ADC(S.E.

Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Chapter No. 4
Angle Modulation
Angle modulation encompasses phase modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM). The phase angle
of a sinusoidal carrier signal is varied according to the modulating signal. In angle modulation, the spectral
components of the modulated signal are not related in a simple fashion to the spectrum of the modulating
signal. Superposition does not apply and the bandwidth of the modulated signal is usually much greater than
the modulating signal bandwidth.
Definitions
A bandpass signal is represented by
sc(t) = A(t) cos (t) (9.1)
where A(t) is the envelope and (t) = ct + (t) = 2 fct + (t). For angle modulation, we can write
sc(t) = A cos [2fct + (t)]
where A is a constant and (t) is a function of the modulating signal. (t) is called the instantaneous phase
deviation of sc(t).
The instantaneous angular frequency of sc(t) is defined as [1]

In terms of frequency, the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) is [2]

is known as the instantaneous frequency deviation. The peak (maximum) frequency
deviation is [1]


Phase Modulation
For PM, the instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the modulating signal mp(t):
(t) = kp mp(t)
where kp is a constant. Thus, a phase-modulated signal is represented by
sc(t) = A cos [2fct + kp mp(t)]
Substituting equation (9.7) into (9.5), the instantaneous frequency of sc(t) can be written as

The peak (maximum) phase deviation is
ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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The phase modulation index is given by
p =

For Frequency Modulation, The Instantaneous frequency can be written as,

Figure shows the modulating signal mf(t), the instantaneous frequency fi(t), and the FM signal when a
sawtooth signal is used as a modulating signal.



ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Lecture No.

Generation of Angle-Modulated Signal
It can be seen from equations and that PM and FM differ only by a possible integration or differentiation of
the modulating signal. From the above equations we obtain

If we differentiate the modulating signal mp(t) and frequency-modulate using the differentiated signal, we
get a PM signal. On the other hand, if we integrate the modulating signal mf(t) and phase-modulate using the
integrated signal, we get a FM signal. Therefore, we can generate a PM signal using a frequency modulator
or we can generate a FM signal using a PM modulator. This is shown in Figure
Figure 4.2 Generation of (a) PM using a frequency modulator, and (b) FM using a
phase modulator.
ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Figure 4.3 is an example of an FM modulator system. In this system, an AF source provides the modulating
signal to an FM source consisting of a varactor-tuned crystal oscillator. The FMsource has as its output a
center frequency f with frequency deviation df. The signal is fed to the frequency multiplier having a
multiplication factor of k. The output of this stage has a center frequency of kf and a deviation of k df. That
signal is then upconverted to the desired transmit frequency and amplified with an amplifier chain and a
power amplifier. The output then is filtered and fed to the antenna.
The varactor-tuned crystal oscillator in Figure 4.3 is a direct FM modulator, a system frequently used in
portable and mobile transmitters. Frequency multiplication often is used with this system because of the
small frequency deviation that is possible. Another FM modulator is the phase-shift modulator. The phase-
shift method of producing FM is shown in Figure


Fig :-4.3 Varactor-tuned crystal oscillator FM modulator

ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Fig 4.4 :- Phase-shift method of producing FM.
The phase-shift modulator in Figure 4.4 is an indirect FM modulator. This system uses a controllable
conductance in combination with a fixed reactance to vary the phase delay of signals. Since this modulator
directly varies the phase of the signal rather than the frequency, it is necessary to integrate the input AF
signal before the modulator. The PLL method for producing FM is shown in Figure 4.5 This is also an
indirect FM modulator. Again, the system produces phase modulation rather than FM, and it is necessary to
integrate the AF signal before modulation. The signal is introduced into the system as an error voltage. The
system responds to the injected error voltage by adjusting the VCO to produce the specified phase shift
between its output and the reference signal.
It is common practice with FM modulator and receiver systems to use preemphasis and deemphasis as a
means of improving the link signal-to-noise ratio. Noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating
frequencies than on the lower ones. If the higher frequencies are artificially boosted in amplitude before
modulation, noise will have less effect. This process is known as preemphasis. To recover the audio signal
in its original form, we must reduce the amplitude of the higher frequencies at the receiver to the same
degree they were boosted. That process is known as deemphasis. The net result of using this combination is
that the signal-to-noise
ratio is improved for the higher frequencies.
The Fig 4.5 below shows the PLL method of generating FM
ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Lecture No.
NBFM and WBFM

