Engineering Geology

CHAPTER I : Scope of Engineering Geology
1.1 Definition and Content

Engineering geology forms the bridge between geology
and engineering. It is mainly concerned with the application of
geology to civil and mining engineering practice. The purpose is
to ensure that geological factors affecting the planning, design,
construction and maintenance of engineering works, and the
development of groundwater resources are recognized,
adequately interpreted and presented for use in engineering
practice.

:

) (
) 1 (
) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 ( .

In engineering geology basic knowledge is required of the
following (Figure 1.1):

Soil mechanics
Hydrology
Foundation engineering
Concrete and roadstone
technology
Mining technology
Seismology

Eng Geol. EEG 341 Dr. Abdullah Sabtan 1

Engineering Geology
Soil
Mechanics
Mining
Engineering
Foundation
Engineering
Rock
Mechanics
Seism-
ology
Concrete
Hydro-
geology
Geotech.
Processes
S
i
t
e
In
ve
ig
a
t
i
o
n
P
r
i
n
pl e
s
o
f
C
i
v
i
l
E
n
g
ine
e
r
i
n
g
r a t
i
c
e
c
P
Basic Knowledge
Ex

pert Knowledge

Figure 1.1 : The scope of Engineering Geology

A much greater knowledge is required of site investigation
practice such as:

boring
engineering geophysics
sampling
photogeology
lab in situ testing
engineering geological mapping

This knowledge is printed on background of geology with
emphasis on structural geology, geomorphology and
sedimentology.

1.2 Functions of Engineering Geologist

The engineering geologist can contribute on the followings;

Interpretation of the ground conditions
Exploration and assessment
Identification of hazards
More details are shown in Figure 1.2 .

1.3 Geotechnical Approached to a Typical Problem

The role of engineering geologist at different stages of
work involve ;
Boundary conditions ,
Material,
Prediction of behavior and
Assessment of behavior.

His lev l of understanding of each stage as compared to
the engineer is shown in Figure 1.3

e

Functions of Engineering Geologist
Interpretation of
Ground Conditions
Exploration and Assessment
Identification
of Hazards
Soil Type
Soil Thickness
water level
Water floctuation
Excavation
Sabkha
Construction
Sand dunes
Mountain roads
Groundwater
Resources
Construction
Material
Slope stability
Settlement
Corrosion
Settlement
Movement
low strength
Slope stability
Availability
Quality
Quantity
Aggregate
Cement
Sand
quality
quantity
Figure 1.2

Aspects of Work
Figure 1.2 : Relative Level of Understanding
Engineer
Engineering
Geologist
Boundary Condition
Material
Prediction of behaviour
Assessment of behaviour
70
10
50
25
70
90 10
30
75
50
90
30
Nature of the Problem
Geologic Setting
Foundation materials
Construction materials

2.2.1 Boundary conditions:

a) Nature of problem

The size and position of the loaded area,
The magnitude and direction of loading (Figure
1.4),

Normal loading
Lateral loading
Circular loading

Eng. Geol EEG 341 Dr. Abdullah Sabtan 5

A) Normal Load
B) Lateral Load
C) Circular Load

Figure 1.4 : Size, magnitude and direction of loads

b) Geotechnical setting

Sand
Silt
Coral Limestone
10 m
3 m
17 m
Sand
Granite
18 m
14 m
Sand
Clay
Coral Limestone
2 m
18 m
15 m
A
BB
C
Sand
Silt
Coral Limestone
10 m
3 m
17 m
Sand
Granite
18 m
14 m
Sand
Clay
Coral Limestone
2 m
18 m
15 m
A
C
Thickness and extent of the various lithological units

Figure 1.5 : Soil units and thicknesses
affecting the structure (Figure 1.5),

that affect structures


Water
Pressure
A
i
B
Nature and orientation of structure discontinuities

igure 1.6: Affect of joints
affecting execution of works or safety of structure
(Figure 1.6 a & b),

F
on stability

Hazardous geological processes posing threat to the
ring of slopes
2.2.2 Materials:

a) Foundation materials: Identification and evaluation of those
mech.)
b) Constr and assessment of
to the source
e
2.2.3 Prediction of behavior
Understanding of the mechanical behavior of the structure in a
safety of site or structure.
Flood
Weathe
Sand movement
Earthquakes.

material properties which are relevant to the problem.
Site investigation
Lab tests (soil, rock
uction materials: Accessibility
quality as well as quantity of geological materials required
for construction.
* Distance
* Flat areas vs. rugged on
* Quantity and quality

given geological setting.

