A Beginner's Guide To Seismic Re Ections: Editor

In the early days of the oil and gas industry, exploration was generally con-
ducted by trial and error. Knowledge of subsurface structures was limited to

the well being drilled and nearby offset wells. Today, geophysicists bounce
seismic waves off strata below the Earths surface and record seismic reec-
tions to create high-resolution images of the subsurface.
Seismic wave types include surface waves that travel along the surface
of the Earth and body wavescompressional and shear wavesthat travel
through the Earth. Reection seismic surveys typically use compressional
waves, which are also known as P-waves. P-waves are the fastest waves and
the rst to arrive and be recorded by instruments. P-waves are also pressure
waves; each P-wave cycle contains a compression and extension component.
Sound waves are examples of P-waves.
During reection seismic surveys, seismic waves are generated at or
near the Earth surface using a seismic sourcedynamite, hammer, vibra-
tor, air gun, water gun or anything that will transmit energy into the subsur-
face. The seismic waves propagate from the source and travel through
geologic layers. At the interface between one type of rock and another, there
is a change in physical propertiesin particular, density, seismic velocity
and their multiplication product, seismic impedance.
At geologic interfaces, some seismic energy reects, or echoes, back to
the surface. At the surface, seismic receivers, which are electromechanical
devicesmicrophones, geophones, hydrophones or accelerometers
detect the reected energy and convert it into electrical signals. The signals
are recorded and later processed into images of the underground geology,
which may be interpreted for oil and gas exploration, development and pro-
duction purposes. E&P geoscientists use these images to map and delineate
exploration prospects, to plan placement of wells in reservoir zones and to
monitor reservoir changes during hydrocarbon production.
Reections
When P-waves travel through geologic layers, only some of the wave energy
reects from lithologic interfaces; the remainder crosses the interfaces.
Two physical relations govern the reection and transmission of waves. Both
relations are simplications of the wave equation, which describes the
behavior of sound, electromagnetic radiation and other wave phenomena.
The rst relation is Snells law, which describes the directions that reected
and transmitted waves take from an interface.
Incident P-waves strike a geologic interface and reected P-waves travel
away from the interface at the same angle, analogous to a billiard ball banking
off the table rail. At an interface, P-waves may also be converted to reected
and transmitted S-waves. Across an interface, physical properties change, and
transmitted P- and S-waves cross the interface and bend at angles that depend
on the seismic velocity contrasts between lithologies (above right).
The second relation consists of the Zoeppritz equations, a set of equations
that describes how the incident wave energy encountering an interface
becomes partitioned, or divided, between reected and transmitted waves.
This partitioning is governed by the reection and transmission coefcients,
which depend on the impedance contrast across the interface and the inci-
dence angle of the incident wave. The reection coefcient is the ratio of the
amplitude of the reected wave to that of the incident wave. When the coef-
cient is zero, there is no reection, and all incident energy is transmitted
across the interface. The positive or negative sign of the reection coefcient
indicates whether the incident wave encounters a lithology of higher or lower
impedance across the interface. Nonzero reection coefcients result in par-
tial reection and transmission.
Acquisition
Reection seismic data may be acquired on land or at sea. During land
acquisition, seismic data are collected from a grid of seismic receivers
deployed on the ground. The seismic source is moved and triggered in a pat-
tern that interweaves with the grid of receivers.
For marine acquisition, sources and streamers, which are arrays of
receivers attached to a cable, are deployed off the back of a slowly moving
ship; seismic sources are usually in front of the streamers. As the ship
moves, the sources re at regular intervals, and the receivers record the
signals. The ship typically traverses a grid pattern covering the survey area.
Both on land and at sea, each receiver records a trace, which represents
the amplitude of seismic signal and noise received during the recording
time. Because multiple recording devices are activated when the source is
triggered, multiple traces are produced.
A seismic record is the collection of traces recorded from a single source
point. A record is a section, or cube, of data with distance or geographic
Spring 2014 55
DEFINING REFLECTION SEISMIC SURVEYS
A Beginners Guide to
Seismic Reections
Oileld Review Spring 2014: 26, no. 1.
Copyright 2014 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Victor Aarre, Stavanger, Norway;
and Lisa Stewart, Houston.
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Editor
Reflected S-wave
Transmitted S-wave
Transmitted P-wave
Geologic interface
Angles
of
transmission
Angles
of
reflection
Normal incidence
(zero angle)
Angle
of
incidence
Reflected P-wave
Incident P-wave
2
Lithology 1
Lithology 2
1
, V
P1
, V
S1
2
, V
P2
, V
S2
Snells Law
= = = = = constant
V
P1
sin
1
V
P1
sin
1
V
S1
sin
1
V
P2
sin
2
V
S2
sin
2
>
Snells law. At a geologic interface, the energy in an incident compressional
wave (P-wave) will be partitioned into reected and transmitted P-waves
and vertically polarized shear waves (S-waves). Snells law determines the
angles of reection and transmission. For material properties, and V refer
to bulk density and velocity, respectively. Subscripts P and S indicate P- and
S-waves. Subscripts 1 and 2 indicate properties for Lithologies 1 and 2.
Oileld Review 56
DEFINING REFLECTION SEISMIC SURVEYS
location along the horizontal axis, or axes, and recording time along the
vertical axis. Each trace is plotted at its receiver location, and its positive
and negative deviations from zero indicate amplitude variation. Usually,
time, rather than depth, is plotted along the vertical axis. The recording
time is two-way traveltime (TWT) because the signal must travel from the
surface to the reector and back up to the receiver on the surface.
The high-frequency content of seismic signals that travel through the
Earth experiences natural attenuation. For imaging features in the deep sub-
surface, geophysicists want to record the lowest possible frequencies, which
are the least attenuated and have deep penetration power. To attain accurate
vertical resolution of underground features, the survey must also record the
highest possible frequencies, which become progressively weaker with dis-
tance. Consequently, geophysicists design seismic sources, sensors and sur-
veys to be able to generate and record broadband signals that contain the
widest possible range of frequencies.
Sorting and Gathering
The acquired traces may be gathered into several datasets. A common
source gather is the collection of seismic traces that have the same source
location. Another useful gather is the common midpoint (CMP) gather
(below). A midpoint is the surface location halfway between a source and a
receiver location. The number of traces in a CMP gather is the fold. The
distance between source and receiver is the offset.
Geophysicists make moveout corrections to shift all traces so that reec-
tions in a CMP gather appear horizontal at their zero-offset times. Then, in a
process called stacking, they add together the traces in the CMP gather to
form a single trace, which is called a CMP stack. Geophysicists repeat this
process for every CMP gather in the survey. The end result is that many seis-
mic records from a survey traverse are reduced to a single seismic line, or
section, that contains traces from CMP stacks arranged in order of their geo-
graphic position. When applied to reections from horizontal strata, the
moveout correction is called a normal moveout (NMO) correction.
The process of stacking the CMP also helps to remove random noise, or
unwanted signal, that results from the environment. Such noise tends to be
unsystematic and may be suppressed further by additional data processing.
Additional Steps
Within seismic images, interpreted features do not always appear in their
correct locations because seismic energy bends, scatters and changes direc-
tion in the subsurface. Migration is an advanced seismic processing tech-
nique that geometrically repositions image points to a more accurate
location. After the migration operation, dipping features are moved, and
scattered energy collapses back toward its point of origin. As a result,
images are sharper and more accurately reveal the underlying geology.
Reection seismology is a powerful tool for imaging strata within the
subsurface (above). Geophysicists use acquisition techniques to acquire
seismic data from many angles. They use migration and other advanced data
processing algorithms to improve identication of reection points and sup-
pression of noise. Consequently, geophysicists are revealing details about
subsurface geologic structures and strata and obtaining data for accurate
interpretation of exploration prospects and delineation of drilling targets.
Crossline
Horizon
Inline
Amplitude
0 +
>
3D reection seismic survey result. This 3D seismic dataset from offshore
Australia shows a complex system of marine channels and related
sedimentary deposits owing E-W toward deep water. The inline in the
background and the crossline on the right side of the image cut across and
show perpendicular sections through the channel system. The horizon is an
interpreted surface considered to be the base of the depositional system. The
colors indicate the spatially varying reection strength, which may be caused
by local changes in geology and saturation of the pore space and may be
associated with faulting. (Dataset used with permission courtesy of
Geoscience Australia.)
D
e
p
t
h
M
o
v
e
o
u
t
CMP
CMP
CRP
S
m
R
m
0
0
S
1
T
0
X
1
X
m
Reflector
Offset
Offset
R
1
T
w
o
-
w
a
y

