________________________________________________________Current Electricity 1

Electri c Current
(1) The tim e rate of flow of charge through any cross-section
is called current.
dt
dQ
t
Q
Lim i
t
= =

0
. If flow is uniform then
t
Q
i = .
C urrent is a scalar quantity. It's S.I. unit is ampere (A) and C .G .S.
unit is emu and is called biot (Bi), or ab ampere. 1A = (1/10) Bi
(ab amp.)
(2) Ampere of current m eans the flow of 6.25 10
18

electrons/sec through any cross-section of the conductor.
(3) The conventional direction of current is taken to be the
direction of flow of positive charge, i.e. field and is opposite to the
direction of flow of negative charge as show n below .



(4) The net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero.

(5) For a given conductor current does not change w ith
change in cross-sectional area. In the follow ing figure i
1
= i
2
= i
3





(6) Current due to transl atory motion of charge : If n
particle each having a charge q, pass
through a given area in tim e t then
t
nq
i =

If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit
area, the current associated w ith cross-sectional area A is nqA i =
If there are n particle per unit volum e each having a charge q
and m oving w ith velocity v, the current thorough, cross section A
is nqvA i =

Table: Types of current
Alternating current (ac) Direct current (dc)
(i)
M agnitude and direction
both varies w ith tim e



ac Rectifier dc
(i) (Pulsating dc) (C onstant dc)





dc Inverter ac
(ii) Show s heating effect only (ii) Show s heating effect, chem ical effect and m agnetic effect of current
(iii)Its sym bol is

(iii) Its sym bol is
(7) Current due to rotatory motion of charge : If a point
charge q is m oving in a circle of radius r w ith speed v (frequency
v, angular speed e and tim e period T) then corresponding current

2 2
q
r
qv
T
q
q i = = = =


(8) Current carriers : The charged particles w hose flow in a
definite direction constitutes the electric current are called current
carriers. In different situation current carriers are different.
(i) Solids : In solid conductors like m etals current carriers are
free electrons.
(ii) Liquids : In liquids current carriers are positive and
negative ions.
(iii) G ases : In gases current carriers are positive ions and free
electrons.
(iv) Sem i conductor : In sem i conductors current carriers are
holes and free electrons.
Current Density (J )
C urrent density at any point inside a conductor is defined as
a vector having m agnitude equal to current per unit area
surrounding that point. Rem em ber area is norm al to the direction
of charge flow (or current passes) through that point.
(1) C urrent density at point P is given by n
dA
di
J =




(2) If the cross-sectional area is not norm al to the current,
but m akes an angle u w ith the direction of current then
u cos dA
di
J = u cos J dA di = dA J . =
}
= dA J i
(3) If current density J is uniform for a norm al
cross-section A then J= i/A.
(4) C urrent density J is a vector quantity. It's direction is
sam e as that of E . It's S.I. unit is amp/m
2
and dim ension [L
2
A].
(5) In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-
section norm al to it as nqvA i = J= i/A = nqv
(6) C urrent density relates w ith electric field as

E
E J = = ; w here o = conductivity and = resistivity or
specific resistance of substance.
Dri ft Velocity
D rift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free
+

i
t
i
t
i
t
+
~
i
2
i
1
i
3

Fig.
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fig.
Fig.
E

i
E

i
Fig.
dA
n
J
P
i
dA cosu
i
J
u
A d

u
Fig.
r
q

2 Current Electricity_______________________________________________________________
electrons inside a m etal by the application of an electric field
w hich is responsible for current through it.
D rift velocity is very sm all it is of the order of 10
4
m/s as
com pared to therm al speed ) / 10
~
(
5
s m of electrons at room
tem perature.




if suppose for a conductor
n = N um ber of electron per unit volum e of the conductor
A = A rea of cross-section
V = potential difference across the conductor
E = electric field inside the conductor
i = current, J = current density, = specific resistance, o
= conductivity
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

o
1
then current relates w ith drift velocity as
d
neAv i = &
e n l
V
ne
E
ne
E
ne
J
neA
i
v
d

= = = = = .
(1) The direction of drift velocity for electron in a m etal is
opposite to that of applied electric field (i.e. current density J

).
E v
d
i.e., greater the electric field, larger w ill be the drift
velocity.
(2) If diam eter (d) of a conductor is doubled, then drift
velocity of electrons inside it w ill not change.

