1

HYBRID VEHICLE

Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of
the degree B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering

BY
M. KARTHIK RAJA (09241A0316)
M.RAMESH BABU (09241A0328)
K.SANDEEP KUMAR (09241A0338)




Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology
Bachupally, Hyderabad 500090, A.P., INDIA
April, 2013


2


Department of Mechanical Engineering
Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology
Bachupally, Hyderabad 500090


CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project on HYBRID VEHICLE that is to be submitted by M.
KATHIK RAJA (09241A0316), M.RAMESH BABU (09241A0328), K. SANDEEP
KUMAR (09241A0338) in partial fulfilment for the award of B.Tech in Mechanical
Engineering to the department of Mechanical Engineering; GokarajuRangaraju Institute of
Engineering and Technology; affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
Hyderabad is a record of bona fide work carried out by them under our guidance and
supervision.
The results embodied in this Project Report have not been submitted to any other
university or institute for award of any degree or diploma.


PROJECT GUIDE:


M. V. ADITYA NAG
Asst. Professor, GRIET




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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to take this opportunity and express our sincere thanks to all those who
helped us in the course of this project work.
We are deeply indebted to our guide Mr.M.V. Aditya Nag, Asst. Professor,
for her expert guidance during the entire course of project work, without which it would not
have been possible to successfully complete this project.
We would like to thank Dr. Jandhyala N Murthy, Principal, GRIET for
having permitted us in pursuing our project. We are thankful to Dr. K.G.K Murti, Head of
Department and professor.
We would like to thank Dr. P.A.P.N. NagendraVarma,Professor for
coordinating our project work throughout the semester.
We would also like to thank Mr.P.V.R.K. AnjaneyaRaju for his support and
suggestions and all staff members who gave their valuable advice in doing this project.
We also thank our parents who have supported us and also each and every
person who has influenced our project in one way or other.



M. KARTHIK RAJA - 09241A0316
M. RAMESH BABU - 09241A0328
K. SANDEEP KUMAR - 09241A0338







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ABSTRACT

In the present energy scenario the fossil fuel sources are fast depleting and their
combustion products are causing global environmental problems. So it is inevitable to shift
towards these of renewable energy resources which in turn will reduce pollution levels and
save fossil fuels. One possible alternative is HYBRID VEHICLE. Our main idea is to use
AIR and SOLAR ENERGY.
Air powered cars runs on compressed air instead of gasoline. This car is powered by a
compressed engine. Battery power drawn from the engine could possibly be used to power
the compressor. And we can develop the power required to drive the compressor by using
solar energy.
Hybrid vehicle is cheaper and beneficial compared to hydrogen engines, bio-diesel
engines. Nevertheless, the compressed air vehicle will contribute in reducing urban air
pollution in the long run. This project deals with the manufacturing and analysis of air
compressor powered vehicles powered using solar energy.













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INDEX
S No. Topic
Page No

i. Cover Page i
ii. Certificate ii
iii. Acknowledgement iii
iv. Abstract iv
v. Index v
vi. List of Figures Vii
vii. List of Tables viii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 History of Hybrid Vehicles 1
1.2 Need for hybrid vehicles 3
1.3 Concept of a hybrid vehicle 5
2 Air engine powered by using solar energy 6
2.1 Aim & objective 6
2.2 Block diagram of the project 6
3 Air engine 7
3.1 Design & working 7
3.2 Technical specification of the engine 7
3.3 Changing from 4-stroke to 2-stroke 8
3.4 Transmission losses 9
4 Air compressor 11
4.1 Introduction 11
4.2 Working 11
4.3 Types 12
5 Solar panels (photo voltaic system) 13
5.1 Introduction 13
5.2 Types of solar panels 13
5.3 Panels used for project 18
6

5.4 Block diagram 20
6 Charge controller, batteries and inverter 21
6.1 Charge controller 21
6.2 Inverter 21
6.3 Battery 28
7 Assembly of hybrid vehicle 31
8 Auxiliaries and parts 32
8.1 The piping system: 32
8.2 Connectors 32
8.3 Valves 33
9 Analysis of hybrid vehicle 36
9.1 Analysis on air compressor 36
9.2 Analysis on engine 40
9.3 Determination of optimum tilt angles in solar panels: 44
10 Conclusion 49
11 References 54












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LIST OF TABLES

S.No Table No Description Page No
1 6.1 Controller Configuration Comparison 24
2 6.2 Battery and Charge Controller Troubleshooting 26
3 9.1 Analysis of air compressor 37
4 9.2 Results table 38
5 9.3 Pressure & brake horse power 44
6 9.4 Load and BHP 45
7 Table-1
(10 am)
Voltage and resistance 46
8 Table-2
(12 pm)
Voltage and resistance 47
9 Table-3
(2 pm)
Voltage and resistance 48
10 Table-4
(4 pm)
Voltage and resistance 49
11 Table-5 Average voltage and angle 50













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LIST OF FIGURES
S. No Figure
No.

Description Page No
1 1.1 Pneumatic Locomotive 2

2 1.2 Early 19th century air engines

3
3 1.3 Temperature and CO
2
for last 1000 years & sea level raise
analysis

4
4 1.4 Radial IC engine

5
5 3.1 IC engine used for the project

7
6 3.2 Cam shaft before modifications

8
7 3.3 Modified cam shaft

9
8 3.4 Design of rear shaft

10
9 4.1 Air compressor

11
10 5.1 Solar panels that are mounted on structure with series
connection

19
11 5.2 solar charging system block diagram

20
12 6.1 Charge controller

21
13 6.2 Backside of a charge controller

22
14 6.3 Inverter used in the project

28
15 6.4 Working model of battery

29
16 6.5 Batteries used in the project

30
17 7.1 Assembly of hybrid vehicle.

