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Beyond the Pipes

A Guide for Communities Lacking Water and Sewage Services

September 2003
Published by the Energy Center and Center for Environmental Resource Management
at the University of Texas at El Paso
Funding provided by the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts State Energy
Conservation Office
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Table of Contents
Preface
Conditions in Texas Colonias

Introduction

Background

Working with Communities

Selecting the Right Technology for Your Community

Commonly Used Technologies
Boiling
Chemical Disinfection
Small Batch Chlorine

Solar Water Treatment Technologies
UV Systems
SODIS
Undersink/Countertop UV treatment
Pasteurization
Sol*Saver
Family Sol*Saver
Aqua Pak
Solar Blackwater Solar Pasteurization for Kitchen Sink Drainwater
Flow-Through Solar Water Pasteurization
Solar Distillation

Dry Sanitation
Solar Assisted Composting Toilet (SIRDO)
Drying Toilet (Lime)
Texas Two Step Pasteurizing Toilet
A Note on Urine Diversion

Solar Water Heating to reduce water-washed disease
Solar Bucket Heater (with optional pumped shower)
Handwashing Station (with optional solar features)
Passive Solar Water Heater Using a recycled water heater -pressurized



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Water Storage for On-Site Use - Recommendations for use
APB Drinking Water Storage
55 gallon drums and 5 gallon buckets
2500 gallon Tanks

Disaster and Emergency Water Treatment Applications


Conclusions and Lessons Learned

More Information
Websites
Publications
Vendors

References

Appendix

Personnel




















4
Preface


In this manual solar energy and public health are treated equally. There is advice on
boiling water and chlorinating water to kill bugs. There is also advice on using solar
energy to kill bugs. Either may be appropriate in certain circumstances. There is one
constant: Proper sanitation, safe water storage, and hand-washing are essential in any
scheme to improve public health no matter what method is chosen to purify water.
Combining the best ideas from public health and solar design can produce better,
integrated technologies. This goes without saying but is often missed in the narrow
focus of each discipline in pursuit of specific solutions.

Conditions in Texas Colonias
Colonias in Texas are peri-urban areas that lack basic infrastructure and resources.
There is a wide range of conditions for families residing in Texas colonias. As piped
water has been provided to many of the colonias conditions have vastly improved. In El
Paso County $250 Million dollars have been spent on water improvements for colonias.


Figure 1: This household stored water in these six open-top 55 gallon drums. Water was obtained from a
neighbor 100 yards away by filling one drum at a time and pushing it in the wheelbarrow. The family
recently got a 2500 gallon tank that provides indoor running water.

Some families now enjoy piped municipal water and conventional sewers. These
families do not need water purification or management and have the same risk for
health impacts from their water system as city dwellers. Many other families have piped
water and an on-site septic system for sewage. These families are generally at low risk
for health impacts but according to the El Paso City/County Health and Environmental
District about 35% of on-site sewage systems are in non-compliance with one or more
health codes (CH2MHill).
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Some other families have a large water storage tank (2500 gallons) or private well and a
septic system. The storage tank comes with a pressure pump which provides running
water to the home, similar to a well system. Trucking companies deliver water to these
families. Starting at this level each family must assume total responsibility for their
water and wastewater. We term them as being beyond the pipes. These families are
at a higher risk for water related illnesses. At the most severe level there are families
that haul water and store it in 55 gallon drums, move it around in 5 gallon buckets and
use a pit privy (outhouse) for sanitation. These families are at the greatest risk of
disease from contaminating their water and from water-washed disease as well.


Within each of the categories in the hierarchy above there are many variations. For
example, in the Village of Vinton a 1997 report indicated that 10% of the population
uses cesspools or other unsuitable means for waste disposal. Also, among the families
with large storage tanks some do not have complete kitchen or bathroom plumbing
facilities inside the home and therefore do not benefit from the system. Piped water can
greatly improve conditions but poverty still dictates many situations.

There are some families that will not receive piped water, many others will not be
served by sewer. The cost of providing water and wastewater to some colonias is
excessive (greater than $20,000 per hook-up) and has been determined to be non-
feasible. It is this population in El Paso County and other border communities that this
catalog of potential applications is directed at. We hope to start the long process of
identifying and testing practical, low-cost products and technologies that may improve
health and well being for colonia residents beyond the pipes. In the future some of
these technologies may also be applied in urban settings to improve the sustainability of
the region. That is, technology inspired by needs in todays colonias may be applied to
solve the problems of the future in urban centers.

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Introduction

Beyond the Pipes is written for people working with communities lacking a safe piped
water supply or good sewage disposal. The guide wont tell you what is best for your
community, but will give you some of the tools you need to help make the right decision.
The term technology is used loosely in this guide and can mean a gadget that can be
purchased, something that can be constructed or occasionally behaviors like
handwashing,. An evaluation (pros and cons) of many commercially available
technologies is provided along with prices and where the technology can be purchased.
However, after seeing some of the technologies, you may have a better idea that would
fit your communitys needs. Go for it and be creative but dont lose touch with the
community and what they consider acceptable.

Background

Within five years, it is estimated that half of the worlds population will live in cities and
by 2030, the urban population will reach 4.9 billion (60% of the worlds population). This
growth presents difficulties not only to the city governments, unable to keep up with the
growth, but also to the individuals living in the urban environment (especially in low-
income countries where problems are compounded by poverty). A significant portion of
the population that will migrate to cities will live in peri-urban areas similar to the
colonias along the Texas /Mexico border. These families will be beyond the pipes.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 1.1 billion individuals (worldwide)
are without a safe water supply, 2.4 billion lack adequate sewage disposal, and that 3.4
million people, mostly children, die annually from water and sanitation related diseases.
Alternative solutions are needed. With the migration of people to cities and the already
unmet water and sanitation needs, low-cost and easily adaptable solutions that improve
peoples health and free-up time and energy for other activities (like going to school) are
essential.

Recommended Minimun Water Requirements for Residential Use (from Gleick, 1996)
Purpose Liter/person/day
Drinking 5
Cooking 10
Bathing 1
Sanitation 20
Total 36
Figure shows that flush toilets use 40% of the total residential demand for municipal water. If
stopped using water to transport human excreta, reservoirs could be half as large and therefore
much less costly. When cities were fewer and smaller and population densities lower, the cost
of collecting and storing water for such purposes seemed, in financial terms, affordable. That
era has long gone. Soaring costs of peri-urban land for sewage treatment and reservoirs, and
the costs of involuntary resettlement make this approach less affordable. (WHO website)
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The above figures are very low by U.S. standards. A comparison of some regional
residential averages appears below:
Average residential water use in Fort Worth last year (2002) was 1,200 cubic feet
(8,976 gallons) per month.
For 1996, the average residential water use was about 8,300 gallons per month for
Dallas water utility customers.
The average residential water use in Las Cruces, NM is 13,000 gallons per month (Las
Cruces Water Resource Department [LCWRD], 2002). The average daily per capita
water use is 131 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) (City of Las Cruces Utility, 2003),
higher than that of the national average of 75-80 gallons per capita per day (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2002).
El Paso residential water use dropped to 95 gcd in 1999. (95 x 4 x30 = 11,400 gallons
per month for a family of four.)

According to the AWWA, national daily indoor per capita water use in the typical single
family home with no water-conserving fixtures is 74 gallons. Here is how it breaks down:
Use Gallons per Capita Percentage of Total Daily Use
Showers 12.6 16.8%
Clothes Washers 15.1 21.7%
Dishwashers 1.0 1.4%
Toilets 20.1 26.7%
Baths 1.2 1.7%
Leaks 10.0 13.7%
Faucets 11.1 15.7%
Other Domestic Uses 1.5 2.2%

By installing more efficient water fixtures and regularly checking for leaks, households
can reduce daily per capita water use by about 30% to about 51.9 gallons per day
Here's how it breaks down for households using conservation measures:
Use Gallons per Capita Percentage of Total Daily Use
Showers 10.0 20.1%
Clothes Washers 10.6 21.4%
Toilets 9.6 19.3%
Dishwashers 1.0 2.0%
Baths 1.2 2.4%
Leaks 5.0 10.1%
Faucets 10.8 21.9%
Other Domestic Uses 1.5 3.1%
(1999 Residential Water Use Summary, American Water Works Association)

Note: 74 x 4 x 30 = 8,880 gallons per month and 51.9 x 4 x 30 = 6,228 gallons per
month for a family of four.




