H

Mechanical Properties of
High-Alloy and White Iron
igh-alloy and white irons, or special
irons, are an important part of the
cast iron family. The alloy content of high-
alloy iron exceeds 3%, and the metal can-
not be produced by ladle additions to oth-
erwise standard iron compositions.
High-alloy iron usually is cast in found-
ries that are specially equipped to produce
its highly alloyed compositions and that may
be equipped with heat-treating furnaces and
quenching equipment or cooling facilities
to provide for the most economical use of
alloys. This iron often is melted in electric
arc or induction furnaces, which provide for
precise control of composition and tem-
perature. High-alloy iron is sold at premium
prices and is expected to outperform ordi-
nary compositions in applications that in-
volve severe service conditions. Thus, grades
of this iron, each with their own unique
characteristics, are categorized for three
kinds of service:
Corrosive ServiceThis category in-
cludes nickel-alloyed iron (Ni-Resist)
and high-silicon (Si) iron;
Elevated Temperature ServiceThis cat-
egory also includes nickel-alloyed iron
(Ni-Resist) and high-Si iron, and it ad-
ditionally covers aluminum-alloyed iron
and high-chromium white iron;
Wear- and Abrasion-Resistant
White IronThese special
irons include nickel-chromium
white iron (Ni-Hard), high-
chromium white iron and
moly-chromium white iron.
Many of these types of special
iron are covered by standard speci-
fications, but some are of a pro-
prietary composition. In addition,
some require heat treatment to de-
velop their most useful properties.
Corrosion-Resistant Iron
High-alloy cast iron is used to
produce many parts for engi-
neering applications that require
resistance to corrosives in the op-
erating environment such as sea-
water, sour well oils, commercial
organic and inorganic acids, and
alkalis. The ability to easily cast
it into complex shapes and the
ease of machining some types of
the metal, make high-alloy iron
an attractive material for the production
of parts for chemical processing plants,
petroleum refining, food handling and
marine service. Two types dominate high-
alloy corrosion-resistant cast iron
nickel-alloyed iron and high-Si iron.
Nickel-Alloyed IronNi-Resist has
been produced for many years for corro-
sion-resistant applications. This versatile
iron owes its excellent corrosion resistance
to the presence of nickel (Ni) in concen-
trations of 13.5-36%, chromium (Cr)
content of 1.8-6% and, in one type, cop-
per (Cu) content of 5.5-7.5%. Ni-Resist
iron is used to solve corrosion problems
related to pumping, transportation and
processing of sour well oils, salt water,
some acids and alkalis. Most of the Ni-Re-
sist compositions can be produced as ei-
ther gray or ductile cast iron.
Gray Ni-Resist provides resistance to oxi-
dation at elevated temperatures and corro-
sion. The high Ni content assures the for-
mation of flake graphite during solidifica-
tion even when the compositions contain
relatively high Cr contents (up to 6% in type
2b). High Ni concentrations also prevent the
transformation of the austenitic matrix.
The mechanical and physical proper-
ties of Ni-Resist gray iron reflect the mi-
crostructure of flake graphite in an aus-
tenitic matrix. In general, tensile strength
will be in the range of 25,000-35,000 psi
(170-240 MPa) and, although highly al-
loyed, gray Ni-Resist should not be con-
sidered high-strength iron.
Ductile Ni-Resist iron provides the
same corrosion resistance as the gray Ni-
Resist iron, but develops higher tensile
strength and appreciable ductility. No
ductile Ni-Resist contains Cu because this
metal interferes with the nodulizing pro-
cess. Cr should be present in concentra-
tions of more than 2% for improved re-
sistance to grain boundry corrosion where
this could be a problem.
Seawater applications account for the
purchase of many Ni-Resist castings each
year, particularly for pumps and valves. In
such applications, it provides substantial ad-
vantages over unalloyed or low-alloy iron,
particularly with respect to tolerance for
higher fluid velocity and galvanic compat-
ibility with dissimilar metals.
Ni-Resist is cathodic to galvanized
steel, aluminum alloys and unalloyed gray
iron; it is anodic to some copper-base al-
loys, stainless steel and nickel-base alloys.
Stainless steel trim is used successfully in
Ni-Resist valves, and stainless steel impel-
lers and shrouds perform well in
Ni-Resist pump castings.
High-Si IronIron with a
high Si content comprises the
second major group of high-al-
loy iron produced for corrosion-
resistant applications. It is widely
used by the chemical industry
for processing and for the trans-
port of highly corrosive fluids.
This iron depends principally on
the presence of 14.20-14.75% Si
for its outstanding corrosion re-
sistance. It is particularly resis-
tant to industrial acids, includ-
ing sulfuric and nitric acids at all
temperatures, combinations of
oxidizing acids and organic ac-
ids at all concentrations and
temperatures, and phosphoric
acids at room temperature.
High-Si cast iron is used ex-
tensively in equipment for the
production of sulfuric and nitric
acids; for fertilizer, textile and
Silicon iron, which exhibits oxidation resistance at elevated
temperatures, may be alloyed with Mo to enhance its tensile
and creep properties. Pictured, a high silicon-molybdenum
ductile iron exhaust manifold with a 4.5-mm runner wall thick-
ness glows cherry red as it endures temperatures greater
than 1500F (816C) during a rigorous cycling in Chrysler Corp.s
2.2L turbo engine.
225
Table 1. Summary of High-Alloy Gray and White Iron ASTM Specifications
explosives manufacture; for sewage dis-
posal and water treatment; for handling
mineral acids in petroleum refining and
in metal cleaning or pickling; in electro-
plating; for processing of paper, beverages,
and paints and pigments; and as anodes
for the impressed-current, cathodic pro-
tection of iron pipes or other ferrous ves-
sels buried in the soil.
