E

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15
W A T L O W
Short Method
Start-up watts = A + C +
2
3L + Safety Factor
Operating watts = B + D + L + Safety Factor
Safety Factor is normally 10 percent to 35 percent based on application.
A = Watts required to raise the temperature of material and equipment
to the operating point, within the time desired
B = Watts required to raise temperature of the material during the
working cycle
Equation for A and B (Absorbed watts-raising temperature)
Specific heat
Weight of material (lbs)

of material

temperature rise (F)
(Btu/lb

F)
Start-up or cycle time (hrs)

3.412
C = Watts required to melt or vaporize material during start-up period
D = Watts required to melt or vaporize material during working cycle
Equation for C and D (Absorbed watts-melting or vaporizing)
Weight of material (lbs)

heat of fusion or vaporization (Btu/lb)
Start-up or cycle time (hrs)

3.412
L = Watts lost from surfaces by:
Conduction-use equation below
Radiation-use heat loss curves
Convection-use heat loss curves
Equation for L (Lost conducted watts)
Thermal conductivity Temp. differential
of material or insulation Surface area to ambient
(Btu

in./ft
2
F

hr) (ft
2
) (F)
Thickness of material or insulation (in.)

3.412
Application Guide
Electric Heaters
Power Calculations
Calculations for Required
Heat Energy
When performing your own calcu-
lations, refer to the Reference Data
section (begins on page 127) for
values of materials covered by
these equations.
The total heat energy (kWH or Btu)
required to satisfy the system needs
will be either of the two values shown
below depending on which calculated
result is larger.
A. Heat Required for Start-Up
B. Heat Required to Maintain the
Desired Temperature
The power required (kW) will be the
heat energy value (kWH) divided by
the required start-up or working cycle
time. The kW rating of the heater will
be the greater of these values plus a
safety factor.
The calculation of start-up and oper-
ating requirements consist of several
distinct parts that are best handled
separately. However, a short method
can also be used for a quick estimate
of heat energy required. Both methods
are defined and then evaluated using
the following formulas and methods:
16
Equation 1
Q
A
or Q
B
= w

C
p

T
3.412
Q
A
= Heat Required to Raise Temperature of Materials During
Heat-Up (Wh)
Q
B
= Heat Required to Raise Temperature of Materials Processed
in Working Cycle (Wh)
w = Weight of Material (lb)
C
p
= Specific Heat of Material (Btu/Ib

F)
T = Temperature Rise of Material (T
Final
- T
Initial
)(F)
This equation should be applied to all materials absorbing heat in the
application. Heated media, work being processed, vessels, racks, belts,
and ventilation air should be included.
Example: How much heat energy is needed to change the temperature
of 50 lbs of copper from 10F to 70F?
Q = w

C
p

T
= (50 lbs)

(0.10 Btu/Ib

F)

(60F) = 88 (Wh)
3.412
Application Guide
Electric Heaters
Power Calculations
Conduction and Convection
Heating
Equation 1 Absorbed Energy,
Heat Required to Raise the
Temperature of a Material
Because substances all heat differ-
ently, different amounts of heat are
required in making a temperature
change. The specific heat capacity
of a substance is the quantity of heat
needed to raise the temperature of a
unit quantity of the substance by
one degree. Calling the amount of
heat added Q, which will cause a
change in temperature T to a weight
of substance W, at a specific heat of
material C
p
, then Q =w

C
p

T.
Since all calculations are in
watts, an additional conversion
of 3.412 Btu = 1 Wh is introduced
yielding:
Equation 2 Heat Required to
Melt or Vaporize a Material
In considering adding heat to a
substance, it is also necessary to
anticipate changes in state that might
occur during this heating such as
melting and vaporizing. The heat
needed to melt a material is known
as the latent heat of fusion and
represented by H
f
. Another state
change is involved in vaporization
and condensation. The latent heat of
vaporization H
v
of the substance is
the energy required to change a sub-
stance from a liquid to a vapor. This
same amount of energy is released as
the vapor condenses back to a liquid.
Equation 2
Q
C
or Q
D
= w