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From the American Water Works Association
Are You Drinking Enough Water?
-75% of Americans are chronically dehydrated
-In 37% of Americans, the thirst mechanism is so weak that it is often mistaken for hunger
-Even mild dehydration will slow down one's metabolism as much as 3%
-One glass of water shuts down midnight hunger pangs for almost 100% of the dieters studied
in a University of Washington study
-Lack of water is the number one trigger of daytime fatigue
-Preliminary research indicates that 8-10 glasses of water per day could significantly ease back
and joint pain for up to 80% of sufferers
-A mere 2% drop in body water can trigger fuzzy short-term memory, trouble with basic math,
and difficulty focusing on the computer screen or a printed page
-Drinking 5 glasses of water per day decreases the risk of colon cancer by 45%, can reduce the
risk of breast cancer by 79%, and makes one 50% less likely to develop bladder cancer





















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Working with communities

Communities are dynamic and there is no one correct way to work with them. However,
we do recommend four basic ideas outlined in the LEAP philosophy:

Listen Higher education and experience are helpful in community projects, but not
enough to create complete success. Listening to what the community thinks (women,
men and children) is important and having a true dialogue is essential before initiating a
project. Sometimes their needs or ideas may not be clear, but be careful not to confuse
a poorly delivered idea/need with a bad idea/need. If you dont see the community as
your equal it will become evident and difficult to carry out a successful project.

Empower Giving up authority is difficult. However, if you want something to last after
you are gone or you want others to begin other improvement projects, you have to give
up some of the decision making power. This does not mean you blindly hand over
important tasks, but instead that you provide training and support as you slowly let
people have more and more responsibility. Build confidence by demonstrating how
things work and then letting people get experience through hands-on practice.

Allow mistakes $&*@ happens! Community projects, though fun, are difficult as you
often try to overcome language and cultural barriers. Try to include some room for
mistakes in your projects so that you wont get too stressed when someone builds a
lopsided wall or materials are delayed. This is part of the joy of letting people do
something they may never have done before. Expect some crazy and funny events.

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Provide alternatives Try not to tell the community what is the best technology for
them, but provide alternatives with all the pros and cons. Though you may be able to
speed up the project by limiting community involvement, youll miss out on feedback
and support that are crucial for lasting success.

Selecting the right technology for your community

There are occasionally EUREKA events where you find the perfect technology that is
easily adaptable to your community. However, this is the exception, not the rule. There
are many factors that determine the success of a technology or behavior, so try to
remember that a complex problem may need a complex solution. You may need to
hold some small meetings where you demonstrate a technology and ask what people
think or ask them to test the technology for a week and get some feedback. You may
also have to drop the idea of the technology until the community realizes that there is
actually a problem and a solution is needed.

Consider the following criteria when choosing a technology:

Functionality Does it work and does it solve an issue that the community thinks is
important?
Cost Is it something the community can afford and do they want to spend their money
on it?
Availability of materials Can the technology be made locally or is it possible to
purchase?
Acceptability by community Does the community laugh when you show them the
technology or demonstrate the new behavior?
Ease of construction How complex is the technology and can members of the
community build it?
Life of the technology How long with the technology last before it needs to be
replaced?
Maintenance How difficult is the maintenance of the technology and can it be
performed by community members?

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Commonly used technologies

Boiling
How it works
Boiling is one of the simplest ways of killing bugs or microbes in water and making it
safe to drink. Boiling water for 1 minute, after you see the water bubbling, will kill
almost every microbe. Some viruses and protozoans may be able to survive past 20
minutes of boiling, highlighting the need for autoclaving of surgical instruments, but
reasonable protection is provided by boiling. You can boil water longer than 1 minute to
be safe, but 1 minute is sufficient to greatly improve the quality of the water [Sobsey,
2002].
Amount of water that can be treated
Any amount of water is okay, but the more water you boil, the more water is likely to be
sitting around. If it sits around a long time, it can easily become re-contaminated with
bugs.

Conditions for appropriate use
As mentioned before, boiling is easy (a pot, some water, and a heating source). Boil
water in a safe container, one that wont melt or break. Try to find a container that has a
handle to avoid burns, and remember to keep children away from the heating or boiling
water.

Cost of treatment
Cost varies. It depends mostly on the heating source youre using to boil the water.
You may need to evaluate the availability and cost of heating water using fossil fuels,
wood, or electricity versus other ways of treating your water. About 1 kilogram of wood
is needed to boil 1 liter of water, so in areas where the use of wood and wood-derived
fuels is a concern because of deforestation look at other alternatives.

Advantages
Boiling water is simple and well accepted.

Disadvantages
After water is boiled, it can become recontaminated. Its important to store the water in
a clean container that is well covered or has a small mouth so that hands or paws cant
contaminate it with microbes or bugs. Try using a covered container with a spigot
instead of dipping water out with a ladle. Expense. Cost and availability of fuel may
lead to intermittent use. Small batches requiring frequent, time consuming procedure.
Acceptance by users
Boiling water is a commonly accepted practice in many parts of the world. Its important
to ask your community how they feel about boiling water, how expensive it is for them,
how difficult it is, and if they think its necessary.

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Chemical Disinfection
Small Batch Chlorination
How it works
Chemical disinfection with chlorine is a very common and effective way to kill
microbes in water. At low levels and short contact times, free chlorine generally kills
99.99% of enteric bacteria and viruses (with a few exceptions). Chlorine also has a
lasting effect and can maintain its disinfectant residual.
Amount of water that can be treated
Since chlorine is so effective and relatively cheap, it is a widely accepted
means for treating community drinking water supplies. Large quantities of water can be
treated using chlorine, however many intervention programs have promoted in-home
chlorination since households often collect and store their own drinking water supply.
Conditions for appropriate use
You basically need water, chlorine (common household bleach), and a safe
container that wont allow recontamination by household members. We recommend 2
drops of bleach (5% solution) per liter. Let it sit for 30 minutes and then chug-a-lug
chug-a-lug. It is much better if you can start with a relatively clear water supply free of
debris. If you have a lot of debris you may let the water settle or filter it through a thin
piece of cloth.
Cost of treatment
The cost varies depending upon the availability of household bleach. Bleach
is readily available at reasonable cost in almost all urban and peri-urban areas. At 2
drops per liter, cost is minimal. Cost can be as low as 9 cents per cubic meter. (see
chart from Burch in Appendix)
Advantages
Chlorine is great because its easy to use, effective against most pathogens
and provides lasting protection (unless it is stored too long over 3 days).
Disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of chlorine are that it is not available worldwide
and that it can react with organic material (like algae) in water forming not so healthy
chemical by-products. However, many health experts believe that the health benefits of
using chlorine far outweigh the health problems associated with these chemical by-
products.



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Acceptance by users
Some users do not like the taste and/or odor of chlorine in their water, so its
not always the best choice. You may want to do some taste tests in the community and
get some feedback before promoting this as a solution.
(See http://www.cerm.utep.edu/outreach/apb/index.html and
http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/default.htm )



















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Solar Water Treatment Technologies


UV Systems
Ultraviolet light can incapacitate pathogens. Both the UV-A in sunlight and the UV-C
that can be produced by lamps has been employed to purify water.
SODIS (SOlar water DISinfection)
How it works
SODIS, SOlar Water DISinfection, improves the microbiological quality of drinking
water. It is a simple water treatment method using solar UV-A radiation and
temperature to inactivate pathogens causing diarrhoea.
The Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) process is a simple technology used to improve
the microbiological quality of drinking water. SODIS uses solar radiation to destroy
pathogenic microorganisms which cause water borne diseases.

Figure 2: Solar disinfection of water is a simple and effective technology. Since there is no
indicator or water safety the procedure must be carelfully followed.

