6.

003: Signals and Systems

Discrete-Time Systems
September 13, 2011
1
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2
Discrete-Time Systems
We start with discrete-time (DT) systems because they
are conceptually simpler than continuous-time systems
illustrate same important modes of thinking as continuous-time
are increasingly important (digital electronics and computation)
3
Multiple Representations of Discrete-Time Systems
Systems can be represented in dierent ways to more easily address
dierent types of issues.
Verbal description: To reduce the number of bits needed to store
a sequence of large numbers that are nearly equal, record the rst
number, and then record successive dierences.
Dierence equation:
y[n]=x[n]x[n1]
Block diagram:
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
We will exploit particular strengths of each of these representations.
4
Dierence Equations
Dierence equations are mathematically precise and compact.
Example:
y[n] =x[n]x[n1]
Let x[n] equal the unit sample signal [n],

1, if n= 0;
[n] =
0, otherwise.
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
We will use the unit sample as a primitive (building-block signal)
to construct more complex signals.
5
Check Yourself
Solve
y[n]=x[n]x[n1]
given
x[n]=[n]
How many of the following are true?
1. y[2]>y[1]
2. y[3]>y[2]
3. y[2]=0
4. y[n]y[n1]=x[n]2x[n1]+x[n2]
5. y[119]=0
6
Step-By-Step Solutions
Dierence equations are convenient for step-by-step analysis.
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Find y[n] given x[n] = [n]: y[n] = x[n] x[n 1]
y[1] = x[1] x[2] = 0 0 = 0
y[0] = x[0] x[1] = 1 0 = 1
y[1] = x[1] x[0] = 0 1 = 1
y[2] = x[2] x[1] = 0 0 = 0
y[3] = x[3] x[2] = 0 0 = 0
. . .
7
Check Yourself
Solve
y[n]=x[n]x[n1]
given
x[n]=[n]
How many of the following are true? 4
1. y[2]>y[1]

2. y[3]>y[2] X
3. y[2]=0

4. y[n]y[n1]=x[n]2x[n1]+x[n2]

5. y[119]=0

8
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
9
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
1 1
1
0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
10
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
1 0
1
0 1
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
11
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
1 0 1
0
0 1
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
12
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
0 1
0
1
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
13
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
0 1
0
1 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
14
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
0 0
0
1 0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
15
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
0 0
0
0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
16
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis.
Represent y[n] =x[n]x[n1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 Delay
+
0 0
0
0
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
17
Check Yourself
DT systems can be described by dierence equations and/or
block diagrams.
Dierence equation:
y[n]=x[n]x[n1]
Block diagram:
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
In what ways are these representations dierent?
18
Check Yourself
Inwhat waysaredierenceequationsdierentfrom block diagrams?
Dierence equation:
y[n] =x[n]x[n1]
Dierence equations are declarative.
They tell you rules that the system obeys.
Block diagram:
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
Block diagrams are imperative.
They tell you what to do.
Block diagrams contain more information than the corresponding
dierence equation (e.g., what is the input? what is the output?)
19
From Samples to Signals
Lumping all of the (possibly innite) samples into a single object
the signal simplies its manipulation.
This lumping is an abstraction that is analogous to
representing coordinates in three-space as points
representing lists of numbers as vectors in linear algebra
creating an object in Python
20
From Samples to Signals
Operators manipulate signals rather than individual samples.
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
Nodes represent whole signals (e.g., X and Y).
The boxes operate on those signals:
Delay = shift whole signal to right 1 time step
Add = sum two signals
1: multiply by 1
Signals are the primitives.
Operators are the means of combination.
21
Operator Notation
Symbols can now compactly represent diagrams.
Let R represent the right-shift operator:
Y =R{X} RX
where X represents the whole input signal (x[n] for all n) and Y
represents the whole output signal (y[n] for all n)
Representing the dierence machine
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
with R leads to the equivalent representation
Y =XRX =(1R)X
22
Operator Notation: Check Yourself
Let Y =RX. Which of the following is/are true:
1. y[n]=x[n] for all n
2. y[n+1]=x[n] for all n
3. y[n]=x[n+1] for all n
4. y[n1]=x[n] for all n
5. none of the above
23
Check Yourself
Consider a simple signal:
Then
Clearly y[1]=x[0].
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
X
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
Y = RX
Equivalently, if n=0, then y[n+1]=x[n].
The same sort of argument works for all other n.
24
Operator Notation: Check Yourself
Let Y =RX. Which of the following is/are true:
1. y[n]=x[n] for all n
2. y[n+1]=x[n] for all n
3. y[n]=x[n+1] for all n
4. y[n1]=x[n] for all n
5. none of the above
25
Operator Representation of a Cascaded System
System operations have simple operator representations.
Cascade systems multiply operator expressions.
1 Delay
+
1 Delay
+
X
Y
1
Y
2
Using operator notation:
Y
1
=(1R)X
Y
2
=(1R)Y
1
Substituting for Y
1
:
Y
2
=(1R)(1R)X
26
Operator Algebra
Operator expressions can be manipulated as polynomials.
1 Delay
+
1 Delay
+
X
Y
1
Y
2
Using dierence equations:
y
2
[n]=y
1
[n]y
1
[n1]
= (x[n]x[n1])(x[n1]x[n2])
=x[n]2x[n1]+x[n2]
Using operator notation:
Y
2
=(1R)Y
1
=(1R)(1R)X
=(1R)
2
X
=(12R+R
2
)X
27
Operator Approach
Applies your existing expertise with polynomials to understand block
diagrams, and thereby understand systems.
28
Operator Algebra
Operator notation facilitates seeing relations among systems.
Equivalent block diagrams (assuming both initially at rest):
1 Delay
+
1 Delay
+
X
Y
1
Y
2
Delay
Delay
2
+
X Y
Equivalent operator expressions:
(1R)(1R) = 12R+R
2
The operator equivalence is much easier to see.
29
Check Yourself
Operator expressions for these equivalent systems
(if started at rest) obey what mathematical property?
Delay 1
+ Delay
X Y
Delay
Delay Delay 1
+
X Y
1. commutate 2. associative
3. distributive 4. transitive
5. none of the above
30
Delay 1
+ Delay
X Y
Check Yourself
Y =R(1R)X
Delay
Delay Delay 1
+
X Y
Y =(RR
2
)X
Multiplication by R distributes over addition.
31
Check Yourself
Operator expressions for these equivalent systems
(ifstartedatrest)obeywhatmathematicalproperty? 3
Delay 1
+ Delay
X Y
Delay
Delay Delay 1
+
X Y
1. commutate 2. associative
3. distributive 4. transitive
5. none of the above
32
Check Yourself
How many of the following systems are equivalent to
Y =(4R
2
+4R+1)X ?
Delay 2
+ Delay 2
+
X Y
Delay + Delay 4
+
X Y
Delay 4
+
Delay
+
X Y
33
Check Yourself
Delay 2
+ Delay 2
+
X Y
Y =(2R+1)(2R+1)X