31
18 8.1 Pipes used in the project

32
19 8.2 Connectors used 33
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20 8.3 Valves used in the project

34
21 9.4 engine used in the project

41
22 10.1 Solar cells used in the project

50
23 10.2 Experimental Setup of Solar Embedded Air compressor
powered vehicle (Hybrid Vehicle)

51




















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1. INTRODUCTION
Air engine is a new green project, where the main aim lies in using non-
conventional energy source to produce power output i.e. , air is used as the power source
which is used to run the engine. The laws of physics dictate that uncontained gases will fill
any given space. The easiest way to see this in action is to inflate a balloon. The elastic skin
of the balloon holds the air tightly inside, but the moment you use a pin to create a hole in the
balloon's surface, the air expands outward with so much energy that the balloon explodes.
Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. Working of an air engine or an
air car is based on the above mentioned principle. Instead of piston displacement by burning
of air-fuel mixture, compressed air is introduced into the chamber which results in similar
piston displacement. This new technology brings scope for an eco-friendly car. Though this is
the cleanest and most energy efficient process, a power source is required to run the air
compressor which in turn powers the air engine. The potential problem lies in powering the
air compressor. There are various ways of powering the air compressor, but the best non
conventional source is through solar power.
Air compressor contains a motor which is used for the basic function of
compressing the air. The efficiency and the output of the compressor depend on the capacity
of the motor. The compressor will use air from around the car to refill the compressed air
tank. Unfortunately, this is a rather slow method of refuelling and will probably take up to
two hours for a complete refill. If the idea of an air car catches on, air refuelling stations will
become available at ordinary gas stations, where the tank can be refilled much more rapidly
with air that's already been compressed. Filling your tank at the pump will probably take
about three minutes. Similarly this project focuses on running the air car running
continuously with an air compressor attached in the car. By doing so, there will not be any
necessity for air filling stations. A 2H.P motor powered air compressor is sufficient for
running an air car at low speeds of 20-30kmph. Air cars also required to be as light as
possible. Thus, Aluminium or its respective alloys are most suitable for the building of air
cars. The current project focuses on the aspect of building an air powered car with its built-in
compressor.
Complete exhaust system can be omitted because air will not be contaminated or polluted
after exiting the air engine.



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1.1 HISTORY OF HYBRID VEHICLES:
Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to
power mine locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris and was previously the basis of
naval torpedo propulsion. During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882,
pneumatic locomotives were used in the construction of the Gotthard Rail Tunnel and other
tunnels of the Gotthardbahn .In 1903, the Liquid Air Company located in London England
manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquefied-air cars. The major problem with
these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the
cost of compressing the air.





FIG 1.1: Pneumatic Locomotive


After years of working on a system for driving an automobile by means of
compressed air Louis C. Kiser, a 77 year old from Decatur USA has succeeded in converting
his gasoline engine into an air compressed system. A special cylinder head is substituted and
a compressed-air tank added in place of the gasoline tank. In 1926 Lee Barton Williams of
Pittsburg USA presented his invention: an automobile which, he claims runs on air. The
motor starts on gasoline, but after it has reached a speed of ten miles an hour the gasoline
supply is shut off and the air starts to work. At the first test his invention attained a speed of
62 miles an hour. The first hybrid diesel and compressed air locomotive appeared in 1930, in
Germany. The pressures brought to bear by the oil industry in the transport sector were ever
greater and the truth of the matter is that they managed to block investigation in this field.


In January 1975 driving on compressed air was proposed by Sorgato in Italy
as a viable fuel-economy alternative to the electric car for industrial and urban use. The first
experimental model had nine air bottles charged to 2840 psi. By an external compressor. Top
speed of this near-silent and non-polluting vehicle was said to be 30 miles per hour and had
duration of around two hours. In 1976 Ray Starboard from Vacaville, California developed a
truck that is able to drive on compressed air. He felt that he had invented the power system of
the future, a system that would greatly change the automotive face of the world.
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In 1979, Terry Miller decided that compressed air was the perfect medium for
storing energy. He developed Air Car One, which he built for $ 1,500. Terrys engines
showed that it was feasible to manufacture a car that could run on compressed air. He
patented his method in 1983 (US4370857).



FIG 1.2: Early 19
th
century air engines


In the 1980s Carl Leissler developed a motor that was able to function on air.
The retired horticulturalist had been working from his garage in Hollywood for over 15 years.
He says that to use his motor in a car you might have to use a small electric or gas energy
source to help drive the air compressor. We might be able to get 2000 miles per gallon; air is
a power in itself Leissler comments.
Recently several companies have started to develop compressed air cars,
although none have been released to the public, or have been tested by third parties
The first air cars will almost certainly use the Compressed Air Engine
(CAE) developed by the French company, Motor Development International (MDI). Air cars
using this engine will have tanks that will probably hold about 3,200 cubic feet (90.6
kiloliters) of compressed air. The vehicle's accelerator operates a valve on its tank that allows
air to be released into a pipe and then into the engine, where the pressure of the air's
expansion will push against the pistons and turn the crankshaft. This will produce
enough power for speeds of about 35 miles (56 kilometres) per hour. When the air car
surpasses that speed, a motor will start to operate the in-car air compressor so it can compress
more air on the fly and provide extra power to the engine. The air is also heated as it hits the
engine, increasing its volume to allow the car to move faster.




