Structural engineering

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Structural engineering deals with the making of complex systems like theInternational Space Station, here seen from
the departing Space Shuttle Atlantis.
Structural engineers investigating NASAs !ars"#ound spacecraft, the$hoenix !ars %ander
&he 'iffel &ower is a historical achievement of structural engineering.
Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and design
of structures that support or resist loads. Structural engineering is usually considered a specialty
within civil engineering, #ut it can also #e studied in its own right.
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Structural engineers are most commonly involved in the design of #uildings and large non#uilding
structures
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#ut they can also #e involved in the design of machinery, medical e,uipment, vehicles or
any item where structural integrity affects the items function or safety. Structural engineers must
ensure their designs satisfy given design criteria, predicated on safety -e.g. structures must not
collapse without due warning. or servicea#ility and performance -e.g. #uilding sway must not cause
discomfort to the occupants..
Structural engineering theory is #ased upon physical laws and empirical knowledge of the structural
performance of different materials and geometries. Structural engineering design utili/es a num#er
of simple structural elements to #uild complex structural systems. Structural engineers are
responsi#le for making creative and efficient use of funds, structural elements and materials to
achieve these goals.
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Contents
(hide*
) Structural 'ngineer -$rofessional.
+ 0istory of Structural 'ngineering
1 &imeline
2 Speciali/ations
3 Structural elements
4 See also
5 6eferences
7 'xternal links
8 Further reading
Structural Engineer (Professional)(edit*
Main article: Structural Engineer
Structural engineers are responsi#le for engineering design and analysis. 'ntry"level structural
engineers may design the individual structural elements of a structure, for example
the #eams, columns, and floors of a #uilding. !ore experienced engineers may #e responsi#le for
the structural design and integrity of an entire system, such as a #uilding.
Structural engineers often speciali/e in particular fields, such as #ridge engineering, #uilding
engineering, pipeline engineering, industrial structures, or special mechanical structures such as
vehicles, ships or aircraft.
Structural engineering has existed since humans first started to construct their own structures. It
#ecame a more defined and formalised profession with the emergence of the architecture profession
as distinct from the engineering profession during the industrial revolution in the late )8th century.
9ntil then, the architect and the structural engineer were usually one and the same " the master
#uilder. :nly with the development of specialised knowledge of structural theories that emerged
during the )8th and early +;th centuries did the professional structural engineer come into existence.
&he role of a structural engineer today involves a significant understanding of #oth static and
dynamic loading, and the structures that are availa#le to resist them. &he complexity of modern
structures often re,uires a great deal of creativity from the engineer in order to ensure the structures
support and resist the loads they are su#<ected to. A structural engineer will typically have a four or
five year undergraduate degree, followed #y a minimum of three years of professional practice
#efore #eing considered fully ,ualified. Structural engineers are licensed or accredited #y different
learned societies and regulatory #odies around the world -for example, the Institution of Structural
'ngineers in the 9=.. >epending on the degree course they have studied and?or the <urisdiction they
are seeking licensure in, they may #e accredited -or licensed. as <ust structural engineers, or as civil
engineers, or as #oth civil and structural engineers. Another international organisation
is IA@S' -Internation Association for @ridge and Structural 'ngineering..
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&he aim of that
association is to exchange knowledge and to advance the practice of structural engineering
worldwide in the service of the profession and society.
History of Structural Engineering(edit*
Main article: History of structural engineering
$ont du Aard, France, a 6oman era a,ueduct circa )8 @B.
Structural engineering dates #ack to +5;; @.B.'. when the step pyramid for $haraoh ><oser was
#uilt #y Imhotep, the first engineer in history known #y name. $yramids were the most common
ma<or structures #uilt #y ancient civili/ations #ecause the structural form of a pyramid is inherently
sta#le and can #e almost infinitely scaled -as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot
#e linearly increased in si/e in proportion to increased loads..
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0owever, it is important to note that the structural sta#ility of the pyramid is not primarily a result of
its shape. &he integrity of the pyramid is intact as long as each of the stones is a#le to support the
weight of the stone a#ove it.