SODIS is ideal to treat small quantities of water. Contaminated water is filled into
transparent plastic bottles and exposed to full sunlight for six hours. Sunlight is treating
the contaminated water through two synergetic mechanisms: Radiation in the spectrum
of UV-A (wavelength 320-400nm) and increased water temperature. If the water
temperatures raises above 50C (122F), the disinfection process is three times faster.
from the SODIS website
Amount of water that can be treated
Water is intended to be treated in re-cycled soda bottles made of PET (PVC bottles
absorb or filter out more UV light). Multiple bottles of one to three liters may be used.

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#1- polyethylene terephthalate (PET) sometimes PETE
soda & water containers, some waterproof packaging, tennis balls.
Conditions for appropriate use
SODIS is directed at the vast portion of world population with no access to a
safe water source. It is the most basic approach utilizing the least technology at the
lowest cost. It may have application for use during disaster relief in developed
countries.
Cost of treatment
With re-cycled bottles it is zero.
Advantages
Lowest cost, very simple, and easy to do.
Disadvantages
May not produce desired results due to lack of adequate sunlight. There is no way to
easily determine if the process worked. No indicator is available, so the user must know
if the proper conditions were met.
This disclaimer appears at the SODIS website ( http://www.sodis.ch/index.html ):
SODIS is used at household level under the responsibility of the user. Therefore
EAWAG is not liable for any harm caused by a faulty or inadequate application of the
water treatment process.
Acceptance by users
See survey in appendix. Seven of 11 agreed it cleaned the water. Only three
of 11 said they would regularly use it and 5 indicated they would only use it for
emergencies, when they had no other option or on camping trips. Four said it was too
small.

Undersink and Countertop Ultraviolet Disinfection (UV)
This technology utilizes a small lamp to generate ultraviolet light that incapacitates
pathogens. The lamp requires electricity to operate and could be powered by a
conventional AC or a DC solar source. No affordable units that are PV powered have
been identified. Finding DC bulbs and ballasts also proved to be difficult. This may be
the case since the units need pressurized water and where there is water pressure
there is almost always electricity, too. It is cheaper and easier to just plug in to the grid
if available. There may be a need for a solar unit; the Energy Center will continue to
search for an affordable UV-PV, family sized unit.
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Technology Pressurized
water
system
Electricity Maintenance Pretreatment
required
Change
in taste
of water
Water
quality
constraints
Ultraviolet
Disinfection
Required Required Annual bulb
replacement
Depends on
water quality.
May require
sediment
filter,
activated
carbon, iron
removal,
and/or
softening
No
change
Water must
be clear
(low
turbidity)

How it works
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection is a proven technology for the destruction of pathogens in
drinking water. It works by directing ultraviolet light (primarily UV-C wavelengths of 240-
280nm) at the water in doses sufficient to damage the DNA of microorganisms.


Figure 3: UV treatment is simple. Water is pumped through a cartridge exposing it to UV-C
radiation and then out a faucet.

Amount of water that can be treated
UV disinfection systems are customarily used with a pressurized water supply. Small-
scale, batch UV disinfection systems are not widely available, if they are manufactured
at all. Home UV disinfection systems may be sized to treat water from a single faucet
(typical flow rate of .5 gpm to 2 gpm) or to treat water for an entire household (typically
around 10 gpm). Treating a single tap is less costly but requires that the drinking water
for the entire household be taken from the single tap. In addition, the quality of the
untreated water must be sufficient for use in bathing and washing.

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Conditions for appropriate use
The water to be treated must be clear enough to transmit UV light. This means that it
must be free from both particles and dissolved substances that can reduce the clarity of
water or form deposits that block light transmission. Pretreatment may be necessary to
remove these substances if they are present in sufficiently high concentrations.
Pretreatment commonly includes a sediment filter and activated carbon. It may also
include iron removal and softening. The manufactures guidelines should be consulted
for the appropriate pretreatment required.

Figure 4: Here is a counter top version of a UV treatment device. It also includes a carbon
block filter to improve taste.
Cost of treatment
The cost of treatment depends largely on the level of pre-treatment required. A simple
UV unit sufficient for treating a single tap costs roughly $120-160. Systems with
prefiltration and lamp monitors may cost $250-$300 or more if softening or iron
oxidation is required. Treating water for the entire house, rather than a single tap, will
very roughly double the initial installation costs and increase the annual lamp
replacement costs by about 50%.

Operating and maintenance costs for the UV system consist largely of annual
replacement of the lamp ($60-$100). Electricity costs are minimal as the wattage of the
lamps is quite low (5-40 watts, depending on the size of the system). Pretreatment
systems will add to operating and maintenance costs substantially. While the exact
amount depends on the nature of the pretreatment required, common pretreatment,
such as a sediment filter and activated carbon would roughly double annual operating
costs.

If a system costs $160 and produces 3,000 per year (~8.2 gal/day) and uses 20W
continuously then first year cost per gallon will be 6 cents. If a replacement lamp costs
$39 and a replacement carbon block filter is $25 then second year costs drop to about
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2.6 cents per gallon or about 90% less than Windmill bottled water.. (Based on specs
for Puritec countertop model)
Advantages
This method is highly effective, does not affect the taste or odor of the water, and
requires little effort or attention by the user on a daily basis.

Disadvantages
UV disinfection can not be used everywhere as it requires electricity and a pressurized
water supply. It may also require pretreatment depending on water quality. Another
concern is that the lamp performance declines gradually over time. While replacement
is usually recommended on an annual basis, the lamps are expensive, and there are no
visible signs of decreased performance by the system. These circumstance may lead
users may to try to prolong the period between lamp replacements which will result in
less effective disinfection by the system. The more expensive systems address this by
including a UV intensity monitor to warn the user when lamp performance is declining.

Acceptance by users
User acceptance in the short term is likely to be high as this method imparts no taste or
odor to the water and requires little effort by the user on a daily basis. If only a single
tap is treated in a household, some minor effort will be required on the part of the users
to take drinking water exclusively from that tap. In the long term, the user must maintain
the device, which requires the purchase relatively costly replacement parts and
adherence to a service schedule. There is little information on how well users maintain
these devices over long periods of time.


Pasteurization
There are several ways to improve water quality using solar energy. Some use the
suns energy to produce heat, some use the UV portion of the solar spectrum to
incapacitate pathogens, others convert solar energy to electricity with photovoltaic cells
and use the electricity to power purification devices. UV treatment is typically called
disinfection while raising the temperature of water above a threshold for a period of time
is called pasteurization. Distillation involves heating and vaporizing water then
condensing the vapor and is targeted at removing salts from water. There are
significant variations among systems of each type.

Pasteurization
Although pasteurization of milk is the mainstay of the dairy industry, it is seldom
considered for water treatment. Pasteurization of water is one of the most effective
methods of killing viruses, bacteria, and protozoa. In developing countries, or in
disaster conditions the main recommendation of public health workers is to boil water
before drinking it. While effective, boiling water is energy and labor intensive. Heating
water to pasteurization temperatures (68C or 154F) is sufficient to kill most micro-
organisms but problems in usage and the fact that illness may result from any mistakes
leads authorities to recommend boiling. A major issue for solar pasteurization is
knowing if the water is safe to drink after treatment. With boiling there is a visual
indicator.
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Figure 5: This chart may be used to determine if pasteurization has occurred.

A WAPI, or WAter Pasteurization Indicator, is a plastic tube with both ends heated,
pinched, and sealed, and with a particular type of soybean fat in one end that melts at
154 F (68C). The tube itself is buoyant, but is weighted with a washer so it sinks to the
bottom (coolest) part of the water, with the fat in the high end of the tube. If the fat is
found in the low end of the tube at any time after, the water reached the proper
temperature, even though the water may have since cooled down. A nylon string makes
it easy to take the tube out without recontaminating the water. The tube is reused by
flipping it over and sliding the string through the other way. This device also works with
fuel-heated water. Since heating the water to the pasteurization temperature rather than
the boiling point reduces the energy required by at least 50%, the fuel savings offered
by this simple device alone is considerable. (Andreatta, A SUMMARY OF WATER
PASTEURIZATION TECHNIQUES, See Fig.6 - WAPI illus.)

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Figure 6: The WAPI is an invaluable tool that utilizes wax as a recording thermometer
substitute.

