Chapter 1: The Highway and its Development

Highways- main road connecting towns and cities.

2 Purpose of Early road system:
1. for the transport of flood and trade of goods between towns and cities.
2. for the movement of armies for the conquest or for defense against invasion.

The Romans, who discovered and introduced the use of cement, expanded their vast empire
through an extensive road network radiating in many directions from the capital city of Rome. Many of
the roads built by the Romans still existed even after 2000 years.
They would plan out a strategic route and remove any obstacles in its path. They would dig a
trench about 3 feet deep and 10-25 feet wide, depending upon the importance of the road.

The Roman roads were characteristically laid 4 courses:
1. A layer of large stones tightly fitted together.
2. A layer of small stones mixed with mortar and firmly compacted
3. The third layer was filled with gravel and flattened out smoothly.
4. The last layer was a pavement of large smooth stone slabs.

Pierre-Marie-Jrme Trsaguet (15 January 1716 1796)

- Famous French Engineer. He Introduced new methods for construction and maintenance of stone
roads.
- Among his innovations was the use of a base layer of large stone covered with a thin layer of smaller
stone. The advantage of this two-layer configuration was that when rammed or rolled by traffic the
stones jammed into one another forming a strong wear resistant surface which offered less
obstruction to traffic.
- Father of Modern Road building.

Thomas Telford (17571834)
- A Scottish born in Westminster Abbey, introduced some improvements in the construction method
of Tresaguet.
- He came up with a system of road building which required digging a trench, installing a foundation of
heavy rock, and then surfacing with a 6-inch layer of gravel. During construction, the center of the road
was raised, producing a crown that allowed water to drain off. In the course of his career, Telford built
over 1,000 roads, 1,200 bridges, and numerous other structures. Although his system was faster and less
expensive that the Romans' method, it was still costly and required frequent resurfacing with gravel.
- First President of the Institution of Civil Engineers

John Loudon McAdam (21 September 1756 26 November 1836)
- He was a Scottish engineer and road-builder.
- He invented a new process, "macadamisation", for building roads with a smooth hard surface that
would be more durable and less muddy than soil-based tracks.

In 1858, Eli Whitney Blake invented stone crusher.
The first road roller in England was used in 1867 and the first road roller machine weighing 30 tons was
invented by Aveling and Porter.

Early Laws that Governed the Road
The early Saxon Laws imposed 3 mandatory duties for the people:
1. to repair the roads and bridges
2. to maintain the castles and the garrisons
3. to aid repel invasions.
After the Normans conquered England, they decreed that:
1. The kings highway is sacred.
2. The roads are for public use.
3. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to drain the road, clip any bordering hedges and
refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs or bushes closer than the specified distance from center
of the road.




Highways in the Philippines

The American government in the Philippines initiated most of the development of our roadway
system, which during the Spanish era were mostly trails and earth roads.
It was the Americans who initiated the construction of the very popular macadam roads to
connect towns and provinces. After the World War II, the newly independent Philippine government
gave special attention to the development of our roads.
20 years later, major highways and expressways came to existence with financial assistance and
loans from the World Bank and IMF (International Monetary Fund).
The year 1950 to the early 1980 was considered as the automobile age. Cars which are considered as a
richmans toy was a vital means in transporting persons and goods , development is to get the farmer
out of the mud. During this period that road construction and improvement became a matter of
importance to the government for there was a saying that this nation is on wheels
Modern Highways development continued with technical advances. Development in equipment and
management techniques have revolutionized construction and maintenance methods. Advanced
knowledge in the field of soils and highways materials were adopted for liability and economic
considerations.

Planning Difficulties
In Planning and designing Roads and Highways there are certain aspects to be considered. These
aspects are:
a. Safety
b. Usefulness
c. Attractive to the eyes
d. Durability
Engineers must also be aware of the following before starting their designs to provide the following:
a. Roadside Improvement
b. Erosion Control
c. Noise Abatement
However there are still some difficulties in planning and designing our roads and highways. These
are:
a. Financial
b. Political
c. Technical


Financial
The Sky-high debt of the Philippines from other countries plus our Economic status equals lack of
funds for our Road and Highway projects. These can cause delay to improvements and building new
roads and highways here in the Philippines. Not only delay but can due to cancelling of the project itself.

