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DOI: 10.1177/0887302X9201000401
1992 10: 1 Clothing and Textiles Research Journal
Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins and Joanne B. Eicher
Dress and Identity

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Dress and
Identity
Mary
Ellen
Roach-Higgins
Joanne B. Eicher
Authors Addresses:
Mary
Ellen
Roach-Higgins,
12 Pin Oak
Trail,
Madison,
WI
53717;
Joanne B.
Eicher, Design, Housing,
and
Apparel,
University
of
Minnesota,
St.
Paul,
MN 55108.
Abstract
Development of
a
theoretical framework for understanding linkages
between
identity
and dress
depends
on
careful
selection and
definition of
terms and
development of a broad,
holistic view
of
Social
Aspects of Dress.
A
comprehensive definition of
dress includes both
body modifications
and
supplements
to the
body. Properties of
these
modifications
and
supplements
can be
cross-classified
with
sensory responses they
evoke. Because dress
functions
as an
effective
means
of
communication
during
social
interaction,
it
influences peoples establishing
identities
of
themselves and others. An individuals
self incorporates
identities based on
assigned
and achieved
positions
within social
structures, especially
those that
organize kinship, economic, religious,
and
political
activities. Identities communicated
by
dress are also
influenced by technology
and
society-wide
moral and
aesthetic
standards for
dress.
Specific types and properties of dress
that communicate
identity may change through
time in
response
to
economic, demographic,
and other societal
changes.
Our
general, long-range goal
is to
update
and
expand
upon
a theoretical framework we first
presented
in 1965 as a
series of overviews for a book of
readings
on the social
significance
of dress
(Roach
&
Eicher, 1965).
In this
paper
we
limit ourselves to four
specific
tasks. The first is to
urge
use of
the term dress
by
social scientists rather than other
frequently
used terns such as
clothing, adornment,
and costume. In this
effort we offer a definition of dress and a classification
system
for
types
of dress based on this definition. We also
present
a
critique
of other terms that scholars use in
attempts
to
identify
the
concept
we believe is best
expressed by
the term dress.
Our second task is to
explain why
we believe that
Social
Aspects
of Dress is a better name for a field of
study
than the
one used as an umbrella term for a 1989 Association of
College
Professors of Textiles and
Clothing (ACPTC-now
ITAA)
Post-Conference
Workshop,
that
is, Sociological
and
Psychological Aspects
of Dress.
Third,
we comment on
functions of
dress, emphasizing
the
importance
of the social
function of dress as a means of communication. Last we
consider,
in more
depth
than we have
before,
how
meanings
communicated
by
dress relate to
establishing identity.
A Definition of Dress
In 1965 we
suggested
that the word dress was
broadly
interchangeable
with several other terms used
by
social
scientists. Included in this list of terms were
appearance,
clothing, ornament, adornment,
and cosmetics. Since
then,
we have
opted
to use the word dress in a more
specific way
than is
possible
with these other terms. We have
also,
through time, developed
a definition of dress that is unam-
biguous,
free of
personal
or social
valuing
or
bias,
usable in
descriptions
across national and cultural
boundaries,
and
inclusive of all
phenomena
that can
accurately
be
desig-
nated as dress.
According
to this
definition,
dress of an
individual is an
assemblage
of modifications of the
body
and/or supplements
to the
body (Eicher
&
Roach-Higgins,
in
press). Dress,
so
defined,
includes a
long
list of
possible
direct modifications of the
body
such as coiffed
hair,
col-
ored
skin, pierced ears,
and scented
breath,
as well as an
equally long
list of
garments, jewelry, accessories,
and
other
categories
of items added to the
body
as
supplements.
The classification
system (see
Table
1)
indicates sub-
types
of
body
modifications and
supplements
and
provides
a scheme for
cross-referencing
these
sub-types
with their
properties.
On the basis of this
cross-referencing,
a tattoo
can be identified as a
body
modification that
changes
sur-
face
design
and color of the skin and a
permanent
wave as
a modification that transforms
shape
and texture of hair.
Rhinoplasty
is a transformation of
shape
and volume that -
involves the muscular-skeletal
system.
Trousers and a
rigid
bracelet are
pre-shaped enclosures,
each with
specific prop-
erties. An A-line
long coat,
with
patch pockets
as structural
sub-units, qualifies
as an
enclosure,
with its overall
shape
dependent
on
wrapping, suspension,
and
preshaping
of fab-
ric.
Earrings
of
many shapes, textures,
and colors are
attachments that can be either inserted in ears or
clipped
on
with
pressure.
Parasols and
many purses
are hand-held
objects
with innumerable variations in
properties.
Custom
sometimes
requires
that a
parasol
be held in
place by
a
person
other than the one it shelters.