(1) Relaxation time () : The tim e interval betw een tw o
successive collisions of electrons w ith the positive ions in the
m etallic lattice is defined as relaxation tim e
rms
v

t = =
electrons of velocity r.m .s.
path free m ean
. W ith rise in tem perature
v
rms
increases consequently t decreases.
(2) Mobility : D rift velocity per unit electric field is called
m obility of electron i.e.
E
v
d
= . Its unit is
sec
2
volt
m
.
Ohm's Law
If the physical conditions of the conductor (length,
tem perature, m echanical strain etc.) rem ains som e, then the
current flow ing through the conductor is directly proportional to
the potential difference across its tw o ends i.e. V i iR V =
w here R is a proportionality constant, know n as electric resistance.
(1) O hm s law is not a universal law , the substances, w hich
obey ohm s law are know n as ohm ic substance.
(2) G raph betw een V and i for a m etallic conductor is a
straight line as show n.
At different tem peratures V-i curves are different.












(3) The device or substances w hich dont obey ohm s law
e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, therm oionic valve, transistors etc. are
know n as non-ohm ic or non-linear conductors. For these V-i
curve is not linear.
Static resistance
u tan
1
= =
i
V
R
st

D ynam ic resistance
| tan
1
=
A
A
=
I
V
R
dyn

Resistance
(1) The property of substance by virtue of w hich it opposes
the flow of current through it, is know n as the resistance.
(2) Formul a of resi stance : For a conductor if l =
length of a conductor A = A rea of cross-section of conductor,
n = N o. of free electrons per unit volum e in conductor, t =
relaxation tim e then resistance of conductor
A
l
.
ne
m
A
l
R

2
= = ; w here = resistivity of the m aterial of
conductor
(3) Unit and dimension : Its S.I. unit is Volt/Amp. or Ohm
(O).
Also 1 ohm
current of 10
al of potenti 10
1
1
1
8
emu
emu
Amp
volt

= = = 10
9
emu of
resistance. Its dim ension is ] [
2 3 2
A T ML .

(4) Dependence of resistance : Resistance of a
conductor depends upon the follow ing factors.
(i) Length of the conductor : Resistance of a conductor is
directly proportional to its length i.e. R l and inversely
proportional to its area of cross-section i.e.
A
R
1

(ii) Tem perature : For a conductor
e temperatur Resistance .
If R
0
= resistance of conductor at 0
o
C
R
t
= resistance of conductor at t
o
C
and o, | = tem perature co-efficient of resistance
then ) 1 (
2
0
t t R R
t
| o + + = for t > 300
o
C and
) (1 t R R
t
+ =
0
for t s 300
o
C or
t R
R R
t

=
0
0
o
If R
1
and R
2
are the resistances at t
1
o
C and t
2
o
C respectively
then
2
1
2
1
1
1
t
t
R
R
o
o
+
+
= .
The value of o is different at different tem perature.
Tem perature coefficient of resistance averaged over the tem perature
range t
1
o
C to t
2
o
C is given by
) (
1 2 1
1 2
t t R
R R

= o w hich gives R
2
= R
1

[1 + o (t
2
t
1
)]. This form ula gives an approxim ate value.
Resistivity (), Conductivity () andConductance (C)
(1) Resistivity : From ;
A
l
R = If l = 1m, A = 1 m
2
then
= R i.e. resistivity is num erically equal to the resistance of a
substance having unit area of cross-section and unit length.
(A) Slope of the line
= R
i
V
= = u tan
u
V
i
(B) H ere tanu
1
> tanu
2