Political
In the Philippines nowadays corruption is everywhere. This caused delay to projects, politicians
choose a project that suites their interest (how much money they can put in their pockets), without
checking the projects durability.


Technical
Experts lose their confidence in their selves because of politicians. Before the project could be
approved it undergo a hearing in courts or some called it political arena where politicians decide
whether to pursue the project or delay it until no action is taken place.


Highway Programming
Highway programming involves a process of selecting and scheduling improvement projects on
the basis of the relative urgency of the work. A key element of process is the matching of needed
projects with available funds to accomplish the highway improvement objectives during a given period.


There are 3 inputs in highway programing:
a. Economic
This deals with resources needed to start and finish the project.
b. Financial
This deals with the money involved in the project. Whos going to pay for the project,
who will spend for the project, the cost of the project and where.
c. Political
This deals with the decision making in the project, whether the project will continue or
delayed or canceled.

There are aspects in choosing a project:
a. Should be economical viable
b. Fits the allotted budget
c. Passed the political criteria

Elements of Highway Programming Approaches:
1. Financial Approaches
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire and constraint
3. Tentative Priorities (economic analysis, level of traffic, claims based on political subdivisions)
4. Providing a route system and coordination with other transport mode
5. Selection of project which suite the construction from the available resources in the area.
6. Scheduling of the project implementation in coordination with the agencies, acquiring the
proper way of doing the project and also making the final plan and specification.
7. Reserve a budget for the said project in case of huge emergencies(floods, typhoons and other
natural calamities)


A. Quantifiable Market Value
1. Cost of Highway- Refers to the cost:
a. Planning Cost
b. Right of way appropriation
c. Construction Cost
d. Maintenance Cost
e. Operating Cost
2. Cost Benefits to Highway Users
a. Vehicle Operating Cost- vehicle operating cost per year this includes congestion cost.
b. Travel Time Saving Cost- travel time times the peso value of commercial travel time.
c. Motorist Safety- also called as the Economic Cost of Accident. Net change in expected
number of accidents times the average cost per accident per year.
B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value
1. Cost Benefits to Highway user- this includes motorist safety, comport and conversions, and
aesthetic from driving view point.
C. Quantifiable Non Market Values
1. Cost Benefits to Highway users
a. Travel Time Saving- Minutes save per vehicle trip.




COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
In the Philippines, a community can be involved in a planning stage of a highway construction
via public hearing.
HOW A COMMUNITY INVVOLVED IN A PUBLIC HEARING
1. Solicit the cooperation and support of the officials, influential persons and business
organizations and conservative groups of the community.
2. Create a special staff to carry out this function
3. Community leadership opportunity to participate to conduct group meeting, workshops, hearing
and other activities.



BENEFITS OF CONSTRUCTING HIGHWAYS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION ON OUR ECONOMY:
1. To augment the countrys level of economy
2. To provide easy access to working places
3. To facilitate public services such as police, fire protection
4. To facilitate medical care , schooling and delivery of related basic services
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and increase on property assessment
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of operations and maintenance
7. Benefit in time saving
8. Less road accidents
9. To give maximum comfort and ease level

WHERE THE COUNTRIES GET FUNDS FOR CONSTRUCTING HIGHWAYS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATIONS
FACILITIES?
1. Taxes
2. Borrowing from private sectors
3. Borrowing from IMF or World Bank

HOW COUNTRIES GET MONEY FROM HIGHWYS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES?
In the country, mostly of our large super highways are hold by private companies and theyre
the one who runs it. thats why the only thing that the state produce money from it is via TAXES.

COMPUTATIONS
1. CALCULATOR AND SLIDE RULES
2. COMPUTERS


SURVEYS

REMOTE SENSING (Photogrammetry) - the science or art of obtaining measurements by means of
photography.