Our
system
for
identifying
dress
imposes
a somewhat
arbitrary conceptual separation
between
biologically
deter-
mined
body
characteristics and
dress,
each of which is
Acknowledgments:
This is a revised version of a
paper presented
for
discussion at the ACPTC Post-Conference
Workshop: Sociological
and
Psychological Aspects
of
Dress, Atlanta, GA,
October
28-29,
1989.
Published as Minnesota
Agricultural Experiment
Station Publication
No. 19,113.
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2
Table 1. Classification
system
for
types
of dress and their
properties.
*Eicher &
Roach-Higgins,
in
press.
This
system
is based on
previous
work as follows: Roach & Eicher
(1973);
Roach & Musa
(1980).
We wish to
acknowledge suggestions
from various students and
colleagues.
Bruce
Olds, University
of Wisconsin-Madison
journalism student, suggested
the hand-
held
category. Gigi Bechir, University
of Minnesota
sociology student, suggested
that breath can be modified. A discussion with
colleagues
at a
Design,
Housing,
and
Apparel
seminar at the
University
of Minnesota convinced us to use
types
rather
than forms of dress.
bBoth
body
modifications and
body supplements
can be further classified
according
to
(a) general body
locus
(e.g., head, neck, trunk, arms, legs)
or
(b)
more
specific
locus
(e.g., lips, nose, eyelids
or
lashes, ears, hands, ankles, feet, breasts, genitals).
always perceived
in relation
to,
or
potentially
in relation
to,
the other as a
gestalt. However,
we believe that accurate
identification of
types
of dress and their
perceptually
iden-
tifiable characteristics is an essential
preliminary
to
analy-
ses of dress in
general
and to our
analysis
of dress as a non-
verbal means of
communicating identity specifically. Also,
dress can be considered
simultaneously
from two view-
points :
as the total
repertoire
of
body
modifications and
supplements
that a
particular
social
group
makes available
to its members
(e.g.,
American
dress,
mens
dress,
adoles-
cents
dress)
or as a
particular display
of
body
modifica-
tions and
supplements
that a
specific
individual assembles
from an available
repertoire
for a
particular
time and
place.
1We use the word dress as a
gender-neutral
collective noun to
designate
either a social
groups body
modifications and
supplements (e.g.,
Ameri-
can
dress, military dress, occupational dress,
human
dress)
or those of
an individual
(e.g.,
that
boys dress,
that
girls dress). Colleagues
have
reported
concern from male students that the word dress is
gender
specific. Although
the word
may carry
either masculine or feminine
meanings depending upon
certain inflections
(dress es ), modifiers (a
dress),
or conversions to verb form
(dressing
to the
right
or
left),
these
usages
do not conflict with the collective
meaning. They
are also
consistent with
English usage
set forth in The
Oxford English
Dictio-
nary (2nd ed.),
The Random House
Dictionary of the English Language
(2nd ed.),
and Websters Third New International
Dictionary of
the
English Language.
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3
The Term Dress Versus Other Terms
We have
presented
our definition of dress in order to
compare
the usefulness of the word
dress,
as a technical
term,
with other terms found in literature concerned with the
social
aspects
of dress. We
support
dress as the best tech-
nical term because other terms do not
identify
all
possible
modifications and
supplements
to the
body
that we believe the
term dress includes. In the sections that
follow,
we
argue
that
each of several terms
proffered
as alternates
(appearance,
adornment, apparel, clothing, costume,
and
fashion)
are nei-
ther as accurate nor as
comprehensive
as the term dress.
Dress Versus
Appearance
In one
way,
dress is less than
appearance
because it
does not
include,
as
appearance does,
features of the un-
dressed
body,
such as its
shape
and color as well as
expres-
sion
through gesture
and
grimace.
In another
way,
dress is
more than
appearance
for it includes
aspects
of
body
modi-
fications and
supplements
recorded
by
all the senses-not
just sight
alone as the term
appearance implies.
The
blind,
for
example, though sightless,
do have
impressions
of dress
that
depend
on
tactile, auditory, olfactory,
and
gustatory
responses. Although
the
gustatorial experience
of taste is
not
generally
included in discussions of
dress,
our reference
is not facetious. Instead it
recognizes
such behavior as the
daily
rituals of
many
Americans who
go through
cosmetic
modification of taste as
they
use
rinses, pastes,
and
gels
in
oral
hygiene.