Tunnel (roof & sides collapse)
Water fluctuation (swelling, shrinkage of clays)
Heavy Structure (settlement, tilting)
Landslides
Liquafaction


2.2.4 Assessment of behavior:
ent of predicted behavior with regard to the specific
on between the ground behavior and
1.3 Employment Opportunities
Employment for engineering geologists may be found within a wide

Assessm
project requirement.
Comparis
the significant of the project.

range of opportunities. Their likely employers will be mainly within the
field of civil engineering either as contractors or consultant. In either
cases, their work will lie mostly in the field of site investigation.
Engineering geologists will also find jobs in applied research
organizations, teaching in institutions and ministries of public works,
water etc.


CHAPTER II : Engineering Geological Maps

.1 General Considerations:
.1.1 Definition: Engineering geological maps provide information about

he engineering geological map should be based on a good
a) Insufficient attention may have been paid to the

) They lack quantitative information such as:
s (faults,
iii.
ns (depth, fluctuation,

.1.2 Scope
Engineering geological maps are developed due to the cooperation
between geologists and engineers in the building of larger
engineering works such as tunnel, dams and railways.

2

2
those aspects of geological materials and processes
which are significant in land use planning as well as
the planning, design and construction of civil and
mining engineering work. The task is to develop the
country in the best possible harmony with
geological environment.

T
geological map. The geological maps cannot be used directly
in engineering work for the following reasons:

superficial deposits and rocks of markedly different
engineering properties. Part of the problem is that
they may be bracketed together as a single unit
because they are of the same age or origin.
b
i. physical properties of rocks and soils,
ii. the amount and type of discontinuitie
joints, shear zones) present
the extent of weathering
iv. the groundwater conditio
chemical composition).

2


The features (components) that could be represented on
engineering geological maps are:

a) The character of rocks and soils such as
distribution
stratigraphical and structural arrangement
age and lithology
physical and mechanical properties.

b) H : The aim is to predict
h ges.

ydrological conditions
ydro regime and how to avoid any chan
distribution of water-bearing soils and rocks
depth to water table and its range of fluctuation
regions of confined water and piezometric levels
storage coefficients and direction of flow
infiltration.

c) G surface
topography and important elements of the landscape.

eomorphological conditions, including

d) Geodynamic phenomena:
erosion and deposition
eolian phenomena
slope movement and subsidence
volume changes in soil (swelling, shrinkage)
active faults.

.2 Classification
Engineering geological maps can be classified according to (i)
(iii) content.
2

a) Large scale: > 1:10,000
le: 1:10,000 1:100,000

2

scale, (ii) purpose or

.2.1 Scale
b) Medium sca
c) Small scale: < 1:100,000

2

a) Multipurpose: Its information can be used for many purposes
ne or many component of geological environment
(ie Strength map).

2

a) Analytical maps: Evaluating and giving details of some
. Weathering grade, joint map, seismic
hazard).
nts of engineering geology environment.