DATA CAN GATHER FROM REMOTE SENSING
1. LOCATIONS
2. PLANNING
3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
4. RIGHT OF WAY
5. TRAFFIC STUDIES
6. DRAINAGE
7. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATIONS
8. EARTWORK MEASUREMENT
9. MATERIAL LOCATION
10. PAVEMENT CONDITION SURVEY

TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING:
A. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC MAPPING- a vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera pointed almost
straight downward are the most useful mapping for highways purpose.

B. ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS- an aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt.


C. COLORED PHOTOGRAPHS-aerial colored photograph presents amore detailed and precise
information on traffic and parking studies. It also gives clear information of the geological
conditions, land uses, source of materials, surface and subsurface drainage.

MAPS PRODUCE FROM PHOTOGRAPHS AND COMPUTER DATA
1. Highways
2. Drainage
3. Utilities
4. Housing
5. Land use and zoning
6. Property assessment




LOCATION OF THE PROPOSED HIGHWAY

There's way more to building a road than just slathering some asphalt all over the ground. The
process is actually pretty involved, with a bunch of steps you probably hadn't thought of. In the
beginning, roads started as trails. Because of the creation of modern transportation vehicles, the design
of roads are improved. Highway's locations are blended with curvature grade and other roadway
elements for comfort ability and safety
All highways in the "national" system to be improved, paved, reconstructed or constructed shall
have a right-of-way of ample width and wearing surface of an adequate width which shall not be less
than the minimum standards now established by the Division of Highways of the Bureau of Public
Works, unless, in the opinion of the Secretary of Public Works and Communications, such is
impracticable by reason of physical conditions, excessive costs, probable traffic requirements or legal
obstacles.
Trivia: The Philippines, through the DPWH, is the only country outside North America authorized to use
the Aashto Standards.
*The "right-of-way" means the land secured and reserved to the public for highway purposes.
In improving highways, the design must consider the following:
1. Reliable estimate cost.
-so that cost overrun can be avoided.
2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
Traffic volume- is an important basis for determining what improvements, if any, are required on a
highway or street facility. Traffic volumes may be expressed in terms of average daily traffic or design
hourly volumes. These volumes may be used to calculate the service flow rate, which is typically used for
evaluations of geometric design alternatives.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.

In rural areas, location surveys are divided in 4 stages:
1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between terminal points.
-Stereoscopic examination of small scale aerial photographs of the area. This is usually supplemented by
available maps.
-Determination of controls of topography and land use.
-Location of feasible routes based on photographs and maps.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes.
-Stereoscopic examination of large scale aerial photographs of each route.
-Determination of the detailed controls of photography and land use.
-Preparation of route maps by photogrammetric methods.
-Location and comparison of feasible routes on photographs and maps.
-Selection of the best route.
3. Preliminary survey of the best route.
-Preparation of large scale topographic maps using route photographs and photogrammetric methods
or preparation of large scale topographic maps by ground survey guided by best route location made on
photographs in the second stage.
-Design of the preliminary location.
4. Location survey, staking the right of way and of the highway including the structure for construction.

Location of bridges

The sole purpose of Highway and Bridges is to convey traffic. The location and position of the
bridge is subordinate to the general alignment and grade.
The bridge survey report must include accurate data on the waterway and the historical behavior of
water.
You will need to consider many factors as you decide where to build the bridge. First, youll need
to consider the high water elevation at your proposed bridge site. Usually you will want to locate the
bridge so that there is a clearance or free board between the bottom of the bridge and the high water
elevation. These criteria may determine the length of the bridge in some locations. The grades of the
approaches and banks of the stream or pond also can affect bridge length. Youll want to have a
relatively flat approach to the bridge if this can be accomplished without major grading.



When the location of the bridge is approximately determined, the following has to be attended to:
1. There must be a complete data report and special survey for the site.
-For basis in the bridge design
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain an accurate data of the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation condition and the stream character.
5. The complete data on the adjacent structures particularly the waterway opening must be on hand.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.

Highway Plans and Specification
- Set of documents of instruction and condition under which highways are built.
Plan - bearer of engineering drawing of the project.
- It involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes on a road network.