Dress Versus Adornment or Ornament
Adornment and ornament fail as useful terms in ex-
plaining
what the form of
body
modifications or
supple-
ments is and is
not,
because
they impose
restrictive value
judgments regarding
aesthetic
quality
which the term dress
does not. Thus a modification or
supplement
is
only
eli-
gible
for classification as adornment or ornament if the
classifier
assigns
it some
degree
of
positive
value on the
basis of
his/her
own
interpretation
of
socially acquired
cultural rules or standards for what can be considered beau-
tiful or attractive. This restriction
implies
that a
person
who
judges
certain modifications and
supplements
as of no aes-
thetic value
automatically drops
them from
any
consider-
ation of dress.
Dress Versus
Clothing
In the
past,
various writers have
attempted
to use cloth-
ing
as a
comprehensive
term to include both
body
modifica-
tions and
supplements. Despite
these efforts to convert the
word
clothing
into a usable technical term for
identifying
these broad
categories
of dress and various
sub-categories
within
them,
a
major shortcoming
remains: The word cloth-
ing
is most
frequently
used to
emphasize
enclosures that
cover the
body
and
generally
omits
body
modifications.2 In
addition,
the word
clothing,
like
adornment,
almost inevita-
bly
introduces
personal
or social values. For
example,
if it
covers,
it
surely
must
protect
and be
good.
If it does not
cover certain
body parts,
it
may
be immodest and
bad,
at
least to some
people.
Dress Versus
Apparel
The most serious limitation of the tenn
apparel
is that it
does not include
body
modifications. In this
regard
it is
similar to the word
clothing.3
3
Dress Versus Costume
The term costume
frequently
identifies the
body supple-
ments and modifications that indicate the
&dquo;out-of-every-
day&dquo;
social role or
activity.
Thus we
propose
that the word
costume be reserved for use in discussions of dress for the
theater,
folk or other
festivals, ceremonies,
and rituals.
Dress Versus Fashion
The term fashion lacks the
precision
of the word dress
for it refers to
many
different kinds of material and non-
material cultural
products (e.g., houses, music,
automo-
biles,
scientific
theories, philosophy, recreation). Further,
like
ornament,
it forces
positive
and
negative
value
judg-
ments on
body
modifications and
supplements
and their
properties
on the basis of their relative
positions
within a
fashion
cycle
of
introduction,
mass
acceptance,
and obso-
lescence. In
addition,
not all
types
of dress
qualify
as
fashions. For
example, religious
dress in
many
societies
resists fashion
change
and
is, therefore, automatically
ex-
cluded from a
study
of fashion.
The Social
Perspective
Prior to the late 1940s
(Sybers
&
Roach, 1962),
com-
mentary
on the social
meaning
of dress came
primarily
from social
philosophers
and social scientists who embed-
ded the
topic
of dress within
general
commentaries on
human behavior. In the 1950s writers from within textile
and
clothing programs
in home economics
began
to
pro-
duce
journal
articles and
pamphlets
on the
topic. By
the
1960s and
1970s, development
of formal courses and re-
search
dealing
with the social
significance
of dress led to
publication
of books
by specialists
in the textiles and cloth-
ing
field.
Launching
of the
Clothing
and Textiles Research
Journal
(CTRJ)
in 1982
by
the national
organization
(ACPTC-now TTAA)
offered a new
opportunity
for
pre-
sentation and
exchange
of ideas
by
individuals
focusing
on
social
aspects
of
dress,
as well as
by
individuals in related
substantive fields. As we
prepared
this
paper,
we reviewed
2Although clothing
is used more than
any
other term in the tables of
contents of the
Clothing
and Textiles Research Journal
(CTRJ)
and
books
by
individuals in the textiles and
clothing area,
its
popularity may
be somewhat
misleading. Especially
in
regard
to the
CTRJ, emphasis
is
at least
partly
due to the inclusion of a number of articles on
apparel
design, textiles,
and
retailing
where a custom for
designating body
enclosures that cover as
clothing
has been entrenched.
3DeLong (1987)
uses the term
apparel
in her
concept
of ABC
(Apparel/
Body/Construct).
Her
concept
is
primarily
related to
visual, aesthetic
responses
and therefore
largely
excludes other senses.
Although
similar
to the idea of
appearance,
the ABC focuses on the visual total of
body
and dress. We refer readers to
DeLongs
definition as a model in
clarity.
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4
the content of and
terminology
used in the latest editions of
13 books that are concerned with social
aspects
of dress and
are authored
by,
edited
by,
or have
major
contributions
from
people
in the textiles and
clothing
field
(see Appen-
dix).~
We also examined 19 issues of the CTRJ
(through
Summer
1989).
One of our
purposes
was to ascertain
something
about trends in use of terms like
dress, clothing,
and costume which were discussed in the
previous
section.
Another was to review the
degree
of
emphasis
on various
cultural, social,
and
psychological
factors related to dress.
Yet another was to assess directions in
development
of
concepts
and theoretical frameworks.