So R
1
> R
2

i.e. T
1
> T
2

T
2

V
i
T
1

1
2
u
2

u
1

Fig.
u |
C rystal
rectifier
V
i
Fig.
l
V
E
+
v
d
A
Fig.
________________________________________________________Current Electricity 3

(i) U nit and dim ension : Its S.I. unit is ohm m and
dim ension is ] [
2 3 3
A T ML
(ii) Its form ula :
t

2
ne
m
=
(iii) Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is
independent of shape and size of the body (i.e. l and A).
(iv) For different substances their resistivity is also
different e.g.
silver
= m inim um = 1.6 10
8
O-m and
fused
quartz
= m axim um ~ 10
16
O-m
) silver for (Minimum
conductor conductor - semi alloy
quartz) fused for (Maximum
insulator
> > >

(v) Resistivity depends on the tem perature. For m etals
) 1 (
0
t
t
A + = o i.e. resitivity increases w ith tem perature.
(vi) Resistivity increases w ith im purity and m echanical
stress.
(vii) M agnetic field increases the resistivity of all m etals
except iron, cobalt and nickel.
(viii) Resistivity of certain substances like selenium ,
cadm ium , sulphides is inversely proportional to intensity of light
falling upon them .
(2) Conductivity : Reciprocal of resistivity is called
conductivity (o) i.e.

o
1
= w ith unit mho/m and dim ensions
] [
2 3 3 1
A T L M

.
(3) Conductance : Reciprocal of resistance is know n as
conductance.
R
C
1
= Its unit is
O
1
or O
1
or Siem en.
Stretchi ng of Wire
If a conducting w ire stretches, its length increases, area of
cross-section decreases so resistance increases but volum e rem ain
constant.
Suppose for a conducting w ire before stretching its length = l
1
,
area of cross-section = A
1
, radius = r
1
, diam eter = d
1
, and
resistance
1
1
1
A
l
R =
Before stretching A fter stretching





After stretching length = l
2
, area of cross-section = A
2
,
radius = r
2
, diam eter = d
2
and resistance
2
2
2
A
l
R = =
Ratio of resistances before and after stretching

4
1
2
4
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
d
d
r
r
A
A
l
l
A
A
l
l
R
R

(1) If length is given then
2
2
1
2
1 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
l
l
R
R
l R
(2) If radius is given then
4
1
2
2
1
4
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
r
R
R
r
R
El ectrical Conducting Materials For Specifi c
Use
(1) Filament of electric bulb : Is m ade up of tungsten
w hich has high resistivity, high m elting point.
(2) Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser
or press) : Is m ade up of nichrom e w hich has high resistivity and
high m elting point.
(3) Resistances of resistance boxes (standard
resistances) : Are m ade up of alloys (m anganin, constantan or
nichrom e) these m aterials have m oderate resistivity w hich is
practically independent of tem perature so that the specified value
of resistance does not alter w ith m inor changes in tem perature.
(4) Fuse-wire : Is m ade up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
lead). It should have low m elting point and high resistivity.
Colour Codi ng of Resistance
To know the value of resistance colour code is used. These
code are printed in form of set of rings or strips. By reading the
values of colour bands, w e can estim ate the value of resistance.
The carbon resistance has norm ally four coloured rings or
bands say A, B, C and D as show n in follow ing figure.