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&he limestone #locks were taken from a ,uarry near the #uild site.
Since the compressive strength of limestone is anywhere from 1; to +3; !$a -!$a C $a D );E4.,
the #locks will not fail under compression.
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&herefore the structural strength of the pyramid stems
from the material properties of the stones from which it was #uilt rather than the pyramids geometry.
&hroughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out
#y artisans, such as stone masonsand carpenters, rising to the role of master #uilder. No theory of
structures existed, and understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and #ased
almost entirely on empirical evidence of what had worked #efore. =nowledge was retained
#y guilds and seldom supplanted #y advances. Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale
were incremental.
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No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural mem#ers or the #ehavior of
structural material, #ut the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial
6evolution and the re"invention of concrete -see 0istory of Boncrete.. &he physical
sciences underlying structural engineering #egan to #e understood in the6enaissance and have
since developed into computer"#ased applications pioneered in the )85;s.
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Timeline(edit*
)23+F)3)8 %eonardo da Ginci made many contri#utions
)417H Aalileo Aalilei pu#lished the #ook I&wo New SciencesI in which he examined the
failure of simple structures
Aalileo Aalilei pu#lished the #ook I&wo New SciencesI in which he examined the failure of simple structures
)44;H 0ookes law #y 6o#ert 0ooke
)475H Isaac Newton pu#lished I$hilosophiae Naturalis $rincipia !athematicaI which
contains the Newtons laws of motion
Isaac Newton pu#lished I$hilosophiae Naturalis $rincipia !athematicaI which contains theNewtons laws of motion
)53;H 'ulerF@ernoulli #eam e,uation
)5;;F)57+H >aniel @ernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work
)5;5F)571H %eonhard 'uler developed the theory of #uckling of columns
%eonhard 'uler developed the theory of #uckling of columns
)7+4H Blaude"%ouis Navier pu#lished a treatise on the elastic #ehaviors of structures
)751H Barlo Al#erto Bastigliano presented his dissertation IIntorno ai sistemi elasticiI, which
contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain energy. &his
theorem includes the method of least work as a special case
)752H :tto !ohr formali/ed the idea of a statically indeterminate structure.
)8++H &imoshenko corrects the 'uler"@ernoulli #eam e,uation
)814H 0ardy Bross pu#lication of the moment distri#ution method, an important innovation in
the design of continuous frames.
)82)H Alexander 0rennikoff solved the discreti/ation of plane elasticity pro#lems using a
lattice framework
)82+H 6. Bourant divided a domain into finite su#regions
)834H J. &urner, 6. W. Blough, 0. B. !artin, and %. J. &opps paper on the IStiffness and
>eflection of Bomplex StructuresI introduces the name Ifinite"element methodI and is widely
recogni/ed as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today
Structural failure(edit*
Main articles: Structural failure and List of structural failures and collapses
&he history of structural engineering contains many collapses and failures. Sometimes this is due to
o#vious negligence, as in the case of the$Ktionville school collapse, in which 6ev. Fortin Augustin
said that "he constructed the building all by himself, saying he didnt need an engineer as he had
good knowledge of construction" following a partial collapse of the three"story schoolhouse that sent
neigh#ors fleeing. &he final collapse killed 82 people, mostly children.
In other cases structural failures re,uire careful study, and the results of these in,uiries have
resulted in improved practices and greater understanding of the science of structural engineering.
Some such studies are the result of forensic engineering investigations where the original engineer
seems to have done everything in accordance with the state of the profession and accepta#le
practice yet a failure still eventuated. A famous case of structural knowledge and practice #eing
advanced in this manner can #e found in a series of failures involving#ox girders which collapsed in
Australia during the )85;s.
Specializations(edit*
Building structures(edit*
See also: !uilding engineering
Sydney :pera 0ouse, designed #y:ve Arup L $artners, with the architectJMrn 9t/on
!illennium >ome in %ondon, 9=, #y@uro 0appold and 6ichard 6ogers
@ur< =halifa, in >u#ai, the worlds tallest #uilding, shown under construction in +;;5 -since completed.