The trend
among
our
colleagues
to
give
about
equal
attention in their
publications
to
cultural, social,
and
psy-
chological
factors related to dress led us at first to consider
recommending psycho-sociocultural aspects
of dress as an
appropriate
name for this area of academic interest. How-
ever,
we modified this stand on the basis of our review of
our own work and that of others. In this review we noted a
pattern
for
qualifying
the words
psychological
and cultural
with socio- or social- as
prefixes.
We
decided,
conse-
quently,
to choose social as a term that unites a social
science
approach
to the
study
of dress. Our rationale was
that
only through
social interaction do
people,
as
psycho-
logically unique individuals,
learn to
interpret, utilize,
and
modify socially
constructed
meanings
of dress within their
cultural
settings, contemporary
and historical.
We, therefore,
recommend Social
Aspects
of Dress as
identifier of an academic field that unites a subset of schol-
ars within ITAA. An area so-named is not the same as
sociology, psychology,
or cultural
anthropology. Instead,
although
scholars with this focused interest share
concepts,
terminology,
and research methods with these and various
other
disciplines, they
are
developing
a
unique approach
to
theory
and research. In this
regard,
we would like to
go
on
record as
noting that,
in each of the 13 books reviewed and
many
of the CTRJ
articles,
we find both
,incipient
and
extended theoretical frameworks. We concur with
Nagasawa, Kaiser,
and Hutton
(1989)
that scholars
empha-
sizing study
of the social
aspects
of dress need not be self-
conscious about the
discipline
of
origin
for a
specific
idea
or
concept
but must
proceed
to accumulate and
organize
knowledge
in an
orderly
and
meaningful way.
The frame-
work that
emerges
will be
unique
because scholars with this
focused interest can
project
a holistic view of the
objects
and
processes
of dress that others
may
not.
Functions of Dress: Alterant of
Body
Processes
and Medium for Communication
Body
modifications and
supplements,
which constitute
dress,
function as alterants of
body processes
or as media
for communication.
Although
the communicative function
is our
major
concern in consideration of the social
aspects
of
dress,
we must balance this concern
against
the
primacy
of
biological
existence that
precedes
the social.
Therefore,
we first discuss
ways
in which
types
of dress act as alterants
of
body processes.
Body
modifications
may
alter
body processes
in either
positive
or
negative ways.
Removal of teeth or
plastic
surgery
for cosmetic reasons are
examples
of
body
modifi-
cations that can
directly put
health at risk. On the
positive
side,
removal of infected teeth or the use of
tightly wrapped
pressure bandages
over certain wounds can be
supportive
to
good
health.
Body supplements
act as alterants of
body processes
as
they
serve
simultaneously
as
microphysical
environ-
ment and as interface between
body
and the
macrophysical
environment. As a
microenvironment, they
interact with
the
body.
Woolen socks or a
nylon parka may,
for ex-
ample,
alter ambient
temperature
and concentration of water
vapor,
hence
temperature
and water balance of the
body,
in
ways
that
may
be either
helpful
or harmful in
regard
to
body processes.
As
interface, body supplements may
de-
flect outside forces such as
sunlight,
the effect of cold
wind,
or the thrust of
weapons
or be extensions of the
body
that
help
in task
performance. Gloves, pockets, shoes,
and
eyeglasses
increase the
bodys capabilities
as a mecha-
nism for
grasping
intractable
objects,
as a beast of
burden,
as a
moving object,
or as a
navigator through
the limits of
space provided by
the
macrophysical
environment. Note
should be made that some
body supplements
have dual
usage. Tight wrappings
of waist or feet are indeed enclo-
sures,
but
they
can also act as tools for modification of
body shape.
The list of
possible meanings
communicated
by type
of
dress is
seemingly
endless. Dress
may,
for
example,
make
a statement about
age, gender,
social
class,
school affilia-
tion,
or
religion. Ultimately
the
meanings
communicated
by
the
objectively
discernible
types
and
properties
of dress
depend
on each
persons subjective interpretations
of them.
Further, meanings
that a
person
attributes to various out-
ward characteristics of dress are based on
his/her
socializa-
tion within a
particular
cultural context as well as on the
improvisations
the
person
exercises when
applying
learned
meanings
of dress within
specific
social situations. If we
refer back to some of the
valuing
terms mentioned
earlier,
we find that the
naming
of a
type
of dress as ornament or
adornment or a discussion of the aesthetic
qualities
of dress
belongs
with discussion of the social function of dress as a
means of
communicating
individual and social standards
for
aesthetically pleasing
characteristics of dress. Like-
wise, designating
a
type
of dress as
protective clothing
illustrates that certain
examples
of dress communicate that
they
are
likely
to have
positive
effects on
body processes.