Colour band A and B : Indicate the first tw o significant
figures of resistance in ohm.
Band C : Indicates the decim al m ultiplier i.e. the num ber of
zeros that follow s the tw o significant figures A and B.
Band D : Indicates the tolerance in percent about the
indicated value or in other w ords it represents the percentage
accuracy of the indicated value.
The tolerance in the case of gold is 5% and in silver is
10% . If only three bands are m arked on carbon resistance, then it
indicate a tolerance of 20% .
Table : Colour code for carbon resistance
Letters as an
aid to memory
Colour Figure
(A, B)
Multiplier
(C)
B Black 0 10
o

B Brow n 1 10
1

R Red 2 10
2

O O range 3 10
3

Y Yellow 4 10
4

G G reen 5 10
5

B Blue 6 10
6

V Violet 7 10
7

G G rey 8 10
8

W W hite 9 10
9


To rem em ber the sequence of colour code follow ing
sentence should kept in m em ory.
A B C D
l
1


l
2


V olum e rem ains constant i.e. A
1
l
1
= A
2
l
2


4 Current Electricity_______________________________________________________________
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife.
Grouping of Resistance
(1) Seri es grouping
(i) Sam e current flow s through each resistance but potential
difference distributes in the ratio of resistance i.e. R V





(ii)
3 2 1
R R R R
eq
+ + = equivalent resistance is greater than
the m axim um value of resistance in the com bination.
(iii) If n identical resistance are connected in series
nR R
eq
= and potential difference across each resistance
n
V
V = '
(2) Parallel grouping
(i) Sam e potential difference
appeared across each resistance
but current distributes in the
reverse ratio of their resistance i.e.
R
i
1

(ii) Equivalent resistance is
given by
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
eq
+ + = or
1 1
3
1
2
1
1
) (

+ + = R R R R
eq
or
1 2 3 2 2 1
3 2 1
R R R R R R
R R R
R
eq
+ +
=
Equivalent resistance is sm aller than the m inim um value of
resistance in the com bination.
(iv) If tw o resistance in parallel
A ddition
tion M ultiplica
2 1
2 1
=
+
=
R R
R R
R
eq

(v) C urrent through any resistance
(

=
resistance Total
branch opposite of R esistance
' i i
W here i' = required current (branch current),
i = m ain current

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
2
1
R R
R
i i
and
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2 1
1
2
R R
R
i i
(vi) In n identical resistance are connected in parallel
n
R
R
eq
= and current through each resistance
n
i
i = '
Cel l
The device w hich converts chem ical energy into electrical energy
is know n as electric cell. C ell is a source of constant em f but not
constant current.
(1) Emf of cell (E) : The potential difference across the
term inals of a cell w hen it is not supplying any current is called its
em f.
(2) Potential difference (V) : The voltage across the
term inals of a cell w hen it is supplying current to external
resistance is called potential difference or term inal voltage.
Potential difference is equal to the product of current and
resistance of that given part i.e. V = iR.
(3) Internal resistance (r) : In case of a cell the
opposition of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called
internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell
depends on the distance betw een electrodes (r d), area of
electrodes [r (1/A)] and nature, concentration (r C) and
tem perature of electrolyte [r (1/ tem p.)].
A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.
Cell i n Various Posi tions
(1) Closed circui t : C ell supplies a constant current in the
circuit.





(i) C urrent given by the cell
r R
E
i
+
=
(ii) Potential difference across the resistance iR V =
(iii) Potential drop inside the cell = ir
(iv) Equation of cell ir V E + = (E > V)
(v) Internal resistance of the cell R
V
E
r |
.
|

\
|
= 1
(vi) Pow er dissipated in external resistance (load)
R
r R
E
R
V
R i Vi P .
2
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
= = = =
Pow er delivered w ill be m axim um w hen r R = so
r
E
P
4
2
m ax
= .
This statem ent in generalised from is called maximum
power transfer theorem.