(This device works in any size water container, costs about $3, and is available from
Solar Cookers International, 1724 11th Street, Sacramento, California, 95814, (916)
444-6616, http://solarcooking.org)

The solar thermal pasteurization devices are very similar to solar water heaters for
domestic use. With the difference that the water must reach the Pasteurization Zone of
Safety (Faechem, et.al. See Fig. #?) to ensure safety. For DHW a wide temperature
range is acceptable. Batch pasteurization devices must have an indicator, such as a
WAPI and flow-through pasteurizers need a control to ensure that only water that has
reached sufficient temperatures is used.


Family Sol*Saver
How it works
This is a small scale solar batch pasteurizer that is manually filled and emptied each
day. A WAPI type indicator is used to show that temperatures sufficient for
pasteurization occurred. The device can be placed in a sunny spot and left all day.

Figure 7: The Family Sol*Saver is a simple water pasteurization device. At left, pasteurized
water is being directly transferred to an Agua Para Beber (APB) container.
The container has a hollow molded plastic body with a polycarbonate structured sheet
(PCSS) twinwall glazing cover. There are two fittings through the glazing to allow filling
and draining. One of these fittings holds the WAPI like device.
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Amount of water that can be treated
The FSS holds 3.5 gallons and may be re-filled on long, sunny days in summer to
pasteurize additional batches.
Conditions for appropriate use
Can be used to replace boiling water when there is adequate sun for 3 to 4 hours each
day. Boiling can always be used as a backup.
Cost of treatment
Initial cost of unit is high ($220) but may be recovered in fuel savings over the
years.
Advantages
This is a simple, effective treatment device with a pasteurization indicator.
Processes 3.5 gallons in one batch. It is potentially more convenient than boiling for
many families.
Disadvantages
Bulky device that requires careful handling (long dimension must be horizontal
when filled). Initial cost is high. Susceptible to freezing conditions that could cause
leaks or damage. Permanent, site-built batch pasteurizer combined with a WAPI may
be more cost effective.
Acceptance by users
Texas Colonia residents were not very receptive since they had other easier or
more desirable options available. Residents with fewer options may have more interest
in the Family Sol*Saver.

AquaPak
How it works
AquaPak is a very low cost device ($19.95 retail or as low as $6 to NGOs) that
looks like a solar camping shower with bubble pack material instead of clear vinyl.
Typically, the unit is placed on a flat surface with the bubble side up.
Amount of water that can be treated
It holds 5 liters and can pasteurize up to 15 liters per day under ideal weather
conditions.
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Figure 8: A WAPI type indicator is built into the Aqua Pak. When the wax melts and runs to the
low end of the tube pasteurization temperature has been reached.
Conditions for appropriate use
While this unit is not intended for use in developed countries it may have an
application in some colonia households and during emergencies or disasters. If a family
has an alternative such as purchasing drinking water for 25 cents a gallon at a
Windmill dispenser they are not likely to utilize this type of water purifier.
Cost of treatment
Very low. Both initial cost and life cycle cost are very low for the Aqua Pak.
Advantages
Simple and cheap. Has an indicator to prove water reached pasteurization
temperatures and is safe. In winter, additional units can be used to maintain production.

Figure 9: The Aqua Pak is a simple, low cost method of pasteurizing water that includes a
thermal indicator.


23
Disadvantages
Designed for rural populations in developing nations. May not be considered
convenient by peri-urban families with more options. Requires owner involvement.
Acceptance by users
Varies. Additional testing needed.
(see Fact Sheet for AquaPak in appendix)

Sol*Saver
The Sol*Saver is a solar pasteurization device designed for treating large
quantities of water.
How it works
A 4x10 foot solar thermal collector heats water and releases it through a
thermally activated valve and heat exchanger. Incoming water is pre-heated by the
treated water to increase efficiency. A back-up wood-fired heater is provided for times
when there is no sun.

Figure 10: The Sol*Saver is large and expensive but has a high production rate and can
operate automatically without any external power.
Amount of water that can be treated
Two hundred or more gallons per day can be pasteurized per day.
Conditions for appropriate use
Most suitable for a small community in a temperate climate without electricity.
Cost of treatment
Initial cost of the unit is high but the high production rate makes the unit cost
effective for multiple users.

24
Advantages
High production rates. Can operate off grid in very remote areas with gravity
fed supply.
Disadvantages
High initial cost. Not suitable for freezing climates.
Acceptance by users
Unknown.

Flow-Through Solar Water Pasteurizers
There is a definite need for a simple, rugged and low-cost flow through pasteurizer that
can produce enough water for drinking and cooking for a family. Just such a device
appeared to be very close to delivery to the commercial market two years ago.
Unfortunately, no product has been commercialized.

How it works
A flow through pasteurizer must be able to control the production of water without
allowing any contaminated water through the system. It must also incorporate a heat
exchanger to boost productivity since more energy is typically realized through the heat
exchange process than from solar input.
Amount of water that can be treated
Water production varies considerably based on size of unit and solar resource.
A family sized unit needs to be able to supply 20 to 25 liters (5-6 gallons) per day on
average. If a unit is sized to produce very large quantities of water it becomes
unaffordable by a single family.
Conditions for appropriate use
Sufficient sunshine must be available to heat the water to pasteurization temperatures.
A fail safe device that prevents contaminated water form being delivered is required.
And, controls that negate the effects of boiling or freezing of the water are needed. The
device must also be simple enough to use that a homeowner can operate and maintain
it.
Cost of treatment
First cost is just as important as life cycle costs to produce water. If a family
simply cannot afford the device then the cost per gallon is not important. Ideally, initial
cost should be $100 to $200 dollars and cost per gallon around one cent.

25
Advantages
If available, the advantages would be providing an automatic device that
makes safe water available using a free energy source with little owner involvement
required at low cost. This would essentially be the solar equivalent of a countertop UV
purifier.
Disadvantages
No product commercially available, prototypes are very expensive, prototypes
are complicated and susceptible to damage.
Acceptance by users
Unknown, untested

Solar Kitchen Sink Blackwater Pasteurizer
How it works
Some authorities consider kitchen sink water to have a higher pathogen
content that demands special treatment beyond that required for greywater. A basic
design based on the Solar Puddle as conceived by Dale Andreatta was investigated. A
simple, insulated basin covered with polycarbonate structured sheet (PCSS) and lined
with silicone caulk was constructed to treat batches of kitchen sink water by raising the
temperature to 158F (70C). This design was abandoned in favor of simple sub-
surface greywater disposal.
Amount of water that can be treated
The depth of the water in a basin controls the temperature that may be
reached. Varying the size of the collector and basin, virtually any amount of water may
be processed.
Conditions for appropriate use
For safe re-use greywater must be treated to destroy micro-organisms or
human contact must be prevented. It is much simpler and more reliable to devise a
system that avoids human contact through sub-surface irrigation. As Art Ludwig states,
In a residential context, any system which uses a pump, filter or costs more than you
spend on water in a year is suspect. Disinfection is extremely suspect. Solar energy is
capable of providing pasteurization temperatures for greywater and kitchen sink water
but may prove to be more complicated and labor intensive than desired.
Cost of treatment
The device may be built at low cost but operational labor costs may be
considered high by home owners.


26
Advantages
Uses free solar energy. Disinfects kitchen sink blackwater. Low
construction cost.
Disadvantages
Other more suitable treatment methods may be more appropriate, easier,
more reliable, and more cost effective. Requires significant homeowner involvement.
Greywater does not store well due to odor production requiring a back-up even in very
sunny climates. The pasteurizing unit must be protected from over heating between
batch processes. Our conclusion is to use other simpler technologies.
Acceptance by users
Unknown. Not field tested.

Solar Distillation
How it works
In a typical basin-type single effect still, water is heated by solar radiation
causing it to vaporize and condense on the glass cover. It then trickles down to a
collection trough and is channeled to a storage container.
Amount of water that can be treated
Solar stills have been constructed in a very wide range of sizes. Production is
limited by the efficiency of the still and the solar input. Typically, solar stills produce 1 to
2 gallons per square meter per day; more in summer and less in winter.
Conditions for appropriate use
Solar distillation is most appropriate where the salt content of water is too high
for drinking. If the primary problem with water is pathogens, simpler and lower cost
alternatives may be more appropriate.
Cost of treatment
Using the example of a solar still that has 18 sq.ft. of collection surface
(~2sqM), costs $500, and produces on average 750 gallons (or ~2 gallons per day) per
year. Costs would be 66 cents per gallon the first year but would drop to maintenance
costs in subsequent years.
Advantages
Eliminates salts and many chemicals (except those with lower vapor pressure
than water, e.g. gasoline) in addition to pathogens. Improves the taste of water.

