Elementary Statistics

Chapter 2

A Step by Step Approach

Sixth Edition

by
Allan G. Bluman
http://www.mhhe.com/math/stat/blumanbrief

Frequency Distributions
and
Graphs

SLIDES PREPARED
BY
LLOYD R. JAISINGH
MOREHEAD STATE UNIVERSITY
MOREHEAD KY
Updated by
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi
King Abdulaziz University

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Objectives

Notes

1-1

Organize

data using frequency distributions.

Represent data in frequency distributions
graphically using histograms, frequency
polygons and ogives.

Represent data using bar chart, Pareto chart,
pie graph and time series graph.

Draw and interpret a stem and leaf plot.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Organizing Data

Notes

2-2

When data are collected in original form,

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they are called raw data.

When the raw data are organized into a table

which called frequency distribution, the
frequency will be the number of values in a
specific class of the distribution.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Organizing Data

Notes

2-3

A frequency distribution is the organization of

raw data in a table form, using classes and
frequencies.

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Types of frequency distributions are

categorical frequency distribution, ungrouped

frequency distribution and grouped frequency
distribution.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Notes

Why Construct Frequency Distributions?

2-4

To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.

To enable the reader to make comparisons
among different data sets.

................

To facilitate computational procedures

for measures of average and spread.

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To enable the reader to determine the

nature or shape of the distribution.
To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for
the presentation of data.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Categorical Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-5

When

the sample size (n) is large, the data

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must be grouped into categories.

Categorical Frequency Distributions are

used for data that can be placed in specific
categories, such as nominal or ordinal level
data.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Categorical Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-6

Example:

A
O

B B
AB B

Blood Type Frequency Distribution

AB O
B A

O
A

A
O

O
B

O
B

B
O

A
O

B
O

O
A

AB
O

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Class Frequency Percent

A

21%

29%

11

39%

AB

11%

Total

28

100%

frequency
f
f
=
= %
Total
f
n

Sample Size

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-7

Ungrouped frequency distributions are used

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for data that can be enumerated and when

the range of values in the data set is small
and the sample size (n) is large.

Example: number of children in a family.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Ungrouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-8

Example: Number of miles traveled by 16

instructors from their houses to university.
10

20

20

20

10

20

10

20

Class Frequency

Cumulative
Frequency

50%

10

8+3=11

19%

20

11+5=16

31%

Total

16

100%

Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Grouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-9

When

the range of the data is large, the data must

be grouped into classes that are more than one
unit in width, e.g., 24 30.

The lower class limit represents the smallest data
value that can be included in a class, e.g., 24 in
the class limit 24 30.

The upper class limit represents the largest value
that can be included in the class, e.g., 30 in the
class limit 24 30.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Grouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-10

The class boundaries are used to separate the classes

so that there are no gaps in the frequency
distribution. It can be found by subtracting 0.5 from
the last digit in the lower class limit and adding 0.5 to
the last digit in the upper class limit e.g., 23.5 30.5
for the class limit 24 30 and 2.65 6.85 for the
class limit 2.7 6.8.
Rule of Thumb: Class limits should have the same
decimal place value as the data, but the class
boundaries have one additional place value and end
in a 5.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Notes

Finding Class Boundaries

2-11

The

class width for a class in a frequency

distribution is found by subtracting the lower

(or upper) class limit of one class from the
lower (or upper) class limit of the next class.

The

class midpoint is found by adding the

lower and upper boundaries (or limits) and

dividing by 2.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Notes

Class Rules
2-12

There should be between 5 and 20 classes.

As a guide line, the number of classes can be
found using Number of Classes 1+ 3.3 log(n )

The class width should be an odd number.

The classes must be mutually exclusive.

The classes must be continuous.

The classes must be exhaustive.

The classes must be equal in width.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Procedure for Constructing

a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Notes

2-13

Find the highest (H) and lowest (L) value.

Find the range (R).
R=H L

Select the number of classes desired, usually
between 5 and 20.

Find the width by dividing the range by the
number of classes and rounding up.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Procedure for Constructing

a Grouped Frequency Distribution

Notes

2-14

Select a starting point (usually the lowest

value); add the width to get the lower limits.

Find the upper class limits.

Find the boundaries.

Tally the data.

Find the numerical frequencies from the
tallies.

Find the cumulative frequencies.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Grouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-15

Example: Added

cost per vehicle use due to

bad roads.
165
153
113
136
171
90
141
147

186
208
135
136
179
187
85
165

122
169
131
127
152
136
91
163

172
156
125
112
155
159
170
159

140
114
177
188
116
97
111
150

Class Limits
85103
104122
123141
142160
161179
180198
199217
Total

Class
Boundary
84.5103.5
103.5122.5
122.5141.5
141.5160.5
160.5179.5
179.5198.5
198.5217.5

Tally
////
//// /
//// ////
//// ///
//// ////
///
/
40

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Grouped Frequency Distributions

Notes

2-16

Example: Added

cost per vehicle use due to

bad roads frequency distribution

Class Limits
85103
104122
123141
142160
161179
180198
199217
Total

Class
Boundary
84.5103.5
103.5122.5
122.5141.5
141.5160.5
160.5179.5
179.5198.5
198.5217.5
-

Class
Midpoint
94
113
132
151
170
189
208
-

Frequency
4
6
9
8
9
3
1
40

U pper + L ow er
2

Cumulative
%
Frequency
4
10%
10
15%
19
22.5%
27
20%
36
22.5%
39
7.5%
40
2.5%
100%

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Notes

The Role of Graphs

2-17

The purpose of graphs in statistics is to

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represent the data to the viewer in pictorial

form.