Finally,
we
emphasize
that
meanings
communicated
by
dress
may
emanate from its basic
type,
one of its
proper-
ties
(e.g., color, shape),
or a
composite
of its
component
types and/or properties.
Thus the color
(a single property)
of a businessmans tie
may
be a more
important
indicator of
his
identity
than is his total ensemble of
suit, shirt, tie,
socks,
and shoes.
4We used the latest editions of the 13
books,
but the dates of the first
editions are
illuminating
in
assessing growth
and
development
of our
academic
specialization.
Five books were
published
in the 1960s with
the first book dated
1965,
four in the
1970s,
and four in the 1980s.
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5
Dress as Communicator of
Identity
Many
authors cite Eriksons
paper
of 1946 as the docu-
ment that
sparked
social scientists interest in use of the
term
identity
in
interpreting
human behavior.
Following
that
time,
the use of
identity
as a technical term has increased in the
social
sciences,
and it has tended to lose the
psychoanalytic
orientation characteristic of Eriksons work.
By
the 1960s it
was
being
transformed and utilized
by
individuals interested
in theories of
symbolic
interaction. Since we are
using
a
symbolic
interactionist
perspective
as we
present
our ideas on
how dress-as a medium of communication-relates to
identity,
we are
particularly
interested in works in which
aspects
of both dress and
identity
have been discussed from
this
perspective. Writings by
Stone
(1962),
Goffman
(1963,
1971), Stryker ( 1980),
and
Weigert, Teitge,
and
Teitge ( 1986)
fit into this
category.
Stone
(1962) expanded
the interactionist
approach beyond
communication via discourse to include
communication via
appearance (which
he defmed to in-
clude dress as well as
gesture
and
location)
and
highlighted
the fact that
dress,
because it
may
be seen in social encoun-
ters before conversation can be
initiated,
has a certain
prior-
ity
over discourse in the
establishing
of
identity. Stryker
(1980)
also
incorporated
the
concept
of
identity
and
appear-
ance into a
conceptual perspective
based on tenets of
sym-
bolic interactionism.
Society
and
Identity,
Toward a Socio-
logical Psychology (Weigert
et
al., 1986)
is valuable as a
resource because of its extensive review of literature on
identity
as well as its
appraisal
of both the
meaning
of
identity
and the relation of
identity
to the
concept
of self.
From the
perspective
of
symbolic
interaction
theory,
individuals
acquire
identities
through
social interaction in
various
social, physical,
and
biological settings.
So con-
ceptualized,
identities are communicated
by
dress as it
announces social
positions
of wearer to both wearer and
observers within a
particular
interaction situation. Some
identities are
assigned
at birth. These identities include
those associated with
body
variations
according
to
sex,
race,
or deviations from
average
that a
society may
define
as
handicaps
as well as ethnic
category
of
kinship group.
Through
time the
developing
individual internalizes these
and
many
other
identities,
and no individual can
expect
to
acquire
all conceivable identities.
Also,
no two
people
encounter
exactly
the same environmental
circumstances,
social and
otherwise,
for
acquiring
the
ways
of
behaving
that lead to
establishing
of identities.
Therefore,
the identi-
ties for
any
one
person, including
those communicated
by
dress,
are
uniquely personal. They
are at the same time
completely
social because
they
are
socially acquired
&dquo;se-
lections&dquo; from
socially
constructed
ways
of
attributing
iden-
tities on the basis of social
positions
individuals fill. Asso-
ciated with these
positions
are
expected
behaviors called
social
roles,
which are not elaborated
upon
in this
paper.
Identity, Self,
and Dress
We define self as a
composite
of an individuals iden-
tities communicated
by dress, bodily aspects
of
appearance,
and
discourse,
as well as the material and social
objects
(other people)
that contribute
meaning
to situations for
interaction. An individual can
occupy
a number of social
positions
and hence can have a number of identities that
contribute to the total
configuration
of the self. The indi-
vidual can reflect on these identities
(self)
and understand
that
they
both connect and
separate him/her
from others.
Overall,
self is the cumulative result of
socialization,
which
includes
adopting
observed behavior of those who serve as
social referents
(role models), following
rules or directives
learned at the behest of
others,
and
using
trial and error in
social situations.
Stone
(1962)
elaborated on the nature of the situation
within which dress contributes to the
acquisition
of identi-
ties and the
development
of a sense of self. His
position
is
that a self
acquires
identities when &dquo;situated-that is cast in
the
shape
of a social
object by
the
acknowledgement
of his
[sic] participation
or
membership
in social relations&dquo;
(p.
93). Further,
dress
helps
announce
(communicate)
identi-
ties for
persons
who are
socially
situated. Stone labelled
the communication of self
through
dress an individuals
program.
