ELG3336: Converters

Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs) Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)

1
Any analog quantity can be represented by a binary number. Longer binary
numbers provide higher resolution, which gives a more accurate representation
of the analog quantity.
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
8
ref
V
D
i
g
i
t
a
l

O
u
t
p
u
t

D
o
u
t
Analog Input V
in
7
8
ref
V
4
8
ref
V
V, V
LSB
V
FSR

Analog to Digital Converters

Objective: Representing an analog varying physical quantity by a
sequence of discrete numerical values.
2
01 07 10 15 09 03 00 05
Sample
& Hold
Quantization
f
sample
Analog
Digital
3
Successive Approximation ADC
Generate internal analog signal V
D/A
Compare V
D/A
with input signal V
in
Modify V
D/A
by D
0
D
1
D
2
D
N-1
until closest possible value to V
in

is reached

S&H
Logic
DAC
D
0
D
1
D
N-1
V
in
V
ref
V
D/A
Ladder Comparison
The counter, through a digital-to-analog converter, produces a stair-step of increasing
voltage. At each step the input signal is compared to the current step level. If the input is
higher, then continue to step, if the input is equal or lesser, then stop and read the
counter. The count value is read as numeric value of the input.

4
Calculate the maximum conversion time of a 8-bit staircase ramp ADC.
The maximum number of count is n
c
= 28 = 256. The maximum conversion time is:
s s
f
n
T
c
c
128 10 128
10 2
256
6
6
= =

= =

Flash ADC
V
in
V
ref
Over range
D
0
D
1
D
N-1
(2
N
-1) to N
encoder
R/2
R
R/2
R
R
R
R
R
R
V
in
connected with 2
N

comparators in parallel
Comparators connected to
resistor string


If Output
V
IN
> V
REF
High
V
IN
< V
REF
Low
6
An ADC is usually in form of an integrated circuit (IC). ADC0808
and ADC0809 are two typical examples of 8-bit ADC with 8-
channel multiplexer using successive approximation method for its
conversion.
ADC0809
National
Semiconductor

For more information,
http://www.national.com/ads-cgi/viewer.pl/ds/AD/ADC0808.pdf
7
Selection of ADC
The parameters used in selecting an ADC are very similar to those
considered for a DAC selection:
Error/Accuracy: Quantizing error represents the difference
between an actual analog value and its digital representation.
Ideally, the quantizing error should not be greater than
LSB.
Resolution: AV to cause 1 bit change in output
Output Voltage Range Input Voltage Range
Output Settling Time Conversion Time
Output Coding (usually binary)
The Nyquist Rate: A signal must be sampled at a rate at least twice
that of the highest frequency component that must be reproduced.
Example: Hi-Fi sound (20-20,000 Hz) is generally sampled at about
44 kHz.
Sample-and-Hold
A number of problems exist with the previous sample and
hold circuit
Load placed on the input of the circuit by charging the
capacitor during the sample phase.
Current flowing from the capacitor used in the conversion
will reduce the voltage stored on the capacitor
-
+
-
+
sample/hold
control line
C
Sample and Hold Circuits
Sample and hold circuits hold signal constant for conversion
A sample and a hold device (mostly switch and capacitor)
Demands:
Small RC-settling-time (voltage over hold capacitor has to
be fast stable at < 1 LSB)
Exact switching point
Stable voltage over hold capacitor
No charge injection by the switch.
t
T
s

Q
x
q
(t)
Accuracy
t
T
s

x
q
(t)
Higher Sampling Rate
t
Q
x
q
(t)
Higher Resolution
Resolution
Suppose a binary number with N bits is to represent an analog
value ranging from 0 to A; There are 2
N
possible numbers.
Resolution = A / 2
N

Example 1: Temperature range of 0 K to 300 K to be linearly
converted to a voltage signal of 0 to 2.5 V, then digitized with an
8-bit A/D converter.
2.5 / 2
8
= 0.0098 V, or about 10 mV per step
300 K / 2
8
= 1.2 K per step
Example 2: Temperature range of 0 K to 300 K to be linearly
converted to a voltage signal of 0 to 2.5 V, then digitized with a
10-bit A/D converter
2.5 / 2
10
= 0.00244V, or about 2.4 mV per step
300 K / 2
10
= 0.29 K per step
Is the noise present in the system well below 2.4 mV ?
Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)
Binary Weighted Resistor
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = =
R
V
R
V
R
V
R
V
R IR V
1 - n
n 3 2 1
f f out
2 4 2