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1.2 NEED FOR HYBRID VEHICLES:
Global warming or climate change is undoubtedly one of the most important challenges
for our future generation, and quite possibly any generation in history. The worldwide
scientific community is unanimous in its agreement that global warming is happening, that is
our fault, and that the opportunity to stop it is slipping away. If we let it get out of our
control, the consequences - which are already evident in most of our lifetimes - will be
catastrophic.
For example some of the consequences that can be reasonably expected are rising sea
levels, frequent and severe natural disasters, large-scale food and water shortages, plagues,
massive species extinctions, unprecedented numbers of refugees, intensified ethnic and
political tensions, and a global economic depression the likes of which no one has ever seen.
The situation is still within our grip, but we must act now, we must act strongly, and we must
act together. Individuals, companies, and governments across the globe must each do what
they can to reverse climate change. We will never get a second chance.


FIG 1.3: Temperature and CO2 for last 1000 years
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1.3 CONCEPT OF A HYBRID VEHICLE:
Air compressors collect and store air in a pressurized tank, and
use pistons and valves to achieve the appropriate pressure levels within an air storage tank
that is attached to the motorized unit. There are a few different types of piston compressors
that can deliver even air pressures to the user. Automotive compressors are combustion
engine compressors that use the up-and-down stroke of the piston to allow air in and
pressurize the air within the storage tank. Other piston compressors utilize a diaphragm, oil-
free piston. These pull air in, and pressurize it by not allowing air to escape during the
collection period.

Typical air engines use one or more expander pistons or rotary
expander. It is necessary to heat the air or the engine during expansion. Like other non-
combustion energy storage technologies, an air vehicle displaces the emission source from
the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where low emissions sources
are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced. Emission control measures at a
central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of
widely dispersed vehicles. Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the compressor
machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in it, though there may be carry-over of
lubricants used in the engine.
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FIG 1.4 : Radial IC engine










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2. AIR ENGINE POWERED BY USING SOLAR ENERGY

2.1 AIM & OBJECTIVE:
The main aim of our project work is to use renewable energy resources to run the vehicle. In
this project we have used Air energy and solar energy to run the vehicle. Air energy is used
as a fuel input to the vehicle. Solar energy is used to charge the batteries. This battery power
is used to run the compressor.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT:
The solar energy is absorbed by the solar panels which are connected in series. This solar
energy is used to charge the batteries. Here we have used 3 batteries each of 35 AH having
12volts. We used this battery power to run the compressor.
The compressor supplies the compressed air to the engine. We can regulate the flow of
compressed air into the engine by a proper valve arrangement




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3. AIR ENGINE

3.1 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF THE ENGINE:











FIG 3.1 IC engine used for the project

Engine : Hero Honda CD 100
Stroke Length : 50 mm
Bore : 50 mm
Displacement : 100 cc
Engine cycle : Four stroke
Engine output power
(Before modifications) : 5.5BHP
Torque : 10.2 Nm@7500rpm
Cooling System : Air cooled

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3.2 DESIGN & WORKING:
The operation of this engine is similar to a regular 2-stroke, but with a few changes. In this engine,
instead of ports on the cylinder walls, valves are used for injection and exhaustion of fuel, i.e. air, in
the cylinder. This is an open cycle system and only two processes takes place during the operation,
expansion and exhaust, expansion being the power stroke. The engine has been tested for various
valve timings and the best one has been adopted.
When the piston is at TDC, the inlet valve opens and the compressed air gushes into the cylinder
from the storage tank and pushes the downwards. In this process air expands providing momentum to
the piston and hence rotating the crankshaft. As the piston reaches the BDC, through a small opening
which is bored on the cylinder wall, some volume of air escapes to the atmosphere, reducing the
resistance force that will be acting on the piston as it trying to come up. Now the exhaust valve opens
and the remaining air is exhausted out. This process continues for each cycle and the engine runs
accordingly. As the pressure of the air in the tank reduces, so does the output derived from the engine.

3.3 CHANGING FROM 4-STROKE TO 2-STROKE:
To convert the four stroke to two stroke engine we have designed a camshaft. For replacing
the original cylinder head, a new set of two flank cams has been designed for operating the
inlet and exhaust valves of the modified engine. Both the exhaust and inlet cams are
symmetric about the centreline of the cam shaft. The cams are made of mild steels.


FIG 3.2: Cam shaft before modifications

These cams provide determined motion to the follower based on the assumed cam profile
which is done in actual practice. The design of this cam shaft has been altered to run the
original four-stroke engine as a two-stroke engine. This can be done in two ways. One of the
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methods is by changing the timing ratio, i.e. for one rotation of the camshaft the crankshaft
also rotates once, hence becoming a two-stroke engine. For this, a smaller sprocket that
matches the one that is mounted on the crankshaft is machined and mounted on the camshaft.
The cam chain will then run both the sprockets in 1:1 ratio. Another method is by doubling
the number of lobes on the cam shaft itself. The lobes are made symmetrical about the cam
shaft axis, thus obtaining a double sided lobe for the inlet as well as the outlet valve. As a
result, although the ratio between the crankshaft and the camshaft remains 2:1, the valves
open and close once for each rotation of the crankshaft.

FIG 7: Modified cam shaft

3.4 TRANSMISSION LOSSES:
Transmission system in a car helps to transmit mechanical power from the car
engine to give kinetic energy to the wheels. It is an interconnected system of gears, shafts,
and other electrical gadgets that form a bridge to transfer power and energy from the engine
to the wheels. The complete set up of the system helps to maintain the cruising speed of the
car without any disturbance to the cars performance. The oldest variant of the transmission
system in India is the manual transmission that has undergone various modifications and
alterations to form the present day automatic transmission.