Generation of Narrowband PM and Narrowband FM
The generation of narrowband PM and narrowband FM signals is easily accomplished in
view of equations (9.27) and (9.28). This is shown in Figure

ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Wideband Frequency Modulation
Consider the angle-modulated signal sc(t) = Acos (2 fct + sin 2 fmt) with sinusoidal modulating signal
m(t) = am cos 2 fmt. It can be shown that sc(t) can also be written as

Where


The integral is known as the Bessel function of the first kind of the n-th order and
cannot be evaluated in closed form. Figure 10.1 shows some Bessel functions for n = 0,
1, 2, 3, and 8. Clearly, the value of Jn() becomes small for large values of n.
Figure of the Bessel Functions
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Therefore we can write
sc(t) = A{J0()cos 2fct -
J1()[cos 2(fc - fm)t - cos 2(fc + fm)t ] +
J2()[cos 2(fc - 2fm)t + cos 2(fc + 2fm)t ] -
J3()[cos 2(fc - 3fm)t - cos 2(fc + 3fm)t ] + ...}

Observations:
1. The spectrum consists of a carrier component at fc plus sideband components at fc + nfm (n = 1, 2, ...).
2. The number of sideband terms depends on the modulation index .
3. The magnitude of the carrier signal decreases rapidly as increases.
4. The amplitudes of the spectral lines depend on the value of Jn()
5. The bandwidth of the modulated signal with a sinusoidal modulating signal increases as increases, and
the bandwidth of the modulated signal is larger than 2f.

The Figure below shows the amplitude spectra of FM signals with a sinusoidal modulating signal
and a fixed peak frequency deviation f . Clearly, we get more and more spectral lines
crowding into a fixed frequency interval as fm decreases.

ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
Notes prepared by Sejal Shah

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Generation of Wideband FM

Indirect Method.
In this method, a narrowband frequency-modulated signal is first generated using an integrator and a phase
modulator. A frequency multiplier is then used to increase the peak frequency deviation from f to nf. Use
of frequency multiplication normally increases the carrier frequency from fc to n fc. A mixer or double-
sideband modulator is required to shift the spectrum down to the desired range for further frequency
multiplication or transmission. This is shown in Figure


Figure 4.8 Indirect method of generating WFM.

Direct Method.
Here the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the modulating signal. A common method
used for generating direct FM is to vary the inductance L or capacitance C of a voltage-controlled oscillator
(VCO). This is shown in Figure 4.9
ADC(S.E.Comps)IV
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Figure 4.9 Direct method of generating WFM.
The oscillator uses a high-Q resonant circuit. Variations in the inductance or capacitance of the
oscillator will change its oscillating frequency. Assuming that the capacitance of the tuned circuit varies
linearly with the modulating signal m(t), we have
C = k m(t) + C0
C = C + C0
where
C = k m(t)
k is a constant and C0 is the capacitance of the VCO when the input signal to the oscillator is zero. The
instantaneous frequency is given by


where the zero-input-signal resonance frequency is

For C << C0, we can write

Where
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Although the change in capacitance may be small, the frequency deviation f may be quite large if the
resonance frequency fc is large. We can alternatively vary the inductance to achieve the same effect.
Advantage - Large frequency deviations are possible and thus less frequency multiplication
is needed.
Disadvantage - The carrier frequency tends to drift and additional circuitry is required for
frequency stabilisation.
To stabilise the carrier frequency, a phase-locked loop can be used. This is shown in
Figure 4.10


Figure 4.10 Direct method of generating WFM with frequency stabilisation.

References

[1] L. W. Couch II, Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 5/e, Prentice
Hall, 1997.
10.7