H
f
OR
w

H
v
3.412 3.412
Q
C
= Heat Required to Melt/Vaporize Materials During Heat-Up (Wh)
Q
D
= Heat Required to Melt/Vaporize Materials Processed in
Working Cycle (Wh)
w = Weight of Material (lb)
H
f
= Latent Heat of Fusion (Btu/Ib)
H
v
= Latent Heat of Vaporization (Btu/lb)
Example: How much energy is required to melt 50 lbs of lead?
Q = w

H
f
Q = (50 lbs)

(9.8 Btu/Ib) = 144 (Wh)

A

T

t
e
3.412

L
Q
L1
= Conduction Heat Losses (Wh)
k = Thermal Conductivity
(Btu

in./ft
2
F

hour)
A = Heat Transfer Surface Area (ft
2
)
L = Thickness of Material (in.)
T = Temperature Difference Across Material
(T
2
-T
1
) F
t
e
= Exposure Time (hr)
This expression can be used to calculate losses through insulated walls of
containers or other plane surfaces where the temperature of both surfaces
can be determined or estimated. Tabulated values of thermal conductivity are
included in the Reference Data section (begins on page 134).
Convection Heat Losses
Convection is a special case of
conduction. Convection is defined
as the transfer of heat from a high
temperature region in a gas or liquid
as a result of movement of the masses
of the fluid. The Reference Data
section (page 127) includes graphs
and charts showing natural and
forced convection losses under
various conditions.
Equation 3BConvection Losses
Q
L2
= A

F
SL

C
F
Q
L2
= Convection Heat Losses (Wh)
A = Surface Area (in
2
)
F
SL
= Vertical Surface Convection Loss Factor
(W/in
2
) Evaluated at Surface
Temperature (See Ref. 9, page 26)
C
F
= Surface Orientation Factor
Heated surface faces up horizontally = 1.29
Vertical = 1.00
Heated surface faces down horizontally = 0.63
Application Guide
Electric Heaters
Power Calculations
Continued
Conduction Heat Losses
Heat transfer by conduction is
the contact exchange of heat from
one body at a higher temperature to
another body at a lower temperature,
or between portions of the same body
at different temperatures.
Radiation Heat Losses
For the purposes of this section,
graphs are used to estimate radiation
losses. Charts in the Reference Data
section (page 127) give emissivity
values for various materials.
Radiation losses are not dependent
on orientation of the surface.
Emissivity is used to adjust for a
materials ability to radiate heat
energy.
Equation 3CRadiation Losses
Q
L3
= A

F
SL

e
Q
L3
= Radiation Heat Losses (Wh)
A = Surface Area (in
2
)
F
SL
= Blackbody Radiation Loss Factor at Surface Temperature (W/in
2
)
e = Emissivity Correction Factor of Material Surface
Example:
Using Reference 139, page 155, we find that a blackbody radiator (perfect
radiator) at 500F, has heat losses of 2.5 W/in
2
.
Polished aluminum, in contrast, (e = 0.09) only has heat losses of 0.22 W/in
2
at the same temperature (2.5 W/in
2
0.09 = 0.22 W/in
2
).
18
Application Guide
Electric Heaters
Power Calculations
Continued
Combined Convection
and Radiation Heat Losses
Some curves in Reference 139
(page 155) combine both radiation
and convection losses. This saves
you from having to use both Equations
3B and 3C. If only the convection
component is required, then the
radiation component must be
determined separately and subtracted
from the combined curve.
Total Heat Losses
The total conduction, convection and
radiation heat losses are summed
together to allow for all losses in the
power equations. Depending on the
application, heat losses may make up
only a small fraction of total power
required... or it may be the largest
portion of the total. Therefore, do not
ignore heat losses unless previous
experience tells you its alright to do.
Equation 3ETotal Losses
Q
L
= Q
L1
+ Q
L2
+ Q
L3
If convection and radiation losses are calculated
separately. (Surfaces are not uniformly insulated
and losses must be calculated separately.)
OR
Q
L
= Q
L1
+ Q
L4
If combined radiation and convection curves are used.
(Pipes, ducts, uniformly insulated bodies.)
Equation 3DCombined Convection and Radiation Heat Losses
Q
L4
= A