A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating
power source to another device using gear ratios. The transmission reduces the higher engine
speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. A transmission will have
multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to switch between them as speed
varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional
(forward and reverse) control may also be provided.
In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected to the crankshaft
of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more
differentials, which in turn drive the wheels.


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3.5 DESIGN OF REAR SHAFT:




















FIG 8: Design of rear shaft

The compressed air car that we have made has a rear wheel drive system that means the
engine in connected to the rear wheels through the chain and sprocket mechanism.
The engine is mounted on the chassis as shown in the figure and the rear wheels have an axle
on which the sprocket has been fixed. A shaft of 25 mm diameter is initially taken and then it
is machined by a lathe machine to have a diameter of 20mm which can fit into the bearings at
the rear part of engine. The rod used is called as the Brett rod which has very less eccentric so
that higher efficiency can be obtained.










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4. AIR COMPRESSOR

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel
engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which,
on command, can be released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air
compression, divided into either positive-displacement or negative-displacement types.
4.2 WORKING:
Air compressors collect and store air in a pressurized tank, and use pistons and valves to
achieve the appropriate pressure levels within an air storage tank that is attached to the
motorized unit. There are a few different types of piston compressors that can deliver even air
pressures to the user.
Automotive compressors are combustion engine compressors that use the up-and-down
stroke of the piston to allow air in and pressurize the air within the storage tank. Other piston
compressors utilize a diaphragm, oil-free piston. These pull air in, and pressurize it by not
allowing air to escape during the collection period.










FIG 9: Air compressor
22


These are the most common types of air compressors that are used today by skilled workers
and craftsmen. Before the day of motorized engines, air compressors were not what they are
today. Unable to store pressurized air, a type of antique air compressor may be found in the
blacksmith's foundry bellows. Now the air compressor is capable of building extreme
pressures in storage tanks capable of storing enormous amounts of pressurized gases for
industrial use.

4.3 TYPES:
1. According to the design and principle of operation
Reciprocating compressor
Rotary screw compressor
Turbo Compressor
2. According to the number of stages
Single stage compressor
Multi stage compressor
3. According to the pressure limits
Low pressure compressors
Medium pressure compressors
High pressure compressors
Super high pressure compressors
4. According to the capacity
Low capacity compressors
Medium capacity compressors
High capacity compressors
5. According to the method of cooling
Air cooled compressor
Water cooled compressor




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5. SOLAR PANELS (PHOTO VOLTAIC SYSTEM)

5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energycalled solar
energy. It radiates more energy in one second than the world has used since time began. This
energy comes from within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up
mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process
called nuclear fusion. It takes the suns energy just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93
million miles to Earth. Solar energy travels at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, the speed
of light. Only a small part of the radiant energy that the sun emits into space ever reaches the
Earth, but that is more than enough to supply all our energy needs. Every day enough solar
energy reaches the Earth to supply our nations energy needs for a year! Solar energy is
considered a renewable energy source. Today, people use solar energy to heat buildings and
water and to generate electricity.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar
power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric
effect. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric
current using the photoelectric effect. Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power which
fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to
certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters.[15] Multiple
solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied
to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired
frequency/phase.[15]
Different types of solar cells or solar panels are used for varied power outputs.
The efficiency or the output of the panel depends upon the structure and the arrangement of
silicon in the panel. Though different types of geometric shapes result in variation in the
panel efficiency, much concern is not attributed to the shape.

5.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS:

Crystalline
Mono crystalline
Poly crystalline
Thin film solar panels
Building integrated photo voltaics
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Crystalline Silicon (c-Si):
Almost 90% of the Worlds photo-voltaic today are based on some variation of silicon. In
2011, about 95% of all shipments by U.S. manufacturers to the residential sector were
crystalline silicon solar panels. The silicon used in PV takes many forms. The main
difference is the purity of the silicon. But what does silicon purity really mean? The more
perfectly aligned the silicon molecules are, the better the solar cell will be at converting solar
energy (sunlight) into electricity (the photovoltaic effect).The efficiency of solar panels goes
hand in hand with purity, but the processes used to enhance the purity of silicon are
expensive. Efficiency should not be your primary concern. As you will later discover, cost-
and space-efficiency are the determining factors for most people.
Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells:
Solar cells made of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also called single-crystalline silicon
(single-crystal-Si), and are quite easily recognizable by an external even coloring and
uniform look, indicating high-purity silicon. Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of
silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of a
single monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to make
silicon wafers, which is what gives monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look. A
good way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar panels is that polycrystalline solar cells
look perfectly rectangular with no rounded edges.



25

Advantages:
Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are made out
of the highest-grade silicon. The efficiency rates of monocrystalline solar panels are
typically 15-20%. Sun Power produces the highest efficiency solar panels on the U.S.
market today. Their E20 series provide panel conversion efficiencies of up to 20.1%.
Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar panels yield
the highest power outputs, they also require the least amount of compared to any other
types. Monocrystalline solar panels produce up to four times the amount of electricity
as thin-film solar panels.
Monocrystalline solar panels live the longest. Most solar panel manufacturers put a
25-year warranty on their monocrystalline solar panels.
Tend to perform better than similarly rated polycrystalline solar panels at low-light
conditions.
Disadvantages:
Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive. From a financial standpoint, a
solar panel that is made of polycrystalline silicon (and in some cases thin-film) can be
a better choice for homeowners.
If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit can
break down. Consider getting micro-inverters instead of central string inverters if you
think coverage will be a problem. Micro-inverters will make sure that not the entire
solar array is affected by shading issues with only one of the solar panels.

Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells:
The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is known as polysilicon
(p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), were introduced to the market in 1981. Unlike
monocrystalline-based solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the
Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, which is cooled
and cut into perfectly square wafers.
26



Advantages:
The process used to make polycrystalline silicon is simpler and cost less. This reduces
the amount of waste silicon.
Polycrystalline solar panels tend to have slightly lower heat tolerance and
therefore perform slightly worse than monocrystalline solar panels in high
temperatures. Heat can affect the performance of solar panels and shorten their
lifespan. However, this effect is minor, and most homeowners do not need to take it
into account.
Disadvantages:
The efficiency of polycrystalline-based solar panels is typically 13-16%. Because of
lower silicon purity, polycrystalline solar panels are not quite as efficient as
monocrystalline solar panels.
You need to cover a larger surface to output the same electrical power as you would
with a solar panel made of monocrystalline silicon.
String Ribbon Solar Cells:
String Ribbon solar panels are also made out of polycrystalline silicon. String Ribbon is the
name of a manufacturing technology that produces a form of polycrystalline silicon.
Temperature-resistant wires are pulled through molten silicon, which results in very thin
silicon ribbon. Solar panels made with this technology looks similar to traditional
polycrystalline solar panels. Evergreen Solar was the main manufacturer of solar panels using
the String Ribbon technology. The company is now bankrupt, rendering the future for String
Ribbon solar panels unclear.
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Advantages:
The manufacturing of String Ribbon solar panels only uses half the amount silicon as
monocrystalline manufacturing. This significantly contributes to lower costs.
Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC):
Depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate is what makes
thin-film solar cells (also known as thin-film photovoltaic cells (TFPV). The different types
of thin-film solar cells can be categorized by which photovoltaic material is deposited onto
the substrate:
Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
Cadmium telluride (Cd-Te)
Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)
Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)
Depending on the technology, thin-film module prototypes have reached efficiencies between
713% and production modules operate at about 9%. Future module efficiencies are expected
to climb close to the about 1016%. The market for thin-film PV grew at a 60% annual rate
from 2002 to 2007. In 2011, close to 5% of U.S. photovoltaic module shipments to the
residential sector were based on thin-film.
Advantages:
Easier to mass-produce and potentially cheaper to manufacture than crystalline-based
solar cells.
Their homogenous appearance makes them look more appealing.
Can be made flexible, which opens up many new potential applications.
High temperatures and shading have less of an impact on solar panel performance.
In situations where space is not an issue, thin-film solar panels can make sense.
Disadvantages:
Thin-film solar panels are in general not very useful for in most residential
situations. They are cheap, but they also require a lot of space. Sun power`s
monocrystalline solar panels produce up to four times the amount of electricity as
thin-film solar panels for the same amount of space.
Poor space-efficiency also means that costs of support structures, cables and other PV
equipment increase.
Thin-film solar panels tend to degrade faster than mono- and polycrystalline solar
panels, which is why they usually come with a shorter warranty.
28


Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cells:
Because the output of electrical power is low, solar cells based on amorphous
silicon have traditionally only been used for small-scale applications such as in pocket
calculators. However, recent innovations have made them more attractive for some large-
scale applications too. With a manufacturing technique called stacking, several layers of
amorphous silicon solar cells can be combined, which results in higher efficiency rates
(typically around 6-8%). Only 1% of the silicon used in crystalline silicon solar cells is
required in amorphous silicon solar cells. On the other side, stacking is expensive.

Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te) Solar Cells:
Cadmium telluride is the only thin-film solar panel technology that has surpassed the
cost-efficiency of crystalline silicon solar panels in a significant portion of the market (multi-
kilowatt systems). The efficiency of solar panels based on cadmium telluride usually operates
in the range 9-11%. First Solar has installed over 5 Gigawatts (GW) of cadmium telluride
thin-film solar panels worldwide. The same company holds the world record for Cd-Te PV
module efficiency of 14.4%.
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIS/CIGS) Solar Cells:
Compared to the other thin-film technologies above, CIGS solar cells have
showed the most potential in terms of efficiency. These solar cells contain less amounts of the
toxic material cadmium that is found in Cd-Te solar cells. Commercial production of flexible
CIGS solar panels was started in Germany in 2011. The efficiency rates for CIGS solar
panels typically operate in the range 10-12 %. Many thin-film solar cell types are still early in
the research and testing stages. Some of them have enormous potential, and we will likely see
more of them in the future.
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV):
Lastly, we`ll briefly touch on the subject of building integrated photovoltaics.
Rather than an individual type of solar cell technology, building integrated photovoltaics
have several subtypes, or rather different methods of integration, which can be based on both
crystalline and thin-film solar cells. Building integrated photovoltaics can be used to replace
facades, roofs, windows, walls and many other things with photovoltaic material. If you have
the extra money and want seemingly integrate photovoltaics with the rest of your house, you
should look up building-integrated photovoltaics. For most homeowners it`s simply way too
expensive.

29

5.3 PANELS USED FOR PROJECT:
The solar panels used for the purpose of charging the batteries are of poly-silicon type
photo voltaic cells. Poly crystalline panels are more feasible when compared to mono
crystalline solar panels. In order to achieve the required voltage to run the air compressor the
photo voltaic cells are connected in series connection, thereby producing an output of 36V
Technical specifications of the solar panels:
Type: Poly silicon solar panels
Maximum voltage Vmax: 12V
Wattage: 70W
Type of connection: Series
Vamp: 10V
Quantity of solar panels: 3


FIG 10: Solar panels that are mounted on structure with series connection
30

Calculating the requirement of solar panels
Battery capacity = capacity * voltage
= 35 * 12
= 420W-hr
Power consumption by air compressor = 36W-hr
Energy generated by solar panel = total wattage of the panels * 1 * 0.85
= (70*3) * 1 * 0.85
= 62.05W-hr

Where 0.85 is the factor for natural system losses

Thus from the above calculations we can say that the solar panels can generate up to 62.05W-
hr of energy for the purpose of recharging.