27
Disadvantages
Relatively high initial cost. Relatively low production. Production varies
seasonally with solar flux. Requires daily user interaction.

Acceptance by users
Good.

Dry Sanitation

One flush of a standard U.S. toilet requires more water than most individuals, and many
families, in the world use for all their needs in an entire day. But toilet technology has already
reduced new U.S. units from the old 57 U.S. gallons per flush (gpf) to 1.6 or fewer, with no
degradation of performance.

A more sensible design than obsolete flush toilets has been introduced by modern Swedish
toilets. These feature a two-compartment bowl to separate urine, which contains most of the
nutrient value in human wastes, from feces: The two leave the body separately, and should be
disposed of that way. It is then a straightforward procedure to collect or sell the urine (stored in
a small tank) from a tap outside the building as a valuable fertilizer, and to dry and bag,
compost, or otherwise treat the 20-odd pounds of feces per person per year. In Sweden, a
country noted for hygienic and aesthetic refinement, more than 50,000 such dry systems have
been sold in 42 models from 22 manufacturers; they cost scarcely more to buy and can cost
less to install than a nonseparating toilet plus its sewer connection. If perfected in a form
attractive to the American market, separating toilets could greatly reduce toilets water use,
perhaps even to zero for dry or composting solutions. The toilets would save sewage-collection,
sewage-treatment, and agricultural costs and would improve topsoil. Natural Capitalism,
Hawken, Lovins & Lovins

There is an obvious advantage to dry sanitation for those living beyond the pipes. By
eliminating the single largest use of household water flushing toilets, families do not
have to haul, store, and dispose of huge quantities of water. Many approaches have
been tried and numerous systems are available. There is a wide variation in cost,
convenience, and reliability. We will review three approaches.
Once a dry toilet is decided upon, a family must then choose a method for handling
greywater from baths and laundries and a method for handling kitchen sink water since
some health authorities classify it as blackwater or higher pathogen content water that
requires special handling. There is the potential to save the cost of a septic tank. Most
dry toilets use a composting process; others desiccate and raise the pH of the waste.
The Energy Center evaluated using solar pasteurization to destroy pathogens.


28
Solar Assisted Composting Toilet (SIRDO)
In a project funded by Paso del Norte Health Foundation and others, CERM installed
approximately 300 prefabricated, dry-composting toilets manufactured by GTA,
Naucalpan, Mxico were installed in three peri-urban communities of Cd. Jurez.
These units, called SIRDOs (Sistema Integral de Reciclamiento de Desechos
Orgnicos), are single-vault, self-contained, fiberglass and plastic structures that stand
separate or connected to the home and serve usually a single family.

How it works
Urine, feces, toilet paper, and additive are processed in a two pile system that also
incorporates an unglazed passive solar panel to add some solar heating.


Figure 11: The SIRDO is a composting toilet that requires no water and very little
space. The photo shows some units in Cuidad Juarez, Mexico.
Amount of water that can be treated
The SIRDO is sized for an individual family of 4 or 5 members.
Conditions for appropriate use
Ideal for replacing pit latrines or in areas not served by sewers. Septic tank
leach fields require a large amount of space; SIRDOs do not.
Cost of treatment
Units cost $300 in Mexico. Costs are low compared to alternatives.
Advantages
Uses no water. Low cost. Saves space.

29
Disadvantages
The moisture level was consistently too low for efficient biodegradation, which requires
moisture levels between 40-60%. High levels of multiple pathogens were found in the
samples after 6 months of composting, precautionary measures should be taken during
disposal of the end product. Owner involvement is required to maintain optimum
moisture and to stir the pile to promote composting.
Acceptance by users
All dry sanitation system users were very satisfied with their new toilets
regardless of the type. The main variables that users considered important were the
absence of flies and odor. Compared to their previous system (pit latrines), the new
systems had no odor and only a few flies.

Dry Lime Toilet

Figure 12: Drying waste and raising the pH level has also been shown to be effective in
destroying pathogens. Above are photos of toilets installed by CERM in Cuidad Juarez, Mexico.
How it works
Lime stabilization refers to the addition of lime (calcium oxide) to waste. When
the pH of the sludge is increased, usually to above 11 bacteria are killed.

The dehydrating toilets rely on desiccation and high pH (>10) for pathogen reduction.
The dehydrating system had only 7% moisture at four months, which is appropriate for a
desiccating system. The pH was <8 for the biodegrading system and approximately 10
for the dehydrating system. The high pH has been shown in previous studies to
increase the rate of pathogen die-off. Both systems had a two-fold log reduction in fecal
coliforms between two and six months. There was a major decrease in Cryptosporidium
detected in the dehydration system compared to that of the biodegrading system, 67%
to 50% positive versus 46% to 0% positive after six months. For Giardia, there was also
a decrease but less pronounced.
30

Amount of waster that can be treated
Double vault toilets were built to allow additional residence time for the waste.
The units are sized for a family of 4 to 5 members.
Conditions for appropriate use
A study found that pathogens were present in treated sludge that was
removed from the toilets. Based on our findings, there is the potential that viable
Giardia and Cryptosporidium cysts and oocysts are still present in the composted
waste. For hygienic reasons, this waste should be disposed of by burying or bagging it
for transportation to a landfill to prevent future human exposure. From Hyperendemic
Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Households Lacking Municiapl Sewer and Water on the
United Sates Mexico Border by Redlinger, et al
Cost of treatment
Low cost.
Advantages
Zero water use. Small space required. Low cost treatment.
Disadvantages
Sludge must be disposed of in landfill. Pathogens may still be present in final
product. Requires homeowner involvement.
Acceptance by users
Good. Users were very happy with the units.

Texas Two Step Solar Pasteurizing Toilet

Figure 13: The collection of waste can be almost anywhere. The demonstration unit (above,
left) was constructed like a pit privy but with bag collection. The pasteurizing hot box (right) is a
simple, glazed and insulated box that resembles a solar cooker.
31
How it works
The Energy Center at CERM is investigating the practicality of pasteurizing human
waste with solar energy as a means of saving water and preventing the spread of
disease in border colonias. A waterless alternative to the flush toilet that utilizes the
suns power to pasteurize is being tested. It has been named the Texas Two-Step
Solar Pasteurizing Toilet and the two steps are: Bag It! Bake It!

Excrement (the combination of urine and feces) and an additive such as sawdust is
collected in a black polyethylene bag inside an autoclavable polypropylene bag to
provide two layers of protection. (ETPA , Excrement, Toilet Paper, and Additive, is an
acronym used to describe dry toilet contents.) Bagging the ETPA also makes it easier
to handle, improves aesthetics and presents a uniform depth with a large solar
collection area. When the inner bag is filled both are sealed and placed in an insulated
box with a south sloping window that resembles a solar cooker. The goal is to achieve
a temperature of 150F (66C) for one hour throughout the contents. This is sufficient
to kill all the pathogens in the waste. One clear, sunny day during a week is needed to
produce this temperature. Once pasteurization has occurred the material is considered
Class A Sludge and may be composted for on-site use or sent to a landfill. Testing will
be required to ensure pathogen elimination.


Figure 14: Waste is collected in a bag inside of a bucket or trash can. Access to the bag is
available from inside or outside the privy. The ergonomics are tested by Jay Graham (right).

32

Figure 15: A later version of the pasteurizing unit features a 45 degree angle for the glazing to
optimize for year round solar collection in El Paso (latitude + 15 degrees). The lightweight top
simply lifts off the insulated base for loading and unloading.


Figure 16: One week of waste collection (with urine diversion assumed) was simulated in these
photos. The container is a standard 13 gallon kitchen trash can lined with a heavy duty black
polyethylene bag and an autoclavable polypropylene bag. In early tests polyehtylene bags were
melting at folded spots.