.3 Description of Soils and Rocks

The Classification of rocks and soils in an engineering geological
gree of homogeneity in basic
ngineering geology properties.
2
l sample is as follows:
a) Compactness or consistency
tuents)
ntification (Minor constituents)
criptive term.
a) Consistenc
.2.2 Purpose
either for o
b) Special purpose maps: The information can be used for
special purpose only. (ie. Map for tunnels).
.2.3 Content
parameters. (ie

b) Comprehensive maps: Maps depicting all principal
compone

2
mapping is according to a certain de
e

.3.1 Soil Sample Classification:
The sequence of describing a soi
b) Color
c) Descriptive term
d) Soil identification (Major consti
e) Soil ide
f) Water content des

y: (stiffness or density)
b) Color: The minerals
and environment.
soil color provide information of soil
Red: Indicates iron oxide
Pale Yellow: Hydrated iron oxide
Black: Organic soils
minerals
be soils with different
basic colors; e.g. gray brown.
streaked means

i. Use angular, subangular, rounded shape,
ple.

B.
Use brittle, friable, spongy, sticky,
fissured, slickensided, fibrous, etc. if

C. Othe
fine coarse grained soils are:
with occasional, with frequent, pockets of,

d) Soil identification:
Identify the majo
CAPITAL LETTERS; e.g. GRAVEL, SAND, SILTY, CLAY, or

Dark brown: or due to dark
Gray: (manganese, magnetite)
Green: Glauconite
White: Silica, gypsum, kaoline clay.
In general use only basic colors. Descri
shades of basic colors by using two
Mottled means marked with spots of color while
having color patterns which cannot be considered spotted.
c) Descriptive term:
A. Coarse grained soils
rounded etc. to indicate the shape of the
grains (Figure 2. ).
ii. Use coarse medium, fine, coarse to fine,
or medium to fine to indicate grain size
distribution of the sam

Fine grained soils
applicable.
r descriptive terms applicable to both
grained and
layers of, seams of, lenses of, partings of,
etc. These will follow the soils identification.
(Major constituents)
r matrix of the soil sample and write this in
PEAT, (Table 2.1).

Examples:

Sand : Dense, brown, subangular medium grained, trace
silt, with pockets of clay.

sand and trace silt, w/seems of clay.
nd
s of clay.

Table 2.1: Grain Size of Soils
Term Particle Size Retained on Sieve
No. (Approx.
Equivalent
Soil Grade
Gravel : Very dense, gary, angular fine grained, some

Silty Sa : Medium dense, gray brown, subrounded medium
grained with trace gravel and lense

Clay : Stiff, dark gray, sticky with some silt.

Equivalent)
Very coarse-
grained
> 60mm 2 in Boulders
and Cobbles
Coarse-grained 2.60 mm Gravel 8
Me 60 -
2mm
dium-grained mocrons 200 Sand
Fined-grained 2- s 60 micron - Silt
Very fine-grained < 2 microns - Clay
Note: Grains > 60 microns diameter are available to the naked eye.

) Soil identification:

e (Minor constituents)
For both fine grained and coarse grained use:

t
Y 30 - 50
1 - 12
Term Minor constituen
%

Some 12 - 30
Trace


Examples
1) SAND, trace fine gravel and some silt;
(fine gravel 1-12% , silt 12-30%).
TY SAND, trace fine gravel ; (fine gravel

2.3.2 Rock Classification
The sequence of describing a rock sample is as follows:
b) grain size
entification: identify the rocks using tables in a
book. Write the name in CAPITAL

2) SIL
1-12% Silt 30-50%).

a) color
c) strength: See Table 2.2 a, b, c.
d) rock id
petrology
LETTERS.
e) Descriptive term
Rock mass information

fabric; blocky, tabular or columnar.
Block size
State of weathering: Table 2.3
Number of discontinuity sets.

Discontinuity data

type: joint, cleavage, schistosity foliation
and bedding
dip and strike
discontinuity spacing: Table 2.4
aperture: Table 2.5
infilling: clean, surface staining,
rite, non-cohesive, swelling clay, chlo
talc, or gypsum.
roughness: Figure 2
water content.