Delay + Delay 4
+
X Y
Y =(4R
2
+4R+1)X

Delay 4
+
Delay
+
X Y
Y =(4R
2
+4R+1)X

All implement Y =(4R

2
+ 4R+1)X
34
Check Yourself
How many of the following systems are equivalent to
Y =(4R
2
+4R+1)X ? 3
Delay 2
+ Delay 2
+
X Y
Delay + Delay 4
+
X Y
Delay 4
+
Delay
+
X Y
35
Operator Algebra: Explicit and Implicit Rules
Recipes versus constraints.
Recipe: subtract a right-shifted version of the input signal from a
copy of the input signal.
1 Delay
+
X Y
Y =(1R)X
Constraint: the dierence between Y and RY is X.
Delay
+
X Y
Y =RY +X
(1R)Y =X
But how does one solve such a constraint?
36
Example: Accumulator
Try step-by-step analysis: it always works. Start at rest.
+
Delay
x[n] y[n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Find y[n] given x[n] = [n]: y[n] = x[n] + y[n 1]
y[0] = x[0] + y[1] = 1 + 0 = 1
y[1] = x[1] + y[0] = 0 + 1 = 1
y[2] = x[2] + y[1] = 0 + 1 = 1
. . .
37
Example: Accumulator
Try step-by-step analysis: it always works. Start at rest.
+
Delay
x[n] y[n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Find y[n] given x[n] = [n]: y[n] = x[n] + y[n 1]
y[0] = x[0] + y[1] = 1 + 0 = 1
y[1] = x[1] + y[0] = 0 + 1 = 1
y[2] = x[2] + y[1] = 0 + 1 = 1
. . .
Persistent response to a transient input!
38
Example: Accumulator
The response of the accumulator system could also be generated by
a system with innitely many paths from input to output, each with
one unit of delay more than the previous.
Y =(1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+ )X
Delay
Delay Delay
Delay Delay Delay
+
... ...
X Y
39
Example: Accumulator
These systems are equivalent in the sense that if each is initially at
rest, they will produce identical outputs from the same input.
(1R)Y
1
=X
1
? Y
2
=(1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+ )X
2
Proof: Assume X
2
=X
1
:
Y
2
=(1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+ )X
2
=(1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+ )X
1
=(1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+ )(1R)Y
1
=((1+R+R
2
+R
3
+ )(R+R
2
+R
3
+ ))Y
1
=Y
1
It follows that Y
2
=Y
1
.
It also follows that (1R) and (1+R+R
2
+R
3
+ ) are reciprocals.
40
Example: Accumulator
Thereciprocalof1Rcanalsobeevaluatedusingsyntheticdivision.
Therefore
1 +R
+R
2
+R
3
+
1 R 1
1 R
R
R R
2
R
2
R
2
R
3
R
3
R
3
R
4