Figure 17: Bagging the waste minimizes the interaction of homeowners and may be more
popular than stirring and shoveling the end product as in some composting designs. The bag
contains 23.5 cups (.6L each) plus an equal volume of sawdust. It weighs 32 pounds.

33

Figure 18: Bagging the waste also allows for a large surface area for solar collection to ensure
a minimal and even depth for uniform heating for pasteurization. At right, .6 liters (20.3 oz.) of
simulated solid waste (cow manure) is shown.

Amount of waste that can be treated
The test unit has been sized to treat .6 liters (20.3 fl.oz.) of feces and 1.2 liters
(40.6 fl.oz.) of urine per person per day with additional bulk from toilet paper and an
additive to cover feces and soak up urine for four adults. The pasteurization cycle is
assumed to be one week, that is, enough clear weather will occur in one week to reach
pasteurization temperatures. For cloudy climates different sizing may be required. It is
possible to have 2 pasteurizing units to increase residence time to 2 weeks. Typically,
pasteurization temperatures are reached in a one or two day cycle. The unit is sized to
achieve temperatures of 150F (66C) for one hour or more under the bagged waste.
Initial tests indicate that the lowest temperature is at the underside of the bagged waste.
This is due to the heat flow coming from solar energy on top of the bag. Testing also
indicates that once the temperature under the bag reaches 150F (66C) it will remain
there for one hour or more due to the mass effect. Additional testing is being done for
feces only to simulate conditions for urine diverting toilets. The volume of treated
sludge will be significantly less without urine and additive to soak it up, allowing the
system to be smaller.
Conditions for appropriate use
The design is an alternative to other dry sanitation approaches or pit privies. A
relatively mild, sunny climate will be the most appropriate for this design.
Cost of treatment
Costs for this design could be low to very low. Black polyethylene bags are
readily available and low cost (~5 cents each) and autoclaveable bags are available for
about 30 cents each. Assuming one batch per week, bags would cost $18 per year.
The only other costs are for a solar pasteurizing unit, which can be constructed for less
than $50, a thermal indicator to ensure pasteurization temperatures have been reached
(a hi-lo reading thermometer with memory is $10-15), and wire ties (3-5 cents each) or
other bag closures. There may be an additional cost for an additive like sawdust. As
with other systems a major cost may be for the modified dry toilet stool, if needed.
Alternatively, a privy-like arrangement to collect the waste in a bag can be built at
minimal cost.

34
Advantages
Low Cost, requires little specialized knowledge to use, potential to close the
nutrient cycle, potential to quickly and effectively neutralize pathogens,
Disadvantages
Still experimental -- requires further testing, permitting, and approvals from
sanitation authorities, requires minimum solar resource, requires some homeowner
involvement, requires special bags, requires additive, requires indicator of
pasteurization. Potential problems include: odors developed when heating feces,
expansion of gas inside bags, user resistance to bag collection.
Acceptance by users
Untested, unknown.


A Note on Urine Diversion
Processing urine and feces separately has many advantages. Since urine is typically
sterile (in the absence of an infection) and contains the most nutrient value (nitrogen) it
may be desirable to collect it separately for re-use. Urine also requires large amounts
of additive to adequately soak it up and contributes to odor formation when combined
with feces. Unfortunately, not very much work has been done on urine collection and
re-use. Typically, urine diverting toilets are expensive specialty products.

Since Thomas Crapper invented the water closet, many sanitation experts have come
to view it as one of the stupidest technologies of all time: In an effort to make them
invisible, it mixes pathogen-bearing feces with relatively clean urine. Then it dilutes
that slurry with about 100 times its volume in pure drinking water, and further mixes the
mess with industrial toxins in the sewer system, thus turning an excellent fertilizer and
soil conditioner into a serious, far-reaching, and dispersed disposal problem.
Supplying the clean water, treating the sewage, and providing all the delivery and
collection in between requires systems whose cost strains the resources even of
wealthy countries, let alone the 2 billion people who lack basic sanitation. The World
Health Organization has stated that waterborne sanitation cannot meet any of its
declared objectivesequity, disease prevention, and sustainabilityand suggests that
only with more modern (waterless) techniques can the worlds cities be affordably
provided with clean water for drinking, cooking, and washing. Natural Capitalism,
Hawken, Lovins & Lovins

There is far more nitrogen present in urine than feces, which can really upset the C/N
ratio requiring far more carbon material to be added to the compost toilet than if the
urine was collected separately. The addition of urine can also saturate the compost pile
well beyond the desirable moisture content causing anaerobic conditions to prevail,
composting to be replaced by fermentation and foul odors to persist. Composting
Toilet System Book, del Porto & Steinfeld
35
Solar Water Heating to reduce water-washed disease

Diarrhoea is a symptom of infection caused by a host of bacterial, viral and parasitic organisms
most of which can be spread by contaminated water. It is more common when there is a
shortage of clean water for drinking, cooking and cleaning and basic hygiene is important in
prevention. Water contaminated with human faeces for example from municipal sewage, septic
tanks and latrines is of special concern. Animal faeces also contain microorganisms that can
cause diarrhoea. Diarrhoea can also spread from person to person, aggravated by poor
personal hygiene. Food is another major cause of diarrhoea when it is prepared or stored in
unhygienic conditions. World Health Organization

When households lack convenient ways to shower or wash their hands gastrointestinal
disease rates climb. Drinking contaminated water is one way to come in contact with
pathogens another main route for fecal-oral contamination is from hands and the
environment. When a mother changes the diapers of an infant and does not have a
convenient method to wash her hands the family is at greater risk.

The best solution is to provide complete plumbing for kitchens and baths along with
pressurized, running water. A complete plumbing system provides adequate
convenience to encourage proper sanitation. Since this level of solution may be out of
reach for some families the Energy Center investigated possible alternatives for use by
families beyond the pipes.

Handwashing station
How it works
A five gallon bucket is fitted with a hose bib to provide a source of water for
handwashing. In households without access to running water this simple device
provides an easy way to encourage sanitation behavior and reduce water-washed
disease. A colorful, instructional sticker is added to the bucket to emphasize the
importance of handwashing and provide instructions on how and when to wash your
hands.
Amount of water that can be treated
A one gallon garden sprayer was also converted to use as a handwashing
station. Although it holds much less water, it is pressurized and may be more efficient.
The design was not pursued since the 5 gallon bucket is simple, low-cost, reliable, and
readily available. A non-profit micro-enterprise in Cuidad Juarez, Mexico is making and
selling the units.
36

Figure 19: The handwashing station can be used with or without solar features. For most of the
year a black bucket with a clear top will provide warm to hot water.

Figure 20: A glazed, insulated cover can extend the time of year for providing warm
water. Caution should be used to prevent children from using water that may be too hot.
Conditions for appropriate use
This portable unit can be placed near a dry toilet or in the kitchen area of a
home without running water. It is a modified 5 gallon bucket that fits into the existing
water conveyance method for most households. The graywater produced can be
collected in another 5 gallon bucket and used on landscape. A solar heated version of
this design may provide some additional convenience for users. The unit could be
placed inside a Solar Bucket Heater (see next section) but will double the cost.
Alternatively, a black plastic bucket and/or a bucket with a clear lid will produce warm
water for many months of the year.


37
Cost of unit
Cost is very low under $10 with a new bucket and lid and all of the hardware,
including: pvc pipe, pvc fittings, hose bib, and uniseal.
Advantages
Very low technology. Encourages proper sanitation. Fits into existing water
system. Low cost.
Disadvantages
Handwashing remains difficult. Some added convenience but not equal to
running water. Requires homeowner involvement.

Figure 21: A one gallon garden sprayer could be adapted as a handwashing station.
Acceptance by users
Good. Units are being constructed and sold in Cuidad Juarez, Mexico.