Table 2.2 a: Descriptive terms for rock strength
(after Deere and Miller, 1966)
Descriptive
Terms
Uniaxial
Compressive
Symbols

Strength ( ) MPa
Ver S1 y high strength 200
High strength -200 100 S2
Medium strength S3 50-100
Low strength S4 25-50
Very low strength 1-25 S5

Table 2.2 b: Roc al Strength
Term UCS stimation of H ess
k Materi
(
c
) (MPa)
-
Field E ardn
Very
strong
> 100 Very hard rock-more than one blow of
d to break the
specim
geological hammer require
en
Strong Hard rock-hand held specimen can be 50-100
broken with single blow of geological
hammer.
Moderately 12.5-50 5mm indentations with sharp
Strong
Soft rock-
end of pick.
Moderately
Weak
5.0-12.5 Too hard to cut by hand into a triaxial
specimen
Weak 1.25-5.0 Very soft rock-material crumbles under
firm blows with the sharp end of a
geological pick.
Very Weak
Rock or
Hard Soil
0.60-1.25 tough, may be broken in the Brittle or
hand with difficulty.
Very Stiff 0.30-0.60
*
ted by the finger nail. Soil can be inden
Stiff 0.15-0.30 Soil cannot be molded in fingers.
Firm 0.08-0.15 ed only by strong
pressure of fingers.
Soil can be mold
Soft 0.04-0.08 Soil easily molded by fingers.
Ve ft when ry So <0.04 Soil exudes between fingers
squeezed in the hand.
* The compressive strengths are double the
unconfined shear strengths.

for soils given above

Table 2.2 c: Descriptive terms for Rock Quality Designation
(after Deere and Miller, 1966)
Descriptive
Term
RQD% Symbols
Very Good 90-100 R1
Good 2 75-90 R
Fair 50-75 R3
Poor 25-50 R4
Very Poor < 25 R5

Table 2.3: Descripti ms of State of thering
Geologic iety of London, 1977)
Term Description Symbol
ve Ter Wea
(after al Soc

Fresh 1 No visible sign of rock material weathering W
Slightly
eathered

material and discontinuity surfaces. All the
rock material discolored by
r
W2 Discoloration indicates withering of rock
W
may be
weathering and may be somewhat weake
than in its fresh
Moderately
Weathered
uous framework or as core-
W3 Less than half of the rock material is
decomposed and/or disintegrated to form
soil. Fresh or discolored rock is present
either as a contin
stones.
Highly
weathered
inuous framework or as core-stone.
W4 More than half of the rock material is
decomposed and/or disintegrated to a soil,
fresh or discolored rock is present either as
a discont
Comple
weathered
tely All rock material is decomposed and/or
disintegrated to form soil. The original mass
structure is still largely intact.
W5


Table 2.4: Descriptive terms for joint spacing
(after Geological Society of London, 1977).
Intervals (cm) Symbols Description
200 F1 Extremely wide spaced.
60-200 F2 Widely spaced
20-6 0 F3 Moderately wide spaced
6-20 F4 Closely spaced
2-6 F5 Very closely spaced
2 F6 Extremely closed spaced

Table 2.5: Aperture of discontinuity surfaces
(after geological society of London, 1977)

Term Aperture (Discontinuities)

Thickness (Veins, faults)
Wide > 200 mm
Moderately wide 60-200 mm
Moder
narrow
ately 20-60 mm
Narrow 6-20 mm
Very narrow 2-6 mm
Extremely narrow 0-2 mm
Tight Zero

Soil Sample Classification:
The sequence of describing a soil sample is as follows:
g) Compactness or consistency
h) Color
tive term
tuents)
content descriptive term.
a) Consistenc
i) Descrip
j) Soil identification (Major constituents)
k) Soil identification (Minor consti
l) Water

y: (stiffness or density)
b) Color: The rals
and
Red: Indicates iron oxide
oxide
e to dark minerals
tite)
, kaoline clay.
ils with different
olors; e.g. gray brown.
f color while streaked means
spotted.

shape,
rounded etc. to indicate the shape of the
on of the sample.