1
= 1 +R+R
2
+R
3
+R
4
+
1R
41
Feedback
Systems with signals that depend on previous values of the same
signal are said to have feedback.
Example: The accumulator system has feedback.
Delay
+
X Y
By contrast, the dierence machine does not have feedback.
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
42
Cyclic Signal Paths, Feedback, and Modes
Block diagrams help visualize feedback.
Feedback occurs when there is a cyclic signal ow path.
R
R
2
+
X Y
Delay
+
X Y
acyclic cyclic
Acyclic: all paths through system go from input to output with no
cycles.
Cyclic: at least one cycle.
43
Feedback, Cyclic Signal Paths, and Modes
The eect of feedback can be visualized by tracing each cycle
through the cyclic signal paths.
Delay
+
p
0
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Each cycle creates another sample in the output.
44
Feedback, Cyclic Signal Paths, and Modes
The eect of feedback can be visualized by tracing each cycle
through the cyclic signal paths.
Delay
+
p
0
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Each cycle creates another sample in the output.
45
Feedback, Cyclic Signal Paths, and Modes
The eect of feedback can be visualized by tracing each cycle
through the cyclic signal paths.
Delay
+
p
0
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Each cycle creates another sample in the output.
46
Feedback, Cyclic Signal Paths, and Modes
The eect of feedback can be visualized by tracing each cycle
through the cyclic signal paths.
Delay
+
p
0
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
x[n] = [n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Each cycle creates another sample in the output.
The response will persist even though the input is transient.
47
Check Yourself
How many of the following systems have cyclic signal
paths?
R
R
+ +
X Y
+ +
R R
X Y
R
+ +
X Y
+ +
R R
X Y
48
Check Yourself
How many of the following systems have cyclic signal
paths? 3
R
R
+ +
X Y
+ +
R R
X Y
R
+ +
X Y
+ +
R R
X Y
49
Finite and Innite Impulse Responses
The impulse response of an acyclic system has nite duration, while
that of a cyclic system can have innite duration.
1 Delay
+
X Y
Delay
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
50
Analysis of Cyclic Systems: Geometric Growth
If traversing the cycle decreases or increases the magnitude of the
signal, then the fundamental mode will decay or grow, respectively.
If the response decays toward zero, then we say that it converges.
Otherwise, we it diverges.
51
Check Yourself
How many of these systems have divergent unit-sample
responses?
Delay 0.5
+
X Y
Delay 1.2
+
X Y
Delay 0.5
+
1.2 Delay
X Y
52
Check Yourself
Delay 0.5
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Delay 1.2
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Delay 0.5
+
1.2 Delay
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
53
X

X
Check Yourself
Delay 0.5
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Delay 1.2
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
Delay 0.5
+
1.2 Delay
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
54
Check Yourself
How many of these systems have divergent unit-sample
responses? 1
Delay 0.5
+
X Y
X
Delay 1.2
+
X Y

Delay 0.5
+
1.2 Delay
X Y
X
55
Cyclic Systems: Geometric Growth
If traversing the cycle decreases or increases the magnitude of the
signal, then the fundamental mode will decay or grow, respectively.
Delay 0.5
+
X Y
Delay 1.2
+
X Y
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
1 0 1 2 3 4
n
y[n]
These are geometric sequences: y[n]=(0.5)
n
and (1.2)
n
for n0.
These geometric sequences are called fundamental modes.
56
Multiple Representations of Discrete-Time Systems
Now you know four representations of discrete-time systems.
Verbal descriptions: preserve the rationale.
To reduce the number of bits needed to store a sequence of
large numbers that are nearly equal, record the rst number,
and then record successive dierences.
Dierence equations: mathematically compact.
y[n] =x[n]x[n1]
Block diagrams: illustrate signal ow paths.
1 Delay
+ x[n] y[n]
Operator representations: analyze systems as polynomials.
Y =(1R)X
57
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6.003 Signals and Systems
Fall 2011
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