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Functional Analysis

The document discusses functional analysis and metric spaces. It defines functional analysis as studying algebraic, geometric, and topological structures underlying classical problems by replacing individual functions with classes of functions. It then defines metric spaces, providing the four axioms a metric must satisfy and examples of metric spaces including Euclidean and Hilbert spaces. The summary discusses concepts in metric spaces like open and closed sets, convergence of sequences, Cauchy sequences, and completeness.

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143 views5 pages

Functional Analysis

The document discusses functional analysis and metric spaces. It defines functional analysis as studying algebraic, geometric, and topological structures underlying classical problems by replacing individual functions with classes of functions. It then defines metric spaces, providing the four axioms a metric must satisfy and examples of metric spaces including Euclidean and Hilbert spaces. The summary discusses concepts in metric spaces like open and closed sets, convergence of sequences, Cauchy sequences, and completeness.

Uploaded by

djdayah
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS.

INTRODUCTION.
Functional analysis is a branch of mathematics that studies the algebraic,geometric and
topological strucutres of spaces and operators that underlie many classical problems. Individual
functions satisfying specific equations are replaced by classes of functions and transforms that
are determined by the particular problems at hand.(Mahdavi).
The french mathematcian Maurice Frechet (1878-1973) is attributed with the development of
abstract spaces, through his Phd. Thesis which dealt with the calculus of functionals in which he
introduced one of the major spaces , the Metric space. This paper is a summary of an
introduction into functional analysis and its applications that will cover core concepts and
theorems about spaces. The spaces include; Metric space, normed space, banach space and the
hilbert space. The main theorems dicussed in the paper include, but are not limited to uniformed
boundedness , Hanach Banach, open mapping and closed graph theorem.
This summary paper will discuss the some of the main concepts in each space,by first defining
them, naming its properties , giving some examples and some proofs of theorems, while others
will be referenced. The notation used will be introduced and specified as necessary when applied
to the specific theorems or proofs in which they are used.














METRIC SPACE
Definition:

A metric space is a pair where is a metric and is a metric on ( or distance function
on ) that is a function defined on such that for all we have the following
properties.

I. is real valued ,finite anad non-negative.
II.
III. )
IV.

This properties are referred to as axioms of a Metric , where is the underlying set of ,
with its elements called points. for a fixed non-negative x,y is the distance between x and
y.
A subspace

) of is called the metric induced on which is obtained by taking


a subset
The following are some examples of metric spaces and to prove that they are actual metric
spaces , the axioms of a metric must be satisfied.


a) The Euclidean Space

, Unitary space

, Complex plane .
If









Then the Euclidean metric is defined by;




The Unitary space

metric is defined by;



|



When n =1, the result is the complex plane
| |

Note : The Real number line, the Euclidean Plane

and the three dimensional Euclidean space

are special cases of the Euclidean Space

, and the resulting definition satisfied the axioms


of a metric and were derived and extended from axiom IV the triangle inequality illustrated
below.




Other examples include:

sequence space , where each element in the space is a sequence defined by





|


|

Function Space [ ], where each element is a function defined by



| |

Space

is of special interest because when ,

is the infamous Hilbert Sequence space,


and in proving axiom IV, it introduces two important inequalities ,the H lder inequality and the
Minkoswki inequality for sums.

Space

is defined by letting be a fixed number and (



)





which
are elements of the space and are all sequences such that |

|

|

|

converge, then
we have

|

|



Then the metric is defined by
|

where

and |

|



The Hilbert space introduced by David Hilbert (1912) in connection with the study of integral
equation , which shall be discussed in detail later on was introduced through space

, and is
defined by
|



The four steps to prove that space

is a metric are deriving ;



i. an auxiliary inequality
ii. the H lder inequality from (i)
iii. The minkowski inequality from (ii)
iv. The triangle inequality from(iii).

The details of the proofs is found in (Kreyszig 12-15).

There are other auxiliary concepts in connnection to Metric spaces , and due to the similiarity of
the concepts to those in Real analysis , I will just mention and define and leave the proofs out ,
but they are still of importance because they are also used in generating other properties in other
spaces. The auxiliary concepts include open sets, closed sets, convergence, cauchy sequence, and
completeness.

OPEN AND CLOSED SETS.

To define open and closed sets , we first define and open ball, closed ball and sphere.

{ |

} (Open ball)

{ |

} (Closed ball)

{ |

} (Sphere)
Where

is the center and the radius.



Definitions;

A subset M of a metric space X is said to be open if it contains a ball about each of its points. A
subset K of M is said to be closed if its complement in X is open , that is

is open.

An open ball

of radius is often called an of

where , a
neighborhood of

is any subset X of that contains an of

is an interior point of a set if M is a neighborhood of

.

A metric space is also a Topological space defined by space( such that ,the
union of any members of is a member of and the intersection of finitely many members of
is also a member of

Continuous Mapping: If you have two metric spaces,

. A mapping
is said to be continuous at a point

if for every such


that

T is said to be continuous if it
is continuous at every point in X.

Accumulation Point: A point

of metric space M a subspace of X(which may or may not be in


M) is called an Accumulation point of M, if every neighborhood

contains atleast one


point distinct from

.

Closure of M (

) is the set consisting of the points of M and the accumulation points of M.


A subset M of is metric X is said to be dense in X if

and X is separable if it has a


countable subset that is dense in X.


CONVERGENCE, CAUCHY SEQUENCE AND COMPLETENESS.

Definitions:
A sequence

in a metric space is said to be convergent if there is an such


that

and is the limit of

written as

or



A sequence

in a metric space is said to be Cauchy if for every


such that

( for every m,n )



The space X is said to be complete if every Cauchy sequence in X converges.
An example of completeness proof , using the

, which I chose because when p=2, is the


Hilbert space.
Steps for constructing completness proofs are as follows:
Construct an element ( to be used as a limit).
Prove that is in the space considered
Prove that convergence

( in the sense of the metric)



Completeness of


The space

is complete, here p is fixed and


Let

be any sequence in the space

, where

. Then for every there is


an N, such that for all m,n>N.

(i)
It follows that for every j=1,2,.. we have

|

| for (m,n ( ii)



We then choose a fixed j, from (ii) we see that

. Is a Cauchy sequence of
numbers . it converges since R and C are complete say


Using these limits we define

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