(vii) W hen the cell is being charged i.e. current is given to the
cell then E = V ir and E < V.
(2) Open circui t : W hen no current is taken from the cell it
is said to be in open circuit





Fig. 19.17
R
1

R
2

i
1

i
i
2

Fig. 19.16
V
i
i
1
i
2
i
3
R
1

R
2

R
3

E, r
R
A D C B
Fig.
P
P
max
= E
2
/4r
R = r
R
Fig.
Fig.
V
R
1
R
2
R
3

V
1
V
2
V
3

i
+
Fig.
E, r
R
i
V = iR
________________________________________________________Current Electricity 5

(i) C urrent through the circuit i = 0
(ii) Potential difference betw een A and B, V
AB
= E
(iii) Potential difference betw een C and D, V
CD
= 0
(3) Short circuit : If tw o term inals of cell are join together
by a thick conducting w ire





(i) M axim um current (called short circuit current) flow s
m om entarily
r
E
i
sc
=
(ii) Potential difference V = 0
Grouping of Cells
G roup of cell is called a battery.
In series grouping of cells their em fs are additive or
subtractive w hile their internal resistances are alw ays additive. If
dissim ilar plates of cells are connected together their em fs are
added to each other w hile if their sim ilar plates are connected
together their em fs are subtractive.





(1) Seri es groupi ng : In series grouping anode of one cell is
connected to cathode of other cell and so on. If n identical cells
are connected in series





(i) Equivalent em f of the com bination nE E
eq
=
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance nr r
eq
=
(iii) M ain current = C urrent from each cell
nr R
nE
i
+
= =
(iv) Potential difference across external resistance iR V =
(v) Potential difference across each cell
n
V
V = '
(vi) Pow er dissipated in the external circuit R
nr R
nE
.
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
(vii) C ondition for m axim um pow er nr R = and
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
E
n P
4
2
m ax

(viii) This type of com bination is used w hen nr < < R.
(2) Paral lel grouping : In parallel grouping all anodes are
connected at one point and all cathode are connected together at
other point. If n identical cells are connected in parallel








(i) Equivalent em f E
eq
= E
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance n r R
eq
/ =
(iii) M ain current
n r R
E
i
/ +
=
(iv) potential difference across external resistance = p.d.
across each cell = V = iR
(v) C urrent from each cell
n
i
i = '
(vi) Pow er dissipated in the circuit R
n r R
E
P .
/
2
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
(vii) C ondition for m ax. pow er is n r R / = and
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
r
E
n P
4
2
m ax

(viii) This type of com bination is used w hen nr > > R
(3) Mixed Grouping : If n identical cells are connected in
a row and such m row s are connected in parallel as show n.








(i) Equivalent em f of the com bination nE E
eq
=
(ii) Equivalent internal resistance of the com bination
m
nr
r
eq
=
(iii) M ain current flow ing through the load
nr mR
mnE
m
nr
R
nE
i
+
=
+
=
(iv) Potential difference across load iR V =
(v) Potential difference across each cell
n
V
V = '
(vi) C urrent from each cell
n
i
i = '
(vii) C ondition for m axim um pow er
m
nr
R=
and
r
E
mn P
4
) (
2
m ax
=
(viii) Total num ber of cell = mn
Ki rchoff's Laws
(1) Kirchoffs first law : This law is also know n as
junction rule or current law (KCL). A ccording to it the algebraic
sum of currents m eeting at a junction is zero i.e. i = 0.
R = 0
E, r
Fig.
E, r
R
E, r E, r
E, r
i
Fig. 19.24
R
i
1
2
m
2 1
E, r

E, r

V
n
E, r

Fig.
E
1
E
2

E
eq
= E
1
+ E
2

r
eq
= r
1
+ r
2
E
1
E
2

E
eq
= E
1
E
2
(E
1
> E
2
)
r
eq
= r
1
+ r
2
E, r
R
i
E, r
E, r


6 Current Electricity_______________________________________________________________






In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering
the junction m ust equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction.
4 2 3 1
i i i i + = +
(ii) This law is sim ply a statem ent of conservation of
charge.
(2) Ki rchoffs second law : This law is also know n as
loop rule or voltage law (KV L) and according to it the algebraic
sum of the changes in potential in com plete traversal of a m esh
(closed loop) is zero, i.e. V = 0
(i) This law represents conservation of energy.
(ii) If there are n m eshes in a circuit, the num ber of independent
equations in accordance w ith loop rule w ill be (n 1).
(3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchoffs
law : For the application of Kirchoffs law s follow ing sign
convention are to be considered
(i) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the
direction of current is iR w hile in the opposite direction + iR



(ii) The change in potential in traversing an em f source
from negative to positive term inal is + E w hile in the opposite
direction E irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit.