5.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM & CONNECTIONS:


FIG 11: solar charging system block diagram
31



6. CHARGE CONTROLLER, BATTERIES AND INVERTER

6.1 CHARGE CONTROLLER & ITS SPECIFICATIONS:
The charge controller is a necessary part of our power system that charge batteries,
whether the power source is PV, wind, hydro, fuel, or utility grid. Its purpose is to keep your
batteries properly fed and safe for the long term.
A charge controller is an electronic voltage regulator, used in off-grid systems and grid-
tie systems with battery backup, that controls the flow of power from the charging source to
the battery. The charge controller automatically tapers, stops, or diverts the charge when
batteries become fully charged.



FIG 12: Charge controller
32

In off-grid facilities, PV systems are either stand-alone or centralized configurations
that serve multiple units. The systems deliver either direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC). The main system components are the PV panel, battery, and charge controller;
in addition, an inverter is used in systems that deliver AC electricity.
Solar panels charge the battery, and the charge controller insures proper charging of the
battery. The battery provides DC voltage to the inverter, and the inverter converts the DC
voltage to normal AC voltage.
It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform
controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, reverse current flow at night, and
to protect battery life.
For reverse polarity protection there are two commonly-used techniques; shunt and series
diodes. In the shunt technique the fuse blows if the input is reverse-connected, as the diode is
forward biased. This will prevent damage to the DC/DC converter but means that the fuse
will need to be replaced. In this configuration the diode must be sized so that it will not fail
before the fuse ruptures.



FIG 13: Backside of a charge controller
33


Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in only one direction. The
two uses of diodes in PV system electrical design are blocking diodes and bypass diodes.
Blocking diodes prevent power from going back into the panel from the battery at night.
Blocking diodes are not necessary if a charge controller is being used, and are usually fitted
as standard on smaller flexible modules.
No single component in photovoltaic systems is more affected by the size and usage of
the load than storage batteries. A charge controller ensures that the battery is not overcharged
or deep-discharged, to provide as long a battery lifetime as possible.
Loads directly influence the performance of the entire photovoltaic system. Oversize or
extra loads can cause a system to fail if the loads require more power than the modules can
generate or than the battery can store.
A system for delivering power to a battery and to a load includes a power source that supplies
energy to the battery and the load. The battery can be charged by the power source and used
to supply energy or power to the load when the power source is unable to provide sufficient
energy and power to the load. The system reduces injection of DC current into the load and,
as a result, extends the operation life of the load, particularly if the load is an AC lighting or
lamp system.
The basic functions of a controller are quite simple. Charge Controllers block reverse current
and prevent battery overcharge. Some controllers also prevent battery over-discharge, protect
from electrical overload, and/or display battery status and the flow of power.
Controller Configuration Comparison

Controller
Type
Charging
Method
Advantages Disadvantages
Shunt-
Interrupting
On/Off
- lower voltage drop
across controller than
series configuration
- often simple, cheap
and reliable
- significant power
dissipation in
switching element in
large systems
- blocking diode
required
- can cause hot spots
in high voltage arrays
- may have difficulty
fully charging battery
at high currents
Shunt-Linear CV
- tapered current
charging
- significant power
dissipation in
switching element
34

- lower voltage drop
across controller than
series configuration
- blocking diode
required
- can cause hot spots
in high voltage arrays
Series-
Interrupting
On/Off
- no power
dissipation required
- often simple, cheap
and reliable
- may have difficulty
fully charging battery
at high currents
Series-Linear CV - tapered current
charging
- power dissipation
required
- voltage drop across
controller
Pulse Width
Modulated
CV
- tapered current
charging
- lower power
dissipation than other
CV methods
- voltage drop across
controller
- generally more
complex than series
or shunt on/off
controllers
- sometimes causes
electromagnetic
Sub-Array
Switching
stepped
- pseudo-tapered
current charging
- can control large
arrays
- not cost effective
with small arrays
None self-regulated - low-cost - charge regulation
strongly temperature
dependent

Table 6.1 Controller Configurations Comparision

Battery and Charge Controller Troubleshooting
Symptom: Cause: Result: Action:
Battery voltage below
Voltage Regulation
Reconnect set point
but controller not
charging batteries
Faulty charge
resumption function
in charge controller
Excessive battery
discharge
Repair, readjust, or
replace charge
controller
Battery voltage just
below Voltage
Regulation Reconnect
set point, but
controller not
Faulty or poorly
positioned
temperature probe
Charge controller
thinks batteries are
cooler than their
actual temperature
Repair, replace, or
reposition probe
Operating point of PV Under charging of PV module may have
35