Structural #uilding engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of #uildings. It
is the #ranch of structural engineering that is close to architecture.
Structural #uilding engineering is primarily driven #y the creative manipulation of materials and forms
and the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional
re,uirements and is structurally safe when su#<ected to all the loads it could reasona#ly #e expected
to experience. &his is su#tly different from architectural design, which is driven #y the creative
manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and light to achieve an end which
is aesthetic, functional and often artistic.
&he architect is usually the lead designer on #uildings, with a structural engineer employed as a su#"
consultant. &he degree to which each discipline actually leads the design depends heavily on the
type of structure. !any structures are structurally simple and led #y architecture, such as multi"
storey office #uildings and housing, while other structures, such as tensile
structures, shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on their form for their strength, and the
engineer may have a more significant influence on the form, and hence much of the aesthetic, than
the architect.
&he structural design for a #uilding must ensure that the #uilding is a#le to stand up safely, a#le to
function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must
account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and imposed loads. It must
also ensure that the design is practically #uilda#le within accepta#le manufacturing tolerances of the
materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the #uilding services to fit within the #uilding
and function -air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting etc... &he structural
design of a modern #uilding can #e extremely complex, and often re,uires a large team to complete.
Structural engineering specialties for #uildings includeH
'arth,uake engineering
FaNade engineering
Fire engineering
6oof engineering
&ower engineering
Wind engineering
Earthquake engineering structures(edit*
Main article: Earth"uake engineering structures
Earthquake engineering structures are those engineered to withstand earth,uakes.
'arth,uake"proof pyramid 'l Bastillo, Bhichen It/a
&he main o#<ectives of earth,uake engineering are to understand the interaction of structures with
the shaking ground, foresee the conse,uences of possi#le earth,uakes, and design and construct
the structures to perform during an earth,uake.
Snapshot from shake"ta#le video ()* of testing #ase"isolated -right. and regular -left. #uilding model
'arth,uake"proof structures are not necessarily extremely strong like the 'l Bastillo pyramid at
Bhichen It/a shown a#ove. In fact, many structures considered strong may in fact #e stiff, which can
result in poor seismic performance.
:ne important tool of earth,uake engineering is #ase isolation, which allows the #ase of a structure
to move freely with the ground.
Civil engineering structures(edit*
Bivil structural engineering includes all structural engineering related to the #uilt environment. It
includesH
Bridges
Dams
Earthworks
Foundations
Offshore structures
Pipelines
Power stations
Railways
Retaining structures and
walls
Roads
Tunnels
Waterways
Water and wastewater
infrastructure
&he structural engineer is the lead designer on these structures, and often the sole designer. In the
design of structures such as these, structural safety is of paramount importance -in the 9=, designs
for dams, nuclear power stations and #ridges must #e signed off #y achartered engineer..
Bivil engineering structures are often su#<ected to very extreme forces, such as large variations in
temperature, dynamic loads such as waves or traffic, or high pressures from water or compressed
gases. &hey are also often constructed in corrosive environments, such as at sea, in industrial
facilities or #elow ground.
Mechanical structures(edit*
!echanical Structures
$rinciples of structural engineering are applied to variety of mechanical -movea#le. structures. &he
design of static structures assumes they always have the same geometry -in fact, so"called static
structures can move significantly, and structural engineering design must take this into account
where necessary., #ut the design of movea#le or moving structures must account for fatigue,
variation in the method in which load is resisted and significant deflections of structures.
&he forces which parts of a machine are su#<ected to can vary significantly, and can do so at a great
rate. &he forces which a #oat or aircraft are su#<ected to vary enormously and will do so thousands
of times over the structures lifetime. &he structural design must ensure that such structures are a#le
to endure such loading for their entire design life without failing.