Graphs are useful in getting the audiences

attention in a publication or a presentation.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-18

The histogram displays the continuous data that are

organized in a grouped frequency distribution by
using vertical bars of various heights to represent the
frequencies.

Class Boundary Frequency

4
6
9
8
9
3
1

Total

40

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Added Cost Per Vehicle Use Due to Bad Roads

Frequency

84.5103.5
103.5122.5
122.5141.5
141.5160.5
160.5179.5
179.5198.5
198.5217.5

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

84.5

103.5

122.5

141.5

160.5

179.5

198.5 217.5

Classes Boundaries

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-19

The frequency polygon displays the continuous data

that are organized in a grouped frequency distribution
by using lines that connect points plotted for the
frequencies at the midpoints of the classes.
Class
Midpoint
94
113
132
151
170
189
208

4
6
9
8
9
3
1

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Added Cost Per Vehicle Use Due to Bad Roads

Frequency
Frequency

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
75

94

113

132

151

170

189

208

227

Classes Midepoint

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-20

The cumulative frequency graph or ogive represents

the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a
grouped frequency distribution.

Class
Cumulative
Boundary Frequency
84.5103.5
4
103.5122.5
10
122.5141.5
19
141.5160.5
27
160.5179.5
36
179.5198.5
39
198.5217.5
40

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Added Cost Per Vehicle Due to Bad

Roads
Cumulative Frequency

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
84.5

103.5

122.5

141.5

160.5

179.5

198.5

217.5

Classes Boundaries

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-21

Relative frequency graph

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Graphs of relative frequencies used instead of

frequencies when the proportion of data
values that fall into a given class is more
important than the actual number of data
values that fall into that class.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-22

Relative frequency example:

frequency
f
f
=
=
Total
f n

Relative
Relative Cumulative
Cumulative
Frequency
Frequency Frequency
Frequency

Class
Boundary

84.5103.5
103.5122.5
122.5141.5
141.5160.5
160.5179.5
179.5198.5
198.5217.5

4
6
9
8
9
3
1

0.1
0.15
0.225
0.2
0.225
0.075
0.025

4
10
19
27
36
39
40

0.1
0.25
0.475
0.675
0.90
0.975
1

Total

40

n =

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Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-23

The histogram

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Added Cost Per Vehicle Use Due to Bad Roads

0.25

Relative Frequency

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

84.5

103.5

122.5

141.5

160.5

179.5

198.5

217.5

Classes Boundaries

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-24

The frequency polygon

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227

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Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Added Cost Per Vehicle Use Due to Bad Roads

Relative Frequency

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
75

94

113

132

151

170

189

208

Classes Midepoint

The Most Common Graphs

Notes

2-25

The cumulative frequency graph or ogive

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Cumulative Relative Frequency

Added Cost Per Vehicle Due to Bad Roads

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
84.5

103.5

122.5

141.5

160.5

179.5

198.5

217.5

Classes Boundaries

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-26

The bar charts displays the data by using vertical

bars of various heights to represent the frequencies
of discrete or categorical variables.
Education
Frequency
Levels
Elementary
22
Secondary
15
High School
27
Bachelor
30
Master
12
PhD
8
Total
114

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Education Level
35
30

Frequency

25
20
15
10
5
0
Elementary Secondary High School

Bachelor

Master

PhD

Levels

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-27

A Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency

distribution for categorical variable. The frequencies
are displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which
are arranged in order from highest to lowest.
Method

Frequency

Walk
Auto
Bus
Train
Trolley
Total

5
25
15
11
13
69

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How People Get to Work

Frequency

30
20
10
0
Auto

Bus

Trolley

Train

Walk

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-28

The pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections

according to the percentage of frequencies in each
f
n

category of the distribution, Degree = 360 .

Class

Frequency Percentage
6

21.43%

77.14

28.57%

102.86

11

39.29%

141.43

AB

10.71%

38.57

Total

28

100%

360

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Blood Type

Degree

21.43%
39.29%
28.57%

10.71%

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-29

The time series graph represents data that occur over

a specific period of time.
Year Domestic
1998
48685
1999
47621
2000
50827
2001
49229
2002
53224
2003
54476
2004
55221
2005
54483
2006
49622
2007
46240

Cargo and Mail Traffic in an airport

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56000
54000

Cargo and Mail Traffic

52000
50000
48000
46000
44000
42000
40000
1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Year

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

10

Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-30

A stem-and-leaf plot is a data plot that uses

part of a data value as the stem, the most
significant digit (i.e. the tens), and the other
part of the data value as the leaf, the less
significant digits (the units), to form groups
or classes.

It has the advantage over grouped frequency
distribution of retaining the actual data while
showing them in a graphic form.

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-31

The ages of a sample of a university

instructors are shown below. Construct a
stem and leaf plot and analyze the data.
57
61
57
57
58
57
61

54
68
51
49
64
48
65

52
56
46
54
49
50
47

55
55
54
42
51
56
55

51
54
51
60
62
43
55

56
61
52
69
64
46
54

Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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Other Types of Graphs

Notes

2-32

The majority of the university instructors were in their

50s.
Dr. Saeed Alghamdi, Statistics Department, Faculty of Sciences, King Abdulaziz University

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