(iii) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from
the negative term inal to the positive term inal is
C
q
+ w hile in
opposite direction
C
q
.



(iv) The change in voltage in traversing an inductor in the
direction of current is
dt
di
L w hile in opposite direction it is
dt
di
L + .



Wheatstone bridge : W heatstone bridge is an arrangem ent of
four resistance w hich can be used to m easure one of them in
term s of rest. H ere arm s AB and BC are called ratio arm and arm s
AC and BD are called conjugate arm s






(i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced
w hen deflection in galvanom eter is zero i.e. no current flow s
through the galvanom eter or in other w ords V
B
= V
D
. In the
balanced condition
S
R
Q
P
= , on m utually changing the position
of cell and galvanom eter this condition w ill not change.

(ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced
current w ill flow from D to B if V
D
> V
B
i.e. ) ( ) (
B A D A
V V V V <
w hich gives PS > RQ.
(iii) Applications of wheatstone bridge : M eter bridge,
post office box and C arey Foster bridge are instrum ents based on
the principle of w heatstone bridge and are used to m easure
unknow n resistance.
(5) Meter bridge : In case of m eter bridge, the resistance
w ire AC is 100 cm long. V arying the position of tapping point B,
bridge is balanced. If in balanced position of bridge AB = l, BC
(100 l) so that
l
l
P
Q ) 100 (
= . A lso
S
R
Q
P
= R
l
l
S
) 100 (
=







Potentiometer
Potentiom eter is a device m ainly used to m easure em f of a
given cell and to com pare em fs of cells. It is also used to m easure
internal resistance of a given cell.
(1) Circuit di agram : Potentiom eter consists of a long
resistive w ire AB of length L (about 6m to 10 m long) m ade up of
m angnine or constantan and a battery of know n voltage e and
internal resistance r called supplier battery or driver cell.
C onnection of these tw o form s prim ary circuit.
O ne term inal of another cell (w hose em f E is to be m easured)
is connected at one end of the m ain circuit and the other term inal
at any point on the resistive w ire through a galvanom eter G. This
form s the secondary circuit. O ther details are as follow s






i
1
i
2
i
3
i
4
Fig.
E
E
A B
E
A B
+ E
Fig.
R
i A B
iR
R
i A B
+ iR
Fig.
A
R
h
K
B
e, r
Prim ary
circuit
Secondary
circuit
J
E
G

R.B.
G
R
S
P Q
l cm (100 l) cm
E K
A
B
C
Fig.
C
A B
C
q
+
+
q
C
A B
C
q

+
q
(A)
(B)
L
i A B
dt
di
L
L
i A B
dt
di
L +
P Q
R S
+
A
B
C
D
G
K
1
K
2
________________________________________________________Current Electricity 7

J = Jockey
K = Key
R = Resistance of potentiom eter w ire,
= Specific resistance of potentiom eter w ire.
R
h
= V ariable resistance w hich controls the current through
the w ire AB
(i) The specific resistance () of potentiom eter w ire m ust be
high but its tem perature coefficient of resistance (o) m ust be low .
(ii) A ll higher potential points (term inals) of prim ary and
secondary circuits m ust be connected together at point A and all
low er potential points m ust be connected to point B or jockey.
(iii) The value of know n potential difference m ust be
greater than the value of unknow n potential difference to be
m easured.
(iv) The potential gradient m ust rem ain constant. For this
the current in the prim ary circuit m ust rem ain constant and the
jockey m ust not be slided in contact w ith the w ire.
(v) The diam eter of potentiom eter w ire m ust be uniform
everyw here.
(2) Potential gradient (x) : Potential difference (or fall in
potential) per unit length of w ire is called potential gradient i.e.
m
volt
L
V
x = w here R
r R R
e
iR V
h
.
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
= = .
So
L
R
.
r R R
e
A
i
L
iR
L
V
x
h
) ( + +
= = = =