&hese works can re,uire mechanical structural engineeringH
@oilers and pressure vessels
Boachworks and carriages
Branes
'levators
'scalators
!arine vessels and hulls
Aerospace structures(edit*
An Air#us A17;, the worlds largest passenger airliner
>esign of missile needs in depth understanding of Structural Analysis
Aerospace structure types include launch vehicles, -Atlas, >elta, &itan., missiles -A%B!,
0arpoon., 0ypersonic vehicles -Space Shuttle., military aircraft -F")4, F")7. and commercial aircraft
-@oeing 555, !>")).. Aerospace structures typically consist of thin plates with stiffeners for the
external surfaces, #ulkheads and frames to support the shape and fasteners such as welds, rivets,
screws and #olts to hold the components together.
Nanoscale structures(edit*
A nanostructure is an o#<ect of intermediate si/e #etween molecular and microscopic -micrometer"
si/ed. structures. In descri#ing nanostructures it is necessary to differentiate #etween the num#er of
dimensions on the nanoscale. Nanotextured surfaces have one dimension on the nanoscale, i.e.,
only the thickness of the surface of an o#<ect is #etween ;.) and );; nm. Nanotu#es
(disambiguation
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have two dimensions on the nanoscale, i.e., the diameter of the tu#e is #etween ;.) and );; nmO
its length could #e much greater. Finally, spherical nanoparticles have three dimensions on the
nanoscale, i.e., the particle is #etween ;.) and );; nm in each spatial dimension. &he terms
nanoparticles and ultrafine particles -9F$. often are used synonymously although 9F$ can reach
into the micrometre range. &he term nanostructure is often used when referring to magnetic
technology.
Structural Engineering for Medical Science(edit*
>esigning !edical ',uipment needs in"depth understanding of Structural 'ngineering
!edical e,uipment -also known as armamentarium. is designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring
or treatment of medical conditions. &here are several #asic typesH >iagnostic e,uipment includes
medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis O e,uipment includes infusion pumps, medical
lasers and %ASI= surgical machines O !edical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patients
medical state. !onitors may measure patient vital signs and other parameters including 'BA,''A,
#lood pressure, and dissolved gases in the #lood O >iagnostic !edical ',uipment may also #e used
in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for the control of dia#etes mellitus. A #iomedical e,uipment
technician -@!'&. is a vital component of the healthcare delivery system. 'mployed primarily #y
hospitals, @!'&s are the people responsi#le for maintaining a facilitys medical e,uipment.
Structural elements(edit*
Main article: Space frame
A statically determinate simply supported #eam, #ending under an evenly distri#uted load.
Any structure is essentially made up of only a small num#er of different types of elementsH
Bolumns
@eams
$lates
Arches
Shells
Batenaries
!any of these elements can #e classified according to form -straight, plane ? curve. and
dimensionality -one"dimensional ? two"dimensional.H
One-dimensional Two-dimensional
straight curve plane curve
(predominantly !ending !eam continuous arch plate" concrete sla! lamina" dome
(predominant tensile stress rope" tie #atenary shell
(predominant compression pier" column $oad%!earing wall
Columns(edit*
Main article: #olumn
Bolumns are elements that carry only axial force " compression " or #oth axial force and #ending
-which is technically called a #eam"column #ut practically, <ust a column.. &he design of a column
must check the axial capacity of the element, and the #uckling capacity.
&he #uckling capacity is the capacity of the element to withstand the propensity to #uckle. Its
capacity depends upon its geometry, material, and the effective length of the column, which depends
upon the restraint conditions at the top and #ottom of the column. &he effective length is
where is the real length of the column.
&he capacity of a column to carry axial load depends on the degree of #ending it is su#<ected to, and
vice versa. &his is represented on an interaction chart and is a complex non"linear relationship.
Beams(edit*
Main article: !eam
Little !eltH a truss #ridge in>enmark
A #eam may #e defined as an element in which one dimension is much greater than the other two
and the applied loads are usually normal to the main axis of the element. @eams and columns are
called line elements and are often represented #y simple lines in structural modeling.
cantilevered -supported at one end only with a fixed connection.
simply supported -supported vertically at each endO hori/ontally on only one to withstand
friction, and a#le to rotate at the supports.
fixed -supported at #oth ends #y fixed connectionO una#le to rotate at the supports.
continuous -supported #y three or more supports.
a com#ination of the a#ove -ex. supported at one end and in the middle.