Specification written instruction and conditions.
COMPLETE AND DETAILED SCHEME FOR THE ROAD:
1. TRAFFIC
mainly these are under the concerns of traffic engineers, good traffic system requires safety and
convenient flow of transportation system that includes constructing sidewalks and crosswalks,
segregated cycle facilities, shared lane marking, traffic signs, road surface markings and traffic
lights.

2. DRAINAGE
Adequate drainage is mandatory for a road to survive its entire service life. Excess water in the
highway structure can inevitably lead to premature failure, even if the failure is not catastrophic.
3. EROSION CONTROL
Crucial component in the design of highway drainage systems. Surface drainage must be
allowed for precipitation to drain away from the structure.
4. ROADSIDE DEVELOPMENT
In relation with structural road design, roadway should be strong enough for the expected
number of vehicles in a certain number of years.
5. STRUCTURE
Highway design involves the consideration of three major factors (human, vehicular, and
roadway) and how these factors interact to provide a safe highway.
6. SOIL
The strength of the soil directly affects the structure being placed on top of it.
7. PAVEMENT
There are two types of pavements:
1. Flexible Pavement
2. Rigid Pavement








ROAD PLAN PRESENTATION:

1. The upper sheet is allocated for the plan, top view showing the horizontal alignment, right of
way takings, drainage arrangement and other features.
2. The lower half is allotted for the profile where the original elevation of the ground surface is
plotted. The roadway centerline and the vertical alignment or grade line for the road is
indicated.
3. The vertical scale of the profile is usually exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times for
precise detail.
4. The profile and other details of drainage, channels or connecting roads including ramps are also
presented here.
5. The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50 meters station or other intervals are indicated
along the bottom of each sheet along with the estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer
and the contractor.
6. Roadway cross-section for every situation in the whole project stretch is indicated on another
sheet of the plan.
7. Another sheet of the drawings showing all structures and roadway appurtenances (right of way)
is included.
8. Usually, the standard size of the drawing sheet is 22 inches by 36 inches (.55 x .90 m)



PARTIAL LIST OF SUBJECT COVERED BY THE STANDARD DRAWING:
1. Pipe Culverts - a structure that allows water to flow
under a road, railroad, trail, or similar obstruction.
-May be used to form a bridge-like
structure to carry traffic.






2. Concrete Box Culverts - Four-sided
concrete structures will be placed beneath bridge
crossings to help direct the flow of the creek under
roadways. Temporary road-closings will be required
during the construction of these culverts.




3. Guard rail and parapet - prevent users from falling off
where there is a drop. They may also be meant to
restrict views, to prevent rubbish passing below, and
to act as noise barriers.






4. Curbs They separate the road from
the roadside, and discourage drivers from
parking or driving on sidewalks and lawns.
They also provide structural support to the
pavement edge. Can be used to channel
runoff water from rain or melted snow and
ice into storm drains.




5. Gutters - a depression running parallel to a road
designed to collect rainwater flowing along the
street and divert it into a storm drain.






6. Sidewalks - sometimes platform, is a
path along the side of a road. A sidewalk may
accommodate moderate changes in grade and
is normally separated from the vehicular section
by a curb.





7. Manholes - top opening to an underground
utility vault used to house an access point for
making connections or performing maintenance
on underground and buried public utility and
other services including sewers, telephone,
electricity, storm drains and gas.


8. Curb structures
9. Drainage Inlet and Outlet Structures of Numerous Types
10. Rip Rap and other devices used for bank protection
11. Fences and right of way
12. Other survey markers

SPECIFICATIONS:
- This are generally difficult and a delicate work requiring knowledge of the law of contracts
as well as highway practices and experiences.

DIVISION HIGHWAY SPECIFICATION:

1. Standard Specification apply to a project implemented by administration which treat the
subject that repeatedly occur in the agency work.
2. Special Provision covers peculiar item of the project in the question that include addition,
modification to standard specifications.
SPECIFICATION SUBDIVISION:
a. The General Clause deals with the bidding procedures award, execution and control
of work and other legal matters.
b. Specifying details regarding the materials, manner of work execution and how pay
quantities are to be measured.