E. Fine grained soils
Use brittle, friable, spongy, sticky,
fissured, slickensided, fibrous, etc. if
applicable.

F. Othe
occasional, with frequent,
pockets of, layers of, seams of, lenses

d) Soil identification: (M
Identify the major ma
CAPITAL LETTERS; , SILTY, CLAY.
soil color provide information of soil mine
environment.
Pale Yellow: Hydrated iron
Black: Organic soils
Dark brown: or du
Gray: (manganese, magne
Green: Glauconite
White: Silica, gypsum
In general use only basic colors. Describe so
shades of basic colors by using two basic c
Mottled means marked with spots o
having color patterns which cannot be considered
d) Descriptive term:
D. Coarse grained soils
i. Use angular, subangular, rounded
grains.

ii. Use coarse medium, fine, coarse to fine,
or medium to fine to indicate grain size
distributi

r descriptive terms applicable to both
fine grained and coarse grained soils
are: with
of, partings of, etc. These will follow the
soils identification.
ajor constituents)
trix of the soil sample and write this in
e.g. GRAVEL, SAND

Examples:

Sand : Dense, brown, subangular medium grained, trace
silt, with pockets of clay.
Gravel : Very dense, gary, angular fine grained, some

ilty Sand : Medium dense, gray brown, subrounded medium
y.
lay : Stiff, dark gray, sticky with some silt.

sand and trace silt, w/seems of clay.
S
grained with trace gravel and lenses of cla

C


CHAPTER III : Engineering Property of
Rocks and Soil
3.1.1 Rocks
ems of rocks are

3.1 Engineering Geological Problems

The engineering geological probl
influenced by;
rock type,
degree of weathering
rock structure.

Some of the problems are shown in
Table 3.1

The engineeri ogical problems of soil are
fluenced by;
rock engineering
.

3.1.2 Soil
ng geol
in
Grain size
Soil gradation
Mineral type

The soil en ms are shown in Table 3.1.

gineering proble


Table 3.1 : Examples of engineering problems

Rock
.
Strength
Tensile strength
Limestone collapse
Slope stability
Water leakage
Earthquake
Weathering
Flood

Soil
Sand dunes
Sand boiling
Sand piping
Landslide
Settlement and tilting

Expansive soils
Collapse soil
Uplift Pressure
Ground vibration
Liquefaction

3.2 Ro ks Engineering Properti

Igneous rocks are generally stronger followed by
etamorphic then the sedimentary rocks The jointing is not important in
edimentary but instead the bedding is in control.
ering creates boulders
at may roll downhill by earthquake, heavy rainfall, or construction
activities. The general engineering properties of the intact rock is shown
in Tab
c es
m .
s

3.2.1 Igneous Rocks

The igneous rocks are characterized by high density, durability and
trength, and low porosity and permeability. Weath s
th
le 1.3.1 .


Table 1.3.1
Rock
Type
Density
t/m
3
Porosity
(%)
UCS
MPa
E
GPa
Tensile
strength
MPa
Shear
strength
MPa
Friction
Angle
o

Granite 2.7 1 50-350 75 15 35 55
Gabbro
Basalt 2.9 2 100-
350
90 15 40 50

Gabbro and basalt have columnar joints that lead to rockfall in
slopes or if quarried.
ranite may have faults, open or filled joints, or sheet joints
(exfoliation which is a spheroidal cracks within original rock block). These
will c
in granite may alter to clay due to carbonic acid:

high content of fine material. The granite soil in general is GM, GC, SM,
or SC in
excav
ermeable. It may also alter to clay minerals
such as monmorllonite. This type of clay is expansive.

G
reate problems such as slope failure, leakage, foundation, and
excavation. Orthoclase

2(K)Al Si
2
O
3
+ H
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O ---------- Al
2
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
+ K
2
CO
3
+ 4 Si O
2

Orthoclase carbonic acid Kaolinite Potassium Quartz
carbonate

Mica-rich granite is not suitable as fine aggregate because of its
. The silty soil nature causes them to be highly erodable
ation or rockfill dam.