@eams are elements which carry pure #ending only. @ending causes one part of the section of a
#eam -divided along its length. to go into compression and the other part into tension. &he
compression part must #e designed to resist #uckling and crushing, while the tension part must #e
a#le to ade,uately resist the tension.
Trusses(edit*
Main article: $russ
&he !c>onnell $lanetarium #y Ayo :#ata in St %ouis, !issouri, 9SA, a concrete shell structure
&he 41; foot -)8+ m. high, stainless"clad -type 1;2. Aateway Arch in Saint %ouis, !issouri
A truss is a structure comprising two types of structural elementsO compression mem#ers and
tension mem#ers -i.e. struts and ties.. !ost trusses use gusset plates to connect intersecting
elements. Ausset plates are relatively flexi#le and minimi/e #ending moments at the connections,
thus allowing the truss mem#ers to carry primarily tension or compression.
&russes are usually utilised in large"span structures, where it would #e uneconomical to use solid
#eams.
Plates(edit*
$lates carry #ending in two directions. A concrete flat sla# is an example of a plate. $lates are
understood #y using continuum mechanics, #ut due to the complexity involved they are most often
designed using a codified empirical approach, or computer analysis.
&hey can also #e designed with yield line theory, where an assumed collapse mechanism is
analysed to give an upper #ound on the collapse load -see $lasticity.. &his techni,ue is used in
practice
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#ut #ecause the method provides an upper"#ound, i.e. an unsafe prediction of the
collapse load, for poorly conceived collapse mechanisms great care is needed to ensure that the
assumed collapse mechanism is realistic.
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Shells(edit*
Main article: $hin%shell structure
See also: &ridshell
Shells derive their strength from their form, and carry forces in compression in two directions. A
dome is an example of a shell. &hey can #e designed #y making a hanging"chain model, which will
act as a catenary in pure tension, and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.
Arches(edit*
Main article: Arch
Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only, which is why it is appropriate to #uild
arches out of masonry. &hey are designed #y ensuring that the line of thrust of the force remains
within the depth of the arch. It is mainly used to increase the #ountifulness of any structure.
Catenaries(edit*
Main article: $ensile structure
Batenaries derive their strength from their form, and carry transverse forces in pure tension #y
deflecting -<ust as a tightrope will sag when someone walks on it.. &hey are almost always ca#le or
fa#ric structures. A fa#ric structure acts as a catenary in two directions.
Structural engineering theory(edit*
Main article: Structural engineering theory
Figure of a #olt in shear stress. &op figure illustrates single shear, #ottom figure illustrates dou#le shear.
Structural engineering depends upon a detailed knowledge of applied mechanics, materials
science and applied mathematics to understand and predict how structures support and resist self"
weight and imposed loads. &o apply the knowledge successfully a structural engineer generally
re,uires detailed knowledge of relevant empirical and theoretical design codes, the techni,ues
of structural analysis, as well as some knowledge of the corrosion resistance of the materials and
structures, especially when those structures are exposed to the external environment. Since the
)88;s, specialist software has #ecome availa#le to aid in the design of structures, with the
functionality to assist in the drawing, analy/ing and designing of structures with maximum precisionO
examples include AutoBA>, Staad$ro, '&A@S, $rokon, 6evit Structure etc. Such software may also
take into consideration environmental loads, such as from earth,uakes and winds.
Materials(edit*
Main article: Structural material
Structural engineering depends on the knowledge of materials and their properties, in order to
understand how different materials support and resist loads.
Bommon structural materials areH
IronH Wrought iron, Bast iron
BoncreteH 6einforced concrete, $restressed concrete
AlloyH Steel, Stainless steel
!asonry
&im#erH 0ardwood, Softwood
Aluminium
Bomposite materialsH $lywood
:ther structural materialsHAdo#e, @am#oo, Bar#on fi#re, Fi#er reinforced
plastic, !ud#rick, 6oofing materials