The
appraisal by
others of an individuals
pro-
gram
he called review. On the basis of their
experience
through
time with other
people,
individuals
develop,
in
advance of
interaction,
notions of how other
people
are
likely
to react to their dress. If a
persons predictions
of
reactions
by
others are
accurate,
the
identity
or identities
this
person
intends to
present
via dress will coincide with
that which others
perceive.
This coincidence in
meaning
is
what Stone refers to as the validation of the self that leads to
satisfactory
social interaction.
If,
on the
contrary,
the mean-
ing signalled by
dress is different for
presenter
and re-
viewer,
interaction
may proceed
with
difficulty
or be termi-
nated. For
example,
an
applicant
for a white collar
job
who
appears
for an interview in blue
jeans
and sweat
shirt,
with-
out an
explanation
of
extenuating
circumstances that
pre-
vented
presentation
of self in
expected
white collar
garb, may
be
automatically
deleted from consideration and have an in-
terview cut short. In some
cases,
when
program
and review
do not
coincide,
the
presenter may
be
deliberately courting
a
negative
review
by
some
appraisers
and
positive by
others.
As
example,
the
young (e.g., punkers
in the
1980s)
sometimes
present programs
in dress that
they expect
to be reviewed
negatively by
their elders but
positively by
their
age peers.
Identity,
Social
Structures,
and Dress
An individuals self and the identities this self
incorpo-
rates are linked to
positions
the individual is
assigned
to or
achieves within social structures. Social structures
typi-
cally
arise within
any society
to
integrate
and direct kin-
ship, economic, religious,
and
political
activities.5 Dress
5In
technically complex societies,
social structures related to
provision
of
education,
health
care,
and recreation also are influential in establish-
ing identity
of an individual.
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6
confers identities on individuals as it communicates
posi-
tions within these structures.
Within
kinship groups,
dress announces various iden-
tities. In
many
societies a
wedding ring,
but a small
body
supplement,
is sufficient to communicate
identity
as a
married
person
and to call forth
expectations
for behavior
appropriate
to a
person
so identified. In America
sibling
relationships, especially
for
twins,
are sometimes indi-
cated
by
identical dress. The idea of
family identity
is
exemplified by
the
design
and color of Scottish tartans and
by
the
wearing
of cloth of
matching designs by
members
of West African Yoruba families at
weddings
and
birthday
celebrations.
The economic
structuring
of a
society
often calls forth
expressions
of
occupational identity
via
dress, particularly
when division of labor is
complex.
In mass
society
such
identities
may
be communicated
by
attachments as minimal
as
badges
or name
tags
or as
all-encompassing
as an
astronauts
space
suit. In between in volume are enclosures
such as a butchers
apron,
waitress
uniform,
mechanics
coveralls,
or a
surgeons gown
and mask. Rank
ordering
of
occupational
identities on the basis of their
perceived
social
value
may
also be made clear
by dress,
as in the case of the
hospital orderlys
white coat and
pants
versus the
physicians
street dress.
Political structures arise to
organize
and
regulate power
within societies. Leaders in a
political
structure like a
monarchy
take on
public
identities as
representatives
of
their state when
they present
themselves in rituals with
robes, crowns,
and
scepters.
Political leaders in a democ-
racy, by way
of
contrast,
have no dress of state. Instead
they
wear
body supplements
and modifications similar to
those of other citizens.
Representatives
of
government
in
the
judicial
and
military
realm wear
special
dress such as
robes and uniforms to
verify
their
political
identities in
public
and to declare their
right
to
power
as allotted to them
, by
the nation-state or other
governmental
unit. Sometimes
political
affiliation
may
be an
identity
that for the most
part
remains
unexpressed
in
dress, discourse,
or other behavior.
However,
the fervor of a
political campaign
or a
popular
uprising
in
protest
of some
political
act or
policy may
result
in an individuals
flaunting
of
political
affiliation
by
use of
pins, badges, armbands, unique
hair
arrangements,
and other
forms of
identifying
dress.
Specific examples
can be found
in the
dramatically changed
dress that
signalled
and
pro-
moted the
leveling
of classes after the French revolution in
the 18th
century
and the
establishing
of communist
regimes
in the U.S.S.R. and mainland China in the 20th.
Rules of conduct within
religious groups may
include
requirements
for dress that
clearly distinguish religious
leaders from followers. If
they do, special assemblages
of
body supplements and/or
modifications establish identities
that set leaders
apart
from their followers and from non-
adherents to their
particular
faith. Followers who have no
special
dress for
everyday may
have dress for certain
ceremonies and rituals that declares their
religious
affilia-
tion at the same time that it differentiates them from their
leaders.