Some volcanic rocks contain glass which reacts with concrete if
used with as aggregate. Basalt have vesicular zones near flow
boundaries which is highly p


3.2.2 The Sedimentary Rocks

a) Sandstone
andstone comes in three main types;
Quartz arenite: Pure quartz (75%) cemented with silica, calcite,
dolomite (15%).
omposed of quarts and feldspars cemented with
ranite.
ywake: Dark gray with abundant non-quartz silicate plus
-size particles of other

The main engineering problems of sandstone are their low strength,
durability and its high permeability and porosity. The shear strength may
be reduced further by interbeded clay or shale. Porous sandstone may
not be suitable as dam site as water may leak. It may create uplift
der gravity dams.
suitable as concrete aggregate due to its
ble sandstone lack durability over life time of the project (such
s dam or tunnel). It may not be suitable for concrete dam foundation. If
akage in the
able sandstone under the dam may leads to piping where internal
Quartz arenite is drilled with difficulty. The rock cause wear of the
atrix binding the diamond in the bit. It causes a heath problem if drilled
not
sphaltic concrete as asphalt tends to be stripped free of its
o quartz by action of water.
S
or
Arkos: C
calcite that are derived from g

Gra
quartz as well as sand
rocks.
pressure un
The strength may be affected by the type (quartz, calcite, iron
oxides, clay or gypsum) and degree of cementation (compacted or
friable).

Porous sandstone is not
high water absorption and tendancy to break down in size.

Fria
a
necessary, earthfill dam is built instead. It is more flexible (similar to the
sandstone) and creates less stress on the ground. Water le
fri
erosion removes sand grains from the rock forming elongated holes and
cause failure.

Calcareous sandstone may develop caves similar to limestone.

m
in the tunnel or mine. Silica dust is toxic to the lungs. This type is
wanted in a
bond t

b) Limestone
Limestone may originates as

Chemical : It is a direct precipitation of calcite crystals
(CaCO
3
) to form limestone. It originates from the work of
anisms in removing CaCO
3
from the seawater in building
time, Mg
++
replaces Ca
++
in the
carbonate and if the replacement is 40% or more the rock is

org
of their shells. With
called dolomite.
B
alk, and if coral the rock is called Coral
reef. If the mud in the matrix is more than 13% the rock is

Hot springs
This acid may reacts with limestone to form Gypsum :

H
2
SO
4
+ CaCO
3
+ H
2
O ---------- CaSO
4
2 H
2
O + H
2
CO
3

iochemical : is a biochemical accumulation of microscopic
shells (95%) cemented lightly by mud, microscopic shells
fragment or clay minerals (5%). If the shells are algal the
rock is called Ch
called Marl.
and Pyrite (FeS
2
) in shale may form sulfuric acid (H
2
SO
4
).

Sulfuric acid Gypsum Carbonic acid

3.2.3 The Metamorphic Rocks
etamorphic rock may originate from igneous or sedimentary
cks. Their main engineering problem is anisotropy (directional
tructure). The engineering problems, especially rock strength are
ure ).
into layers parallel to
chistosity.
chistosity : The variety of foliation that occurs in the coarse
neissosity : Band of coarse grained minerals. The grains are

2.3.2 Metamorphic Origin
due to regional
metamorphism (high temp and high
prolong pressure).
reen schist (chlorite schist): regional meta of basalt and
arble -------- limestone
.2.3.3 Engineering Problems
chist weathering
Slope failure is parallel to foliation

M
ro
s
highly dependent on direction (Fig

3.2.3.1 Metamorphic Structure

Foliation : Laminated structure (layers of 1 cm or less) resulting
from segregation of different minerals
s

S
grained metamorphic rocks. It results from of parallel
arrangement of platy and ellipsoidal mineral grains.

G
coarser than that of schistosity.
3.

Slate & Mica schist ---- from mudstone (shale)

G
Gabbro

Quartzite -------- Qtz arenite
M

3

S


Material Improvement
he soil and rock improvement will include two parts; (A)
Grouting, and (B) Deep Compaction.
A

3.1 Definition:

of fluid mater l under pressure to improve the
al character of soil and rocks and to stop or
reduce water movement.