charging batteries module is far right of
I-V curve knee due to
high module
operating temperature
(very hot, sunny
summer days)
batteries to be changed so that
the VR is close to the
I-V curve knee under
hot conditions
Battery voltage below
low voltage
disconnect setting
Faulty low voltage
disconnect function in
charge controller
Excessive battery
discharge
Repair or replace
charge controller
One battery cell faulty Battery capacity
limited
Check cells and
replace
Battery voltage loss
overnight even when
no loads are drawing
current
Faulty blocking
diode, no diode, or
faulty charge
controller
Reverse current flow
at night discharging
batteries
Replace or add diode,
or repair or replace
series relay charge
controller
Old or faulty batteries Batteries self-
discharging
Replace batteries
Battery voltage not
increasing even when
no loads are on and
the system is charging
Faulty charge
controller
No power from array
going into batteries
Repair or replace
charge controller
Battery voltage over
Voltage Regulation
set point
Faulty charge
controller
Shortened battery life,
possible damage to
loads
Repair or replace
charge controller and
possibly batteries
Controller always in
full charge, never in
float charge
Battery experiencing
high water loss
Poorly configured
charge controller
Shortened battery life,
possible damage to
loads and batteries
Adjust set point,
repair or replace
charge controller and
possibly batteries
Controller always in
full charge, never in
float charge
Shortened battery life,
possible damage to
loads
Repair of replace
charge controller and
possibly batteries
Battery voltage just
above Voltage
Regulation Reconnect
set point, but
controller still
charging batteries
Faulty or poorly
positioned
temperature probe or
poor connection at
controller "battery
sense" terminals
Charge controller
thinks batteries are
warmer than their
actual temperature
Repair, replace or
reposition temperature
probe or change
charge controller
Buzzing relays Too few batteries in
series or low battery
Low voltage across
relays
Reconfigure, add or
replace batteries
36

voltage
Loose or corroded
battery connections
High voltage drop Repair or replace
cables
Erratic controller
operation and/or loads
being disconnected
improperly
Timer not
synchronized with
actual time of day
Controller turns on
and off at incorrect
times
Either wait until
automatic reset next
day, or disconnect
array, wait 10
seconds, and
reconnect array.
Replace controller if
this does not
resynchronize
controller
Electrical "noise"
(EMI) from inverter
Rapid on and off
cycling
Connect inverter
directly to batteries,
put filters on load
Low battery voltage Batteries may need
repair or replacement
Repair or replace
batteries
Faulty or poorly
positioned
temperature probe or
poor connection at
battery sense
terminals
Charge controller
thinks batteries are
warmer or cooler than
their actual
temperature
Repair, reposition or
replace temperature
probe or change
charge controller
High surge from load Battery voltage drops
during surge
Use larger wire to
load, or add batteries
in parallel
Faulty charge
controller, possibly
from lightning
damage
Loads disconnected
improperly, other
erratic operation
Repair or replace
charge controller and
check system
grounding
Adjustable low
voltage disconnect set
incorrectly
Loads disconnected
improperly
Reset Low Voltage
Disconnect set point
Controller load switch
in wrong position
Loads never
disconnect
Reset switch to
correct position
Fuse to PV array
blows
Array short circuited
with batteries still
connected (possibly
faulty blocking diode)
Too much current
through charge
controller
Test diode and replace
controller if required
Current output of Too much current Replace charge
37

array too high for
charge controller
through charge
controller
controller with one
with higher rating
Fuse to load blows Short circuit in load Unlimited current Repair short circuit or
replace load
Current draw of load
too high for charge
controller
Too much current
through charge
controller
Reduce load size or
increase charge
controller size
Surge current draw of
load too high for
charge controller
"Charging" at night Normal operation for
some charge
controllers for up to
two hours after
nightfall
No appreciable
energy loss
Check system later in
the evening
Timer not
synchronized with
actual time of day
Controller turns on
and off at incorrect
times
Either wait until
automatic reset next
day, or disconnect
array, wait 10
seconds, and
reconnect

Table 6.2: Battery and charge controller troubleshooting

6.1.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF CHARGE CONTROLLER USED:

Voltage: 36volts
Current: 30 amps

6.2 INVERTER:
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and
frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.
Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from
small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high voltage direct
current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
38

The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. The electrical inverter is a high-
power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters
were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

SPECIFICATIONS OF INVERTER USED:
We have used a 2.2KV 36 VOLTS inverter to supply power to the air compressor.



FIG- 14: Inverter used

6.3. BATTERIES:
A battery is a device consisting of one or more electro chemical cells that convert stored
chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic
pile") in 1800 by Allesandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell
cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and
industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry
generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with
6% annual growth.
There are two types of batteries: primary
batteries (disposable batteries), which are
designed to be used once and discarded, and
secondary battery (rechargeable batteries), which
are designed to be recharged and used multiple
times. Batteries come in many sizes; from
miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to battery banks size of rooms that
provide standby power for telephone exchanges
and computer data centers.

39

6.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:












In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits
the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It
consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected in
series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes
electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e.,
the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to
which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In
the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the
cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do
not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two
half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, but
prevents mixing of the electrolytes.
Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive
electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the
difference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the
electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is
the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.
The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as
the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that
is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the
cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller
in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging
exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would
maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a
cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it
40

would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under
discharge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and
resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the
curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.
As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the
energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc
carbon cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;
likewise Ni-Cd and Ni-MH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf
of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions
of lithium compounds give lithium cells emf of 3 volts or more
In our project work we have taken 3 batteries each of 35AH, 12 volts connected in
series to supply power to the compressor.



FIG 15: Batteries used
41

7. ASSEMBLY:


FIGURE 16: Assembly of hybrid vehicle.






42

8. AUXILLARIES AND PARTS

8.1 THE PIPING SYSTEM:
The piping system comprises of the compressed air carrier (hose) is used to connect the
components involved in the passage of the compressed air. It is used to connect the cylinder
to the valve and the valve to the inlet of the casing& receiving the exhaust which is collected
into another cylinder.

FIG- 17: Pipes used

Here polyurethane pipes are used of diameter of 12mm and length of 1m. They are
made of hard and flexible material so that they are able to pass the compressed air more
efficiently. These pipes are able to withstand high pressure and so are used to transport
compressed air. They are perfectly suited to be inserted to the one touch male connector.