Among
some
religious groups,
like the Hare
Krishna, daily
dress identifies a whole
community
of be-
lievers, visibly setting
them
apart
from the
general society
and
emphasizing
the
intensity
of their beliefs and their
rejection
of doctrines of others. Identities of a
deity may
be
objectified
in
descriptions
of dress set forth in sacred
texts or in icons executed in
sculpture, drawings,
and
paintings. Sometimes,
on
being
dressed in
appropriate
body
modifications and
supplements,
such as facial
paint,
or in
enclosing
robes embellished with arcane
symbols,
a
leaders
identity may
become that of
living icon,
as in the
case of the Dalai Lama of Tibet.
Identity, Technology, Beliefs,
and Dress
The characteristics of dress that communicate identi-
ties of an individual
depend
on materials available as well
as on social
structuring
of a more abstract sort than that
which
organizes
human activities related to
kinship,
economy, polity,
and
religion.
This
structuring,
which
tends to extend
society wide,
includes belief
systems
that
shape
moral and aesthetic standards for dress and technolo-
gies
used to
produce body
modifications and to convert
materials from the
physical
and
biological
environment
into
body supplements.
Human
beings
in
every society
develop ways
for
designing
and
fabricating supplements
for the
body
out of materials from their
environment,
as
well as
products
and tools for
modifying
their bodies in
ways
that
identify
them with or
distinguish
them from
others. Since dress can
only
exist if
ways
for
executing
body
modifications or
making supplements exist, develop-
ments in
technology precede placement
of moral and aes-
thetic sanctions
regarding types
of dress.
However,
once
the
products
of
technology
are
available,
their use
may
in
turn be constrained
by
both moral and aesthetic beliefs of a
society. Furthermore,
moral and aesthetic evaluations of
various
types
and
properties
of dress
place
the identities
they
communicate in a
hierarchy
of
acceptability.
As the
complexity
of
technology
used
by
a
group
of
people increases,
so do alternatives for
dressing
their bod-
ies and
complexities
in moral and aesthetic
patterns
that
govern
use of various alternatives in
establishing
the
&dquo;right&dquo;
identities. Moral issues
regarding
dress include the nice-
ties of
etiquette relating
to what is considered
proper
and
improper
to wear and
display
as well as severe sanctions
against breaking strongly
held beliefs about
covering
the
body. Strong
sanctions
against
use of certain
types
of
dress often relate to beliefs about
modesty.
What is be-
lieved to be modest
dress, however,
varies from
society
to
society
and between
sub-groups
within a
society.
Simi-
larly,
beliefs about the aesthetic
qualities
of dress
(what
is
beautiful or
ugly)
can differ
appreciably.
For
example,
the
body
can be modified in
many ways (e.g., by cutting,
scarring, painting, piercing),
and the
technology
for ac-
complishing
each
type
of modification
may
be
simple
or
complex. However, acceptability
of
cutting, scarring, paint-
ing,
or
piercing ranges considerably
from
society
to soci-
ety depending upon specific
moral and aesthetic beliefs.
Thus our conclusion must be that
relationships among
the
interlinked
systems
of
technology (involved
in
creating
dress)
and
systems
of aesthetic and moral
beliefs,
which
limit how identities can be
expressed,
are both intricate
at Serials Records, University of Minnesota Libraries on February 5, 2014 ctr.sagepub.com Downloaded from
7
and
subject
to alteration as
change
in one of the
systems
is
likely
to stimulate
change
in the others.
Stability
and
Change
in Dress and
Identity
The variable of time must be dealt with in
analyses
of
relations between dress and
identity
for some
types
and
properties
of dress become obsolete as communicators of
specific
identities. Tendencies toward
stability
or
change
in
types
and
properties
of dress that declare individuals
identities
vary
from
society
to
society; however,
where
changes
in
technology
and social structures are
ongoing,
changes
in
specific
characteristics of dress that declare
particular
identities are
likely.
The
changes
that occur
relate to factors such as economic
cycles,
trade
patterns,
fashion, demographic
shifts in
age
and
racial/ethnic
charac-
teristics of
consumers,
and societal concern for conserva-
tion of natural
resources,
as well as
changes
in
technology
and beliefs.
Any
or all of these factors
may promote
or
constrain
change
in the
particular
characteristics of dress
that communicate
particular identities, although
a
phenom-
enon such as fashion more
obviously
stimulates
change.
Consequently,
for
any given
individual the
types
or
proper-
ties of dress that communicate certain identities
may change
in relation to
changes
stimulated
by any
of these factors.
Thus,
for individuals to maintain a stable communication of
identities via dress
may
involve their
abandoning
of dress
whose characteristics no
longer
serve as
identity
markers
for
positions
in various social structures and
making
&dquo;cor-
rect&dquo; choices from
among newly
available
options.