Grouting is expensive and time consuming process.

3.2
e the quality of soil and rocks in
dams, tunnel, slopes, mines and foundation. The main
2. To increase the strength
menting the particles (cohesion)
ce permeability
3. To S

3.3 ypes of Grout:

a) Particles suspensions
C ater to form colloidal
Suspension. The clay may be beotonite.
CHAPTER IV :

T

) Grouting
Injection
geotechnic
ia

Purpose:
Grout are used to improv
purpose are:
- ce
- prevent water
- reduce pore water pressure
- redu

top water leakage

T
lay grout: clay mixed with w

the strength is low
reduce the permeability


Clay and cement grout
to increase the strength
keeping the permeability low
nt water ratio is 3 to 5 to prevent
ater stop.

b) re
of more than one type to improve
the grout quality (Table 4.1).

admixture

Grout that accelerate setting time
Grout that reduce setting time
lime
d reduce
shrink
ine bentonite (volcanic

Cement grout: the ceme
clogging the pores.
Bitumen: cheap grout used mainly for w

Grout admixture : Some of the grouts are a mixtu

Table 4.1: The properties of some grout
Cacl
2

NaOH
Sodium silicate

Gypsum

Grout that increase plasticity an
age
very f
clay)

c) Chemical grout : There are hundred of chemical
routs in the form of powder. The material is mixed with
ater in the site. The amount of powder added to water
re

Table 4.2: The chemical grout

Silicate gel
olic)
aldehyde
de
amide
N

g
w
controls the setting time. The chemical composition a
presented in Table 4.2.
Resins (Acrylic and Phen
Phenol-form
Acrylate
Resorcinol- formaldehy
Polyacryl
Foam
Am-9
DMAP
Cemex-A

3.4 Site Investigation:
1. Geology
s: look for fissures, faults, or
es)
Soils: Soil type and permeability

2. eotechnical survey:
2.1 Drilling to discover the soil/rock types and
2.2 s (k)

Rock
weakness zones (shear zon

G

boundaries.
Soil propertie


2.2.1 Permeability: This will tell us how easy

Should be determined in boreholes
= (Q)

= volume of flow

ausing flow

2.2.2 Porosity:
indication of the volume
2.2.3 orehole size distribution
uting is not
ii. es < (1/10) D
50

2.2.4 Pore size distribution
Grout particles = soil pore size

3.5 Grout selection :
The correct grout for a given project is selected based on:
the grouting fluid can penetrate.
site

k / 5.5 r H

Q
r = radius of casing
H = differential head c
It gives an
required to fill the soil (rock) with
grout fluid.

B
i. if 20% passes # 200 gro
successful
grout particl

The purpose (strength and/or water tightening)

7.
The material to be treated (soil or rock)
Look Table 7-4 and Table 7-1
The grout viscosity
The grout grain size
al market The availability in loc
The setting time
The grout price (Table 7-16).

Example (1): If the ground k-value is 5x10
-3
m/s.

Figure 5.5):
(1) purpose,
ity
nswer : the grout is Asphalt Emulsion
What is the grout type if it the purpose is to increase
strength.
The selection of grout material based on (
(2) material to be treated (soil)
(3) permeabil

A


3.6 Ground Treatment : Following the selection of the grout type
and ground, the area to be treated should

be estimated (in square meters) and the
depth of the treatment. Grouting is
conducted in the following steps;

Select the suitable grout type based on the
properties and condition of the ground to be

treated (Figure 5.5, Table 7.4, Tables 4.1-4.2 ).
Check again the grout suitability based on prices
(Tables 7-16).
The grout is injected to the ground inside drill
holes. The standard of the boreholes is shown in

Figure 7.39. The depth of the drilling depends on
the thickness of the layer to be treated (5 or 10 m
deep).
acing of the drill holes depends on the
type of ground material, soil or rock (Table 7.9).
The sp
The volume of the grout depends on the porosity
of soil (n) or the estimation of the fracture size in

rocks.