Solar Bucket Heater
Five gallon plastic buckets are the common denominator of households without a
pressurized water system. Everyone has a few 5 gallon plastic buckets around.
Painting one black and simply setting it in the sun with a clear cover will heat water
hotter than needed during the summer months. When ambient temperatures drop, a
simple cover made of insulating foam board and plastic glazing can continue to provide
bathing temperature water even on a cold, sunny day.
38

Figure 22: Placing a black plastic bucket inside a glazed and insulated box provides a low cost
solar water heater.
How it works
Plastic buckets work about as well as metal and have the added advantage of not
rusting and being available in black to eliminate the need for painting. Fill a bucket with
water put a clear cap on it to help trap solar energy and prevent evaporation then set it
in the sun. In winter, an insulated cover with a window on the south side is needed to
get warm temperatures. The same cover can be used all year round and due to sun
angles will produce about the same water temperatures. The 60 degree glazing angle
is optimized for low winter sun but still allows sufficient sun in summer and screens UV
radiation to prolong the life of the clear polyethylene bucket cap. (see photo) In El
Paso, sunny days produce 5 gallons of 110 - 120F water in both the summer and the
winter
Amount of water that can be heated
This low-tech device is for 5 gallon buckets. Additional units may be constructed for
larger capacity but more sophisticated system may be a better choice as scale
increases.
Conditions for appropriate use
This system is aimed at families without pressurized or gravity-fed water systems. It is
intended as a first step, least cost alternative.
Cost of heating
The most basic level of solar bucket heater is probably free or costs less than $2 for a
clear top and some flat black spray paint, as many families have a bucket on hand.
This heater may work 6 to 9 months of the year depending on climate. The insulated
cover with PCSS glazing and a new black plastic bucket is about $10-12. The adapted
pumped camp shower costs from $25 to $50 depending on the availability of surplus or
retail components. Total cost is $35 to 70.
39

Figure 23: A black 5 gallon plastic bucket can provide hot water at a very low cost. A camping
shower can be adapted to provide convenience if desired.
Advantages
One benefit is convenience. Water is heated all day long and is waiting to be used in
the evening -- eliminating the need to heat water on the stove. The colonia resident
brings the bucket inside, drops in the pump and is ready to shower. (Note: Water above
105 F may require mixing with cold water for comfort or to prevent scalding.) Another
benefit is saving electricity or LP fuel.
Disadvantages
Small batch of water, water cools off at night if not used in time, still requires hauling
water in 5 gallon bucket, must construct cover, basic knowledge of solar angles needed,
dependent on solar energy, partly sunny days may require addition of some
conventionally heated water, must adjust shower times based on solar heat availability
Acceptance by users
Unknown. Some positive feedback from Texas colonia residents. Additional field tests
needed.
(see Fact Sheet: Solar Bucket Heater)


Passive Solar Water Heater
How it works
This is a system for families with a pressurized water system. It uses the tank
from a recycled (or new) water heater that has been stripped of all the insulation and the
metal cover. The bare tank is painted flat black and put into an insulated box with a
south facing window to collect solar heat.
40

Figure 24: An old water heater tank can be converted into a passive solar water heater. In this
design the weight is carried by a simple skid, allowing a lightweight insulated cover.
Amount of water that can be heated
Tank size is based on what is available. Typically tanks are 30 or 40 gallons
each. They may be plumbed in series to increase capacity and to reduce mixing of
incoming cold water. The amount of hot water that can be provided is expressed as the
solar fraction and it varies from 50% or less to about 75%. Solar water heaters are
sized based on the average US hot water usage of 20 gal/person/day. This can vary
considerably, making sizing a family and site specific task. This type of system is
usually installed as a pre-heater for an existing, conventional gas or electric water
heater.
Conditions for appropriate use
The purpose of installing a solar water heater is to save money on gas or
electricity bills. The heater is most appropriate where expensive fuel (electricity or LP)
is used to heat water and a low-cost do-it-yourself system can be built. This solar
heater is for families with running water. Sunny, mild climates will produce the best
results but many commercial versions of this type of solar heater have been installed in
very severe climates. Some owners drain the system during the 2 or 3 coldest months.
Cost
Costs vary widely depending on materials and labor costs. Commercially
available systems cost $999 to $1500 for a 40 gallon unit. If a free,recycled tank and
recycled patio door glass are available, the cost of the box may be as little as $50.
Advantages
Low cost. No pumps or moving parts. Simple, owner built system. This
system is designed for easy, low-cost construction by homeowners. The ground
mounted design incorporates a skid to handle the heavy water tank and a minimal foam
box that is easily removed to allow access to all plumbing for maintenance.
Disadvantages
Major home project. Requires knowledge and construction/plumbing skills.

41
Acceptance by users
Typically very well accepted since the system is low maintenance and installed
as an integral part of the existing home water heating system.





















42
Water Storage Recommendations for On-Site Use


Agua Para Beber APB Drinking Water Storage
How it works
APB is a formalized small batch chlorination program. Families are provided a
container that helps prevent re-contamination of drinking water; an instructional sticker
is on the container. An eye dropper to properly dose the water with chlorine is provided.
Amount of water that can be treated
The APB container is 5 gallons. It is sized to provide family drinking water
while the chlorine residual is still active.
Conditions for appropriate use
APB is intended to assist families without a treated water supply
Cost of treatment
Cost is very low; less than $10. Only a container, eyedropper, and chlorine
are required.
Advantages
Provides instruction, a routine and a container to assist the family in
maintaining a safe drinking water supply.
Disadvantages
Acceptance by users
Very good. Follow up studies have shown that families continue to use the
APB method.








43
Drums and Buckets
Recommended systems for storage and pumping with 55 gallon drums and 5
gallon buckets.

Figure 25: A typical water storage system consists of open top recycled drums. A closed
system with a pumped delivery can be assembled at a relatively low cost.
Families using 55 gallon drums for water storage are often using the only
materials they can find. That is, there is no design process or thought for the system --
it is done based on what is available in the locale and without knowledge of any
alternatives. A typical system consists of several recycled drums with the tops cutout.
Hopefully, these drums formerly contained a non-toxic substance and are food grade.
Sometimes these are covered but often remain open to contamination.
A few minimal refinements and small pieces of technology could markedly
improve the system. Some that have been considered by the Energy Center are:
1.) UniSeal connections for the 55 gallon drums to link them together and make it
easier to draw water from the entire stored volume.
2.) Combining closed head drums with one open head drum to allow ease in filling
while keeping costs down (new closed head drums are about $10 cheaper than
removable head ones)
3.) Using a siphon pump to fill 5 gallon buckets in place of dipping a bucket into a
drum;
4.) Using a study plastic top that seals well on recycled drums (see photo of yellow
top)
5.) Various pumping schemes
6.) Chlorine dosing at fill-up and during use
44
7.) Use of chlorine test strips for monitoring

For families that cannot access a 2500 gallon tank with pressure pump and
tank (~$1,500), a smaller system may be affordable. A plan for what will work and how
to keep it operating safely is needed. The Energy Center has devised one system that
households may adapt and use as their home water system. It may be powered with a
hand pump as pictured above or with an electric pump and a faucet. This basic system
is a significant improvement over open-top barrels with plywood covers that require
hauling water in 5 gallon buckets. A basic system with six 55 gallon drums (330
gallons) and a farm-style pitcher pump 25 feet away can be plumbed for under $300. If
recycled open-top drums are used in conjunction with new lids the system could be
under $150.

Figure 26: New or recycled drums can be connected with Uniseals and PVC pipe. A siphon
pump allows the owner to draw water without contaminating the supply. One removable head
drum makes it easier to fill the system.

Water storage options for families beyond the pipes
Gallons Access $ New $/gal $ Recycled $/gal Notes
55 Open Head $45 .82 $23 .42 HDPE
55 Closed Head $35 .64 $18 .33 HDPE
450L,
119gal
Var.Ftgs. $75 .63 --- --- Tinaco
730L,
193gal
Var.Ftgs. $100 .52 --- --- Tinaco,Black.
ROTOPLAS
1100L,
291gal
Var.Ftgs. $140 .48 --- --- Tinaco
2500 gal w/Pmp&PrTnk $1,500 .60 --- --- Black,HDPE
5 gallon Black bucket $4.50 --- Black, HDPE
45


Fig. 27: Sturdy plastic tops are available for about $6. These are much better than typical
flimsy plastic lids. Recycled, closed head drums may be converted to open head drums with
tops.
Note: When entire top of drum is cut away it becomes susceptible to getting out-of-
round, making rigid retrofit tops fit poorly. Solution: Leave 2 to 3 inches of top around
edges in a ring.
Costs for a basic water storage and pumping system
Number Description New Recycled DrumTotal-New
Total-
Recycled
655 gal drum 35 18 210 108
10Uniseal 1 1 10 10
6Drum Cover 6 6 36 36
40ft. PVC Pipe 0.3 0.3 12 12
1Hand Pump 25 25 25 25
293 191
New/Gal $0.89
Recycled/Gal $0.58
A basic water system can be assembled for under $200 (or under $300 with all new
parts). Six recycled 55 gallon drums with a capacity of 330 gallons can be covered,
connected with Uniseal and PVC pipe, and plumbed to a remote hand (or small electric
pump. This entry level system could provide more convenience and support sanitation
behaviors.