In
contemporary
Western
society,
for
example,
an individual
is
expected
to select from a
constantly changing array
of
body
enclosures
varying
in
volume, shape,
and texture as
new
technologies
are introduced and old ones abandoned
and as moral and aesthetic standards of the
past yield
to
standards of the
present.
Conclusions
We have formulated a
conceptual
definition of dress
that allows us to
identify, classify,
and describe both modi-
fications of and
supplements
to the
body,
and we have
recommended that the field we have been
discussing
be
designated
as
study
of the social
aspects
of dress.
Further,
we have
explored
the relation of
dress,
as a means of
communication,
to the
process whereby
individuals estab-
lish identities and selves and attribute identities to others.
We have noted that dress has a certain
priority
over verbal
discourse in
communicating identity
since it
ordinarily
sets
the
stage
for
subsequent
verbal communication.
We reiterate that our defmition of dress has
important
implications
for
study
of dress and
identity
because it is
comprehensive, including
not
only body supplements
but
also
body
modifications that
many
scholars omit from con-
sideration. This
importance
can be illustrated in
analyses
of
the relation of
gender
to dress. Loose
fitting body supple-
ments such as
jogging suits,
for
example, may
not flaunt
gender differentiation,
but
gender
definitions are often made
obvious
by body
modifications in
shape
and texture of hair
or
by applications
of cosmetics that
change
the color of
skin, lips,
or
eyebrows. Finally,
we end with the observa-
tion that we must work toward a
theory
of dress that makes
sense because it allows us to
explain
ourselves and others
and because it allows us to reach
beyond
ourselves to
&dquo;grapple
with the
unknown,
the wide
range
of social
facts,
and
bring
order and coherence to it&dquo;
(McNall, 1983, p.
485).
We have taken
steps
to meet this
challenge by
offering
a
comprehensive
definition of dress and a
concep-
tual
perspective
for
interpreting
its
significance
in
convey-
ing identity.
References
DeLong,
M. R.
(1987).
The
way
we look:
A frameworkfor
visual
analysis of dress.
Ames: Iowa State
University
Press.
Eicher,
J.
B.,
&
Roach-Higgins,
M. E.
(in press).
Describ-
ing
dress: A
system
for
classifying
and
defining.
In R.
Barnes & J. B. Eicher
(Eds.),
Dress and
gender:
Mak-
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and
meaning
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Oxford,
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Erikson,
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(1946). Ego development
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The
Psychoanalytic Study of
the
Child, 2,
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Goffman,
E.
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Goffman,
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(1971).
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Harper
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McNall,
S. G.
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S. S.
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&
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J. B.
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M.
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J. B.
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NJ: Pren-
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8
Appendix:
Books
by
Textile and
Clothing
Scholars on Social
Aspects
of Dress
Anspach,
K.
(1967).
The
why of fashion.
Ames: Iowa
State
University
Press.
Creekmore,
A. M.
( 1966).
Methods
of measuring clothing
variables
(Project
No.
783).
East
Lansing: Michigan
Agricultural Experiment
Station.
Gurel,
L.
M.,
&
Beeson,
M. S.
( 1979).
Dimensions
of dress
and adornment: A book
of readings (3rd ed). Dubuque,
IA:
Kendall/Hunt. ( 1 st edition, 1975)
Horn,
M.
J.,
&
Gurel,
L. M.
(1981).
The second skin: An
interdisciplinary study of clothing (3rd ed.).
Boston:
Houghton
Mifflin.
(lst edition, 1968)
Kaiser,
S. B.
(1990). The social psychology of clothing and
personal
adornment
(2nd ed.).
New York: Macmillan.
( 1 st edition, 1985)
Roach,
M.
E.,
&
Eicher,
J. B.
(1965). Dress, adornment
and the social order. New York. John
Wiley.
Roach,
M.
E.,
&
Eicher,
J. B.
(1973).
The visible
self:
Per-
spectives
on dress.
Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Roach,
M.
E.,
&
Musa,
K. E.
( 1980). New perspectives
on
the
history of
western dress. New York.
Nutriguides.
Rosencranz,
M. L.
(1972). Clothing concepts:
A social
psychological approach.
New York. Macmillan.
Ryan,
M. S.
(1966). Clothing:
A
study
in human behavior.
New York:
Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
Solomon,
M. R.
(1985).
The
psychology offashion.
Lex-
ington,
MA: D. C. Heath.
Sproles,
G. B.
(1979).
Consumer behavior toward dress.
Minneapolis: Burgess.
Sproles,
G. B.
( 1981 ). Perspectives offashion. Minneapo-
lis :
Burgess.
at Serials Records, University of Minnesota Libraries on February 5, 2014 ctr.sagepub.com Downloaded from