Example (2): Fine sand under a dam is to be treated to
rout

Solution ----------------------------------------------------------------
1) Use Figure 5.5 to determine the grout type based on k
alue and purpose (strengthening). .. the suitable grout is
il is 55x25x5 m
3
( 6,875 m
3
).
he volume of the grout depend on the soil porosity (n=0.25), then the
1,718.75 m
3

The total grout cost can be estimated as follow:
- the grout volume is 1,718.75 m
3
ch means that if the
os :
ment).
, then the cost of the
5 x 1.5 = SR 154,687.5
increase the strength. The ground surface area is 55 by 25 m,
and treatment should be to a depth of 5 m. The soil permeability
(k) is 5x10
-4
m/s. The soil porosity (n) is 0.25. The cost of
cement is SR 60 per m
3
, the relative cost of the grout to be
used is 1.5. Determine
1. The grout type to be used
2. The volume of the g
3. The total cost of the grout

(
v
Silicate gel (for strengthening).

(2) The volume of the treated so
T
volume of the grout (V ) is
g

V
g =
6,875 x 0.25 =

(3)

- the cost of cement is SR 60 per m
3
, whi
used grout was cement then it c t
60 x 1,718 = SR 103,125
(But remember that we did not use ce
- the selected grout relative cost is 1.5
selected grout is:

103,12

1
2
1

This method is restricted to soil
Static Compaction
Dynamic compaction
Vibrofloatation
Deep blasting
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Static Compaction
This method is slow and used for fine grained soil
e
B) Deep Compaction :
only. The main type of deep
compaction are;

3

4

--

(silt and clay). Large and heavy rectangular
concrete are placed on the soil for months and th
soil settlement is monitored.

2
Dynamic compaction (Menard, 1972)
Weight of bounder (Wx) = 5 to 40 tons

n be calculated from;
e = (Wx hx)
The average De is about 10 to 15 m

Dropping height (hx) = 10 to 40 m
Energy = 4000 ft-ton
Crater depth 1 to 3 m
Effective depth (De) ca

D


Vibrofloatation
Good for loose granular soils by rearranging loose
he degree of suitability depend on the soil PI as follow;

egree of suitability PI
------
an 8

3

cohesionless grains into denser array (Figure 4.5 ). It is more
suitable where explosions can not be used.

T

D
--------------------------------------------------
Good to excellent 0
Fair to good 0 to less th
Not suitable more than 8

Deep blasting
4
Eng. Geol EEG 341 Dr. Abdullah Sabtan

is carried out by setting off explosive charges in the
ground
has indicated that the degree of ground improvement obtained by
oose

he radius of the effected area (r) is:
r = (w) C
here
adial distance
f explosive
the soil type
xample : if
6 x 1.2 kg charge
e sand ------ this will give
Settlement of 0.4 m
pth

Explosive compaction
. The energy released causes liquefaction of the soil close to the blast point
and causes cyclic straining of the soil. This cyclic strain process increases pore water
pressures and provided strain amplitudes and numbers of cycles of straining are
sufficient, the soil mass liquefies (i.e. pore water pressures are temporarily elevated
to the effective vertical overburden stress in the soil mass so that a heavy fluid is
created).
Experience
blasting depends on the initial density of the granular subsoils. The density of l
deposits can typically increase considerably to relative densities in the range of 70 to
80%, whereas soils with initial relative densities of 60 to 70% can only be densified
by a small amount. Our experience also indicates that EC generally causes volume
changes equal to or in excess of what would be anticipated under design levels of
earthquake shaking, as described in the attached reference paper by Gohl et al
(2000).

T

/

w
r = r
w = charge weight o
C = charge factor depending on

E
Wt
Depth 7 m
Soil is loos

And 10 m effective de

40





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CHAPTER I : Scope of Engineering Geology

1.1 Definition and Content

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