an objective, unbiased manner.
5. Participant-researcher relationship Closely associated with the idea that the
researcher is the tool by which data are gathered is the important function of


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the participant-researcher relationship in qualitative research and its impact on
research outcomes. This relationship is at the core of IDIs, group discussions,
and participant observation, where participants and researchers share the
research space within which certain conventions for communicating
(knowingly or not) may be formed and which, in turn, shapes the reality the
researcher is capturing in the data.
6. Skill set required of the researcher Qualitative research requires a unique
set of skills from the researcher, skills that go beyond the usual qualities of
organization, attention to detail, and analytical abilities that are necessary for
all researchers. Techniques to build rapport with participants and active
listening skills are only two examples. Qualitative researchers also need a
special class of analytical skills that can meet the demands of messy
analysis (see below) in qualitative inquiry where context, social interaction,
and numerous other inter-connected variables contribute to the realities
researchers take away from the field.
7. Flexibility of the research design A defining characteristic of qualitative
research is the flexibility built into the research design. For instance, it is not
until a focus group moderator is actually in a group discussion that he or she
understands which topical areas to pursue more than others or the specific
follow-up (probing) questions to interject. And, a participant observer has
little control over the activities of the observed and, indeed, the goal of the
observer is to be as unobtrusive and flexible as possible in order to capture the
reality of the observed events.
8. Types of issues or questions effectively addressed by qualitative research
Qualitative research is uniquely suited to address research issues or questions
that might be difficult, if not impossible, to investigate under more structured,
less flexible research designs. Qualitative inquiry effectively tackles:
sensitive or personal issues such as domestic violence and sexual dysfunction;
intricate topics such as personal life histories; nebulous questions such as Is
the current school leadership as effective as it could be?; and contextual
issues such as in-the-moment decision-making. Similarly, qualitative research
is useful at gaining meaningful information from hard-to-reach or underserved
populations such as children of all ages, subcultures, and deviant groups.






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9. Messy analysis and inductive approach Without a doubt, qualitative
research analysis is messy. The analysis of qualitative data does not follow a
straight line, where point A leads to point B, but rather is a multi-layered,
involved process that continually builds upon itself until a meaningful and
verifiable interpretation is achieved. The messiness of the interconnections,
inconsistencies, and seemingly illogical input reaped in qualitative research
demand that researchers embrace the tangles of their data from many
sources. A large contributor to the messiness of the analytical process is the
inductive method. Qualitative researchers analyze their outcomes from the
inside out, organizing and deriving meaning from the data by way of the data
itself.
10. Unique capabilities of online and mobile qualitative research Online and
mobile technology offer unique enhancements to qualitative research
design. In large part, this technology has shifted the balance of power from
the researcher to the online or mobile participant who is given greater control
of the research process by way of more flexibility, convenience, and ways to
respond in greater detail and depth to the researchers questions

























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Conclusion
The value of a research project is determined not just by the new data
obtained, but how the research complements previous investigations and
contributes to our understandings of broad biological topics or to tests of
broad ecological theories, concepts, or general problems in conservation and
managements of biodiversity just as individual research question influence
the quality of data collected, suites of related question within a research
goals such as synthesis of general topics and developments of new questions
and hypothesis that will guide future research.


























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BIBLOGRAPHY

http://en.wikipedia.org/
https://www.google.co.in
http://www.slideshare.net/
http://universalteacher.com/