t
r
a
v
e
l
t
i
m
e

0
0
T
0
X
1
X
m
T
w
o
-
w
a
y

t
r
a
v
e
l
t
i
m
e

T
w
o
-
w
a
y

t
r
a
v
e
l
t
i
m
e

X
m
X
1
>
Common midpoint (CMP) stack. The common midpoint (CMP, top left) is the
point on the surface halfway between sources (S) and receivers (R) that is
shared by numerous (m) source-receiver pairs. For horizontal layers, the CMP
is directly above the common reection point (CRP). The distance X between
source-receiver pairs is the offset. A CMP gather (top right) is a record of
traces from the source-receiver pairs that share a CMP. It is a plot of two-way
traveltime versus offset. As the offset between source-receiver pairs
increases, the moveout, or difference in arrival times, of a reected wave
increases. Time T
0
is the zero-offset time for a reection arrival when source
and receiver occupy the same point. The moveout correction (bottom left)
removes the moveout to collapse all arrival times in the CMP gather from a
reector to T
0
. The CMP stack (bottom right) is the summation of all moveout-
corrected traces in the CMP gather. Random noise in individual traces is
attenuated during this process, leading to a clearer image.

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In the early days of the oil and gas industry, exploration was generally con-

ducted by trial and error. Knowledge of subsurface structures was limited to

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