Specific high-Si iron casting applications
include pump rotors, agitators, kettles,
evaporators, separator towers and Rachid
rings, tank outlets, crucibles, insoluble an-
odes, and pipe and fittings for plumbing in
chemical laboratories of hospitals, colleges
and industry. The size of castings may vary
from small pump rotors and laboratory sink
fittings to tower sections 48 in. (1.22 m) in
diameter and 48 in. (1.22 m) high.
Elevated-Temperature Service
The service requirements for many
iron castings involve high temperature. To
be suitable for service at elevated tempera-
tures, cast iron must satisfy three major
requirements: first, it must resist forma-
tion and fracture under service loads at
the highest temperature to which it will
be exposed; second, it must resist oxida-
tion by the ambient atmosphere at the ser-
vice temperature; and third, to be resis-
tant to growth, it must be structurally
stable, preferably not subject to phase
transformations within the temperature
range to which it will be subjected.
Special iron is capable of sustaining
greater stresses than ordinary alloy iron
at temperatures above 1100F (600C). In
addition to its higher load-carrying capac-
ity at elevated temperatures, high-alloy
iron offers greater resistance to oxidation
and stable microstructure. High-alloy irons
for elevated-temperature applications in-
clude gray iron, ductile iron and white iron.
Four basic alloy systems dominate the
high-temperature category:
Ni-Resist that depends on Ni to de-
velop a stable austenitic matrix and Cr
to combine with the Ni to form a tight
oxidation-resistant scale. In addition,
it may be further alloyed with molyb-
denum (Mo) for improved mechani-
cal properties at high temperatures;
intermediate Si iron with a stable ferritic
microstructure that develops excellent
resistance to oxidation at elevated tem-
peratures and often is alloyed with Mo
to enhance its tensile and creep proper-
ties at high temperatures;
aluminum-alloyed iron that develops a
high degree of oxidation resistance and
good high-temperature mechanical prop-
erties when further alloyed with Mo;
high-chromium white iron that depends
on Cr content for its resistance to oxidation.
Abrasion-Resistant White Iron
High-alloy white cast iron is specially
qualified for abrasion-resistant applications.
The predominant carbides in its microstruc-
ture provide the high hardness necessary for
crushing and grinding other materials with-
226
out degradation. The supporting matrix
structure may be adjusted by alloy content
and/or heat treatment to develop the most
cost-effective balance between resistance to
abrasive wear and toughness required to
withstand repeated impact loading. High-
alloy white iron is cast easily into shapes re-
quired for crushing and grinding or the han-
dling of abrasive materials.
Abrasion resistance concerns the con-
ditions under which a metal or alloy is
used. The ability of a part to resist a weight
loss due to abrasion depends upon its mi-
crostructure, the actual mechanical opera-
tion of the part, and the kind and size of
material being moved, crushed or ground.
In many crushing and grinding appli-
cations, the life of a part may be limited
by its capacity to sustain repeated impact
loading without fracture. In applications
for which impact loading is not severe, the
life of a casting will depend upon its ca-
pacity to withstand the movement of the
abrasive medium against the metal sur-
face with a minimum loss of metal.
White iron as a class of material offers
considerable versatility for a variety of
abrasion-resistant applications. Specific
compositions and heat treatments may
serve to develop the carbide distribution
and the matrix microstructures to give
maximum service life and cost effective-
ness in white iron castings.
Most of the white iron designated for
abrasion-resistant applications falls
within the high-alloy iron category, but
unalloyed white iron is common and pro-
vides satisfactory service where the abrad-
ing material is not fine or where replace-
ment is not frequent or expensive. All al-
loyed iron contains Cr to prevent the for-
mation of graphite and to ensure the sta-
bility of the carbides in the microstruc-
ture. Alloy white iron also may contain Ni,
Mo, Cu or combinations of these metals
to prevent or minimize the formation of
pearlite in the microstructure.
Unalloyed white iron castings develop
hardnesses in the range 350-550 Bhn. Their
microstructures consist of primary iron car-
bides with a microhardness of 900-1200
Vhn in a pearlite matrix with a
microhardness of 220-300 Vhn. Alloyed
martensitic white iron, however, develops
Brinell hardnesses in the 500-700 range.
Carbide hardness remains at 900-1200 Vhn,
but martensite (always associated with some
retained austenite) exhibits a microhardness
of 600-700 Vhn. For many abrasion-resis-
tant applications, the more costly alloyed
white iron with martensitic matrix struc-
tures provide the most economical service.
Specifications
ASTM Specification A532 covers
t he composi t i on and hardness of
abrasion-resistant white iron. Many
castings are ordered to these specifica-
tions; however, a large portion of abra-
sion-resistant white iron castings are
purchased in accordance with modifi-
cations recommended by foundries for
specific applications.
For economical performance, it is
desirable that designers, metallurgists
and foundrymen work together to
specify the optimum composition, heat
treatment and foundry practice to de-
velop the most suitable abrasion-resis-
tant parts for each application.
Martensitic white iron falls into two
major groups:
the low-Cr group alloyed with 1-4%
Cr and 3-5% Ni, with one modifica-
tion that contains 7-11% Cr;
the high-chromium iron containing 14-
28% Cr with 1-3% of Mo, often alloyed
further with additions of Ni or Cu.
A third but minor category comprises
the straight 25-28%-Cr white iron.
This article has been excerpted from the
Iron Casting Handbook.
For more information, see Resources for Casting
Designers & Buyers, p. 67.
227