(i) Potential gradient directly depends upon
(a) The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiom eter
w ire.
(b) The radius of potentiom eter w ire (i.e. Area of cross-section)
(c) The specific resistance of the m aterial of potentiom eter
w ire (i.e. )
(d) The current flow ing through potentiom eter w ire (i)
(ii) potential gradient indirectly depends upon
(a) The em f of battery in the prim ary circuit (i.e. e)
(b) The resistance of rheostat in the prim ary circuit (i.e. R
h
)
(3) Worki ng : Suppose jocky is m ade to touch a point J
on w ire then potential difference betw een A and J w ill be
xl V =
At this length (l) tw o potential difference are obtained
(i) V due to battery e and
(ii) E due to unknow n cell







If V > E then current w ill flow in galvanom eter circuit in
one direction
If V < E then current w ill flow in galvanom eter circuit in opposite
direction
If V = E then no current w ill flow in galvanom eter circuit
this condition to know n as null deflection position, length l is
know n as balancing length.
In balanced condition xl E =
or l
L
R
.
r R R
e
l
L
iR
l
L
V
xl E
h

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
= = = =
If V is constant then L l
2
1
2
1
2
1
l
l
L
L
x
x
= =
(7) Sensitivity of potentiometer : A potentiom eter is said
to be m ore sensitive, if it m easures a sm all potential difference
m ore accurately.(i) The sensitivity of potentiom eter is assessed by
its potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely proportional to
the potential-gradient.
(ii) In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiom eter
(a) The resistance in prim ary circuit w ill have to be
decreased.
(b) The length of potentiom eter w ire w ill have to be increased so
that the length m ay be m easured m ore accuracy.
Table: Difference between vol tmeter and potentiometer
Voltmeter Potentiometer
Its resistance is high but finite Its resistance is infinite
It draw s som e current from
source of em f
It does not draw any current from the
source of unknown em f
The potential difference
m easured by it is lesser than the
actual potential difference
The potential difference
m easured by it is equal to actual
potential difference
Its sensitivity is low Its sensitivity is high
It is a versatile instrum ent It m easures only em f or
potential difference
It is based on deflection m ethod It is based on zero deflection
m ethod

Applicati on of Potentiometer
(1) To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell







(i) Initially in secondary circuit key K' rem ains open and
balancing length (l
1
) is obtained. Since cell E is in open circuit so
its em f balances on length l
1
i.e. E = xl
1
. (i)
(ii) N ow key K' is closed so cell E com es in closed circuit. If
the process of balancing repeated again then potential difference
V balances on length l
2
i.e. V = xl
2
. (ii)
(iii) B y using form ula internal resistance ' . 1 R
V
E
r |
.
|

\
|
=
E
A
R
h

K
B
e, r
l
J J
2

J
1

G G G
Fig.
E
A
R
h

K
B
J
K'
R'
G
e, r
Fig.

8 Current Electricity_______________________________________________________________
' .
2
2 1
R
l
l l
r
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(2) Compari son of emfs of two cell : Let l
1
and l
2
be the
balancing lengths w ith the cells E
1
and E
2
respectively then E
1
=
xl
1
and E
2
= xl
2

2
1
2
1
l
l
E
E
=







Let E
1
> E
2
and both are connected in series. If balancing
length is l
1
w hen cell assist each other and it is l
2
w hen they
oppose each other as show n then :



1 2 1
) ( xl E E = +
2 2 1
) ( xl E E =

2
1
2 1
2 1
l
l
E E
E E
=

+
or
2 1
2 1
2
1
l l
l l
E
E

+
=
+ +
E
1
E
2

+ +
E
1
E
2

E
1
A
R
h
K
B
e, r
J
G
E
2
1
2