F
SL
Q
L4
= Surface Heat Losses Combined Convection and Radiation (Wh)
A = Surface Area (in
2
)
F
SL
= Combined Surface Loss Factor at Surface Temperature (W/in
2
)
This equation assumes a constant surface temperature.
Equation 5Operating Power (Watts)
P
o
=
Q
B
+ Q
D
+ (Q
L
) (1 + S.F.)
t
c
Q
B
= Heat Absorbed by Processed Materials in Working Cycle (Wh)
Q
D
= Latent Heat Absorbed by Materials Heated in Working Cycle (Wh)
Q
L
= Conduction, Convection, Radiation Losses (Wh)
S.F. = Safety Factor
t
c
= Cycle Time Required (hr)
Equation 4Start-Up Power (Watts)
P
s
=
Q
A
+ Q
C
+
2
(Q
L
) (1 + S.F.)
t
s
3
Q
A
= Heat Absorbed by Materials During Heat-Up (Wh)
Q
C
= Latent Heat Absorbed During Heat-Up (Wh)
Q
L
= Conduction, Convection, Radiation Losses (Wh)
S.F. = Safety Factor
t
s
= Start-Up (Heat-Up) Time Required (hr)
During start-up of a system the losses are zero, and rise to 100 percent at
process temperature. A good approximation of actual losses is obtained when
heat losses (Q
L
) are multiplied by
2
3 .
Equations 4 and 5 Start-Up
and Operating Power Required
Both of these equations estimate
required energy and convert it to
power. Since power (watts) specifies
an energy rate, we can use power to
select electric heater requirements.
Both the start-up power and the
operating power must be analyzed
before heater selection can take
place.
E
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W A T L O W
Application Guide
Electric Heaters
Power Calculations
Radiant Heating
When the primary mode of heat trans-
fer is radiation, we add a step after
Equation 5.
Equation 6 is used to calculate the net
radiant heat transfer between two
bodies. We use this to calculate either
the radiant heater temperature
required or (if we know the heater
temperature, but not the power
required) the maximum power which
can be transfered to the load.
Equation 6Radiation Heat Transfer
Between Infinite Size Parallel Surfaces
P
R
=
S (T
4
- T
4
) F
A (144 in
2
/ft
2
) (3.412 Btu/Wh)
P
R
= Power Absorbed by the Load (watts) - from Equation 4 or 5
A = Area of Heater (in
2
) - known or assumed
S = Stephan Boltzman Constant
= 0.1714

10
-8
(Btu/Hr. Sq. Ft. R
4
)
T
1
(R) = Emitter Temperature (F + 460)
T
2
(R) = Load Temperature (F + 460)
e
f
= Emissivity Correction Factor - see below
F = Shape Factor (0 to 1.0) - from Reference 139, page 155
(
1
)
e
f
1 2
Emissivity Correction Factor (e
f
)
Plane Surfaces
Concentric Cylinders
Inner Radiating Outward
Concentric Cylinders
Outer Radiating Inward
1 1
e
S
e
L
e
f
= - 1 +
1
e
S
e
f
= +
e
L
- 1
1
( )
D
S
D
L
1
e
S
e
f
= + - 1
( ) e
L
1 D
S
D
L

e
S
= Heater Emissivity (from Material
Emissivity Tables)
e
L
= Load Emissivity (from Material
Emissivity Tables)
D
S
= Heater Diameter
D
L
= Load Diameter
Power Evaluation
After calculating the start-up and
operating power requirements, a
comparison must be made and
various options evaluated.
Shown in Reference 1 are the start-up
and operating watts displayed in a
graphic format to help you see how
power requirements add up.
With this graphic aid in mind, the
following evaluations are possible:
Compare start-up watts to
operating watts.
Evaluate effects of lengthening
start-up time such that start-up
watts equals operating watts (use
timer to start system before shift).
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
a
t
t
s
)
Time (Hours)
Start-Up
7
Process
10% Safety Factor
Losses
2
/3 of
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
{
Initial Heat to
Melt or Vaporize
(Q
L
)

(Q
C
)

Initial Heat to
Raise Equipment
and Materials
(Q
A
)

Operating Process Heat to
Raise Product from T
1
to T
2
Process HeatMelting or Vaporizing
Operating Losses
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
10% Safety Factor
(Q
D
)

(Q
B
)

S.F.
(Q
L
)

8
9
10
6
5
4
3
2
1
Comparison of Start-Up and Operating Power Requirements
Ref. 1