MSB
LSB








Voltages V
1
through V
n
are
either V
ref
if corresponding
bit is high or ground if
corresponding bit is low

V
1
is most significant bit

V
n
is least significant bit

I
-
+
R
2R
4R
2
n-1
R
Rf

V
out
V
ref
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
n
Binary-Weighted Digital-to-Analog Converters
Sum of the currents from the input resistors; Consider binary weighting factor.
9
Advantages: Simple Construction/Analysis; Fast Conversion
Disadvantages: Requires large range of resistors (2000:1 for 12-bit DAC)
with necessary high precision for low resistors; Requires low switch
resistances in transistors
Binary Weighted Resistor
R
f
= R
8R 4R 2R R
V
o

-V
REF

i
I
LSB
MSB
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =

R
B
R
B
R
B
R
B
V I
REF
8 4 2
0 1 2 3
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + = =
8 4 2
0 1 2
3
B B B
B V R I V
REF f OUT
Resolution Value Digital
2
1
=
=


REF
i n
i
REF OUT
V
B
V V
R-2R Ladder
The less significant the bit, the more resistors the signal muss
pass through before reaching the op-amp
The current is divided by a factor of 2 at each node
LSB MSB
16
R-2R Ladder
The current is divided by a factor of 2 at each node; Analysis for
current from (001)
2
shown below
0
I
V
REF

R
R R R 2R
2R
2R 2R
Op-Amp input
Ground
B
0
2
0
I
4
0
I
8
0
I
R
V
R R R
V
I
REF REF
3 2 2 2
0
=
+

=
B
1
B
2
17
0
I
V
REF

R
R R R
2R
2R 2R 2R
Op-Amp input
Ground
B
0
B
2
0
I
V
REF

R-2R Ladder: An Example
Find the output voltage of the Op-Amp for the following DAC
Given Values
Input = (101)
2

V
REF
= 10 V
R = 2
R
f
= 2R
mA 67 . 1
3 2 2 2
0
= =
+

=
R
V
R R R
V
I
REF REF
mA 04 . 1
2 8
0 0
= + =

I I
I
amp op
V 17 . 4 = =
f amp op OUT
R I V
18
Resolution
Better Resolution(3 bit)
Poor Resolution(1 bit)
Vout
Desired Analog
signal
Approximate
output
2

V
o
l
t
.

L
e
v
e
l
s

Digital Input
0
0
1
Digital Input
Vout
Desired Analog signal
Approximate
output
8

V
o
l
t
.

L
e
v
e
l
s

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
N
LSB
V
V
2
Resolution
Ref
= =
19
Digital to Analog Converters
Selection Criteria of DAC
Resolution
The number of bits making up the input data word that will ultimately determine
the output step voltage as a percentage of full-scale output voltage.
Example: Calculate the resolution of an 8-bit DAC.
Resolution = 8 bits
Percentage resolution =
% 391 . 0 % 100
256
1
% 100
2
1
8
= =
Output Voltage Range
This is the difference between the maximum and minimum output voltages
expressed in volts.
Example: Calculate the output voltage range of a 4-bit DAC if the output
voltage is +4.5V for an input of 0000 and +7.5V for an input of 1111.
Output voltage range = 7.5 4.5 = 3.0V

Summary
Operational amplifiers are important building blocks in analog-to-digital
(A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters. They provide a means for
summing currents at the input and converting a current to a voltage at the
output of converter circuits.
The methods of A/D conversion used are many! In the successive method,
bits are tested to see if they contribute an equivalent analog value that is
greater than the analog input to be converted. If they do, they are returned
to zero. After all bits are tested, the ones that are left ON are used as the
final digital equivalent to the analog input.
The R/2R ladder D/A converter uses only two different resistor values, no
matter how many binary input bits are included. This allows for very high
resolution and ease of fabrication in integrated-circuit form.
The DAC0808 (or MC1408) IC is an 8-bit D/A converter that uses the
R/2R ladder method of conversion. It accepts 8 binary input bits and
outputs an equivalent analog current. Having 8 input bits means that it can
resolve up to 256 unique binary values into equivalent analog values.

37