46

Assorted pumps for home water systems
Pump Type Max.Head Max.GPM Cost Electrical Notes
Siphon N.A. 7 $9 None US Plastic
Farm/Pitcher 18 feet 4.5 $25 None Northern
Rule / DC 12 feet 8 $18 DC,12V-2A Bilge pump
Submersible 23 feet 22 $40 115AC Northern
Line / Hose $45 115AC Home Depot
RV Sink ? ? $25 DC, 12V JC Whitney
Guzzler 12 (+12 lift) 15 $45 Hand
Operated
US Plastic

Large Storage Tanks
Those families that are beyond the pipes in border colonias frequently utilize
large water storage tanks with pressure pumps and a small pressure tank to provide
running water inside their homes. In El Paso colonias, 2500 gallon tanks are a common
solution for the family water supply. Studies have shown that the safety of the water
declines rapidly during the delivery and storage process. Families do not always
adequately chlorinate their tanks.

In other border areas and in Mexico, similar plastic tanks (called tinacos) of several
sizes are often used with and without pumps. Some are installed on roofs or racks to
provide gravity fed running water.


Figure 28: These 2500 gallon tanks are the solution of choice for many families living beyond
the pipes.


47
Disaster & Emergency Water Treatment Applications


Several of the technologies investigated have potential application for families
during times of emergency or when natural disasters strike. Urban households share
problems of colonia residents during these times. For example, during a flood the water
treatment plant may become contaminated and be unable to deliver pathogen free
water. It becomes the responsibility of each family to ensure the safety of their own
water supply. Proper boiling, chlorination, the use of SODIS, or solar pasteurization of
water could be adapted by disaster victims.

SODIS may be the most adaptable technology and the easiest to keep on hand
for use when conditions are at the very worst. If gas, water and electricity service are all
interrupted, SODIS can still be used on sunny days. All that is required is a few
recycled 2 liter soda bottles.

Aqua Pak is also a very simple, low-cost technology that may be used. Families
could easily purchase and store one or more Aqua Paks for emergency use.

Agua Para Beber (APB or Water for Drinking) may also be easily adapted to use
during emergencies. Most households could store several empty 5 gallon APB
containers that could be filled when extreme weather events are expected. The chlorine
and eyedropper for proper disinfection could be part of the kit.

Higher volume storage could be easily adapted as well. A 55 gallon drum and a
siphon pump would provide many days of drinking water. The empty drum will take up
room but is lightweight and durable. It could even serve as a support for a makeshift
worktable by putting a piece of plywood on top of it.


Figure 29: An alternative to the APB container is the standard 5 gallon water bottle that is
available at any Wal-Mart or K-Mart, etc. It is shown here with a convenient pump (popular in
Mexico) that uses two D cells or an AC adapter. A small manual siphon pump would also work
well.
48

As part of an emergency kit with a few cans of food, flashlight, blankets, and a
first aid kit, etc., families may consider storing some recycled PET 2 liter soda bottles
that have been painted on one side with flat black spray paint or an Aqua Pak. Two 2
liter bottles per family member could supply about a gallon per day. Some chlorine and
an eye dropper could complete the kit that could be stowed in the garage or the top of a
closet until needed.


Conclusions and Lessons Learned

There is a need for a simple, low-cost flow-through solar pasteurizer
Use simple greywater systems instead of solar treatment when possible
Divert Urine and re-use if possible
A variety of technologies may apply to beyond the pipes families
A hierarchy of users exists, each level has specific needs
There are many levels of technology and price that apply to various groups
If a technology does not apply to certain colonia residents it may apply to others
Good low cost water storage systems are needed
Good low-cost water pumping and pressurization systems are needed
Uniseals are an excellent technology (highly recommended)
Low tech designs are often overlooked as too simple or too unsophisticated
Matching technology to problems sometimes must be very specific


More Information

Websites, Publications, and Vendors
Vendors
W. W. Grainger http://grainger.com, With a catalog that has over 3,700 pages and
390 locations you can find many items in one spot. Wholesale only.
Associated Bag Company 1-800-926-6100, www.associatedbag.com Source for
autoclavalbe bags
Northern Tool & Equiment 1-800-556-7885, http://northerntool.com, Source for
farm-style pitcher pump and low cost submersible pumps
United States Plastic Corporation 1-800-537-9724,
http://www.usplastic.comSource for black 5 gallon buckets, low cost siphon
pumps and many other plastic items.
Consolidated Plastics Company 1-800-362-1000, www.consolidatedplastics.com
49
AquaPak Solar Solutions, (858)695-3806,
http://www.solarsolutions.info/aquapak/aquapak.html
SODIS www.sodis.ch/, Solar Water Disinfection, improves the microbiological
quality of drinking water: It is a simple water treatment method using solar UV-A
radiation and temperature to inactivate pathogens causing diarrhoea. SODIS is
used at household level under the responsibility of the user. Therefore EAWAG is
not liable for any harm caused by a faulty or inadequate application of the water
treatment process.

Safe Water Systems http://safewatersystems.com , Sol*Saver and Family Sol*Saver
Paper Thermometer Company 1-03-547-2034, www.paperthermometer.com
Uniseal A.G.S. Austrailian Global Services, Inc. 1-888-222-8940,
http://www.aussieglobe.com/uniseal1.htm
Sundance Supply http://www.sundancesupply.com, Polycarbonate Structured Sheet,
PCSS, double wall plastic glazing.
Ohio Pure Water Company. 2003. Ultraviolet Disinfection,
http://www.ohiopurewaterco.com/ultraviolet-disinfection.html

Pure Water Express. 2003. Ultra Violet (UV) Stage Add-On,
http://www.purewaterexpress.com/ro.htm#2a

Puritec, 1-888-491-4100, http://www.puritec.com/residential/water/catalog.htm
Countertop UV System

References

Del Porto, D., D. Steinfeld, The Composting Toilet System Book. 1
st
ed. 1998, Concord,
Massachusetts.: The Center for Ecological Pollution Prevention

Burch, J. and K. Thomas, An Overview of Water Disinfection in Developing Countries
and the Potential for Solar Thermal Water Pasteurization. 1998, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-550-23110.
(http://www.nrel.gov/docs/legosti/fy98/23110.pdf)

Create an Oasis with Greywater, Builders Guide to Greywater, and Branched
Greywater System Design by Art Ludwig, Poor Richards Press, http://oasisdesign.net

El Paso County Comprehensive Colonia Study and Plan 2000. Martinez Engineering
Group in association with Strategies & Plus, Dorado Engineering and Frontera
Environmental. December 2000.

Graham, J., The effectiveness of large household water storage tanks for protecting the
quality of drinking water. School of Public Health. The University of Texas-Houston
50
Health Science Center. El Paso, Texas. 2000. p. 90.

Health Benefits from Improvements in water supply and sanitation: Survey and
analysis of the literature on selected diseases. United States Agency of International
Development. 1990.


Laing, B. 2002. UV disinfection for POE applications, Water Technology, November
2002, 33-35.

www.irc.nl/
News and information, advice, research and training, on low-cost water supply and
sanitation in developing countries.























51

Appendix





52

Personnel


Steve Cook, PI
Jay Graham, Co-PI
Dr. Patrick Gurian
Dr. Huanmin Lu
Karl Dreher
Salvador Saenz
Veronica Corella-Barud

Students:
Jun-Young Park
Alex Reyna
Gilbert Trejo
Joel Mora