8.2 CONNECTORS:
Connectors are used to connect the pipes with the components used in this project.
The type of connector used is one touch male connector which has an internal hexagonal
socket. The specification of the thread is BSPT R1/2 (British standard piping thread). The
outer diameter is 21.5mm and the inner diameter is 12mm. The one which we are using is a
Polyurethanes Fitting Connector, where Polyurethanes are used in the manufacture of
flexible, high-resilience foam seating; rigid foam insulation panels; microcellular foam seals
and gaskets; durable elastomeric wheels and tires; automotive suspension bushings; electrical
potting compounds; high performance adhesives; surface coatings and surface sealants;
synthetic fibers (e.g. Spandex); carpet underlay; and hard-plastic parts (i.e., for electronic
instruments). Polyurethane is also used for the manufacture of hoses and skateboard wheels
as it combines the best properties of both rubber and plastic.
43



FIG -18: Connectors used
Pipe fitting is the occupation of installing or repairing piping or tubing systems that
convey liquid, gas, and occasionally solid materials. This work involves selecting and
preparing pipe or tubing, joining it together by various means, and the location and repair of
leaks. Pipe fitting work is done in many different settings: HVAC, manufacturing,
hydraulics, refineries, nuclear-powered Super carriers and Fast Attack Submarines computer
chip fab plants, power plant construction and other steam systems. Fitters work with a
variety of pipe and tubing materials including several types of steel, copper, iron, aluminium,
and plastic. Pipefitting is not plumbing; the two are related but separate trades. Pipe fitters
that specialize in fire prevention are called Sprinkler fitters, another related, but separate
trade. Materials, techniques, and usages vary from country to country as different nations
have different standards to install pipe.


44


8.3 VALVES:
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids,
fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various
passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate
category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.
The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops to obstruct
fluid (gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed open by flow in the opposite
direction.
Valves are used in a variety of contexts, including industrial, military, commercial,
residential, and transport. The industries in which the majority of valves are used are oil and
gas, power generation, mining, water reticulation, sewage and chemical manufacturing.



FIG-19: valves used
45



Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever or pedal. Valves may also
be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act
upon a diaphragm or a piston, which in turn activates the valve; examples of this type of
valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers.
More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an
external input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an
actuator. An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the
valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements.
Valves vary widely in form and application. Sizes typically range from 0.1 mm to 60
cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters.
In our project we have used ball valve and non return valve. Ball valve is used to send
the air from the air tank to engine. Non return valve is used to send the compressed air to the
tank from compressor.














46

9. ANALYSIS

9.1 ANALYSIS ON AIR COMPRESSOR:


SERIAL NUMER OPERATING PRESSURE RPM OFCMPRESSOR
1 0 bar 1460
2 3 bar 1440
3 5 bar 1438
4 6 bar 1432
5 7 bar 1431

Table 9.1: Analysis of air compressor during working condition
P = OPERATING PRESSURE = 6 BAR
N = RPM OF COMPRESSOR = 1432
D = DIAMETER OF CYLINDER = 47MM
L = LENGTH OF THE STROKE = 55MM
d= DIAMETER OF THE INLET = 8 MM
D = DIAMETER OF THE ROTOR = 80 MM
Assuming atmospheric conditions,
Free air delivery =

=
...

= 2.27 10

By continuity equation,
Q = Area*velocity
2.27 10

V = 45 m/s
By impulse momentum equation
Impact force =

47

=
=

.

= 7 Kg

Impact force F =

= 7 45

15

10

= 3.3 N
Torque = force * (D/2)
= 3.3 * 0.050
= 0.165 N-m
Assuming the rotor is rotating with the same velocity, as
U =

45 =
..

N = 8598
Brake power =

=
.

= 148.487 WATTS
= 0.199 bhp
RESULTS TABLE:
SERIAL
NUMBER
OPERATING
PRESSURE
RPM OF
COMPRESSOR
TORQUE BRAKE
HORSE
POWER
1 3 1440 0.08 0.0976
2 5 1438 0.172 0.209
3 6 1432 0.165 0.199
4 7 1431 0.158 0.182


Table 9.2: Results obtained during experimentation at various pressures and speeds
48


PRESSURE VS RPM:



FIG-20: Graph between pressure and rpm of air compressor during experimentation
49


PRESSURE VS TORQUE:



FIG-21: Graph between pressure and torque of air compressor during experimentation

50



PRESSURE VS BHP:






51

FIG-22: Graph between pressure and brake horse power (bhp) of air compressor during
experimentation


9.2 ANALYSIS ON ENGINE:

TORQUE AND BHP CALCULATIONS:
Diameter of cylinder=50mm
Length of stroke =50mm
Mass of car (approx) = 180Kg
R.P.M = 5000
Frictional coefficient of cement road and rubber tyre () = 0.8
Force required to move the car
(F) = *m*g
= 0.8*180*9.8
= 1411 Kg-f
Area of contact of tyre and road (A) = *d*t

=*0.08*0.05
=0.01256 m2
Therefore pressure required to run the car (P) = F/A
= 1411/0.012
= 117600 Kg/

= 11 bar
Area of the cylinder (A) = *d2/4
= *0.052/4
=0.0019625 m2
52

Force acting on the piston = P*A
= 117600 * 0.0019625
= 230 Kg-f


Brake horse power of engine (B.H.P) =

=
.

= 6018.33 Watts
= 6.018 KW
= 8bhp

9.3 MEASUREMENT
OF BRAKE POWER
OF ENGINE:












53



FIG-23: Engine used in this project

PRESSURE VS BRAKEPOWER:
Table 9.3
PRESSURE ( BAR ) BRAKE POWER
( KW )
2 0.632
2.8 1
4.1 2.09
5 2.87
6.9 4.88
8.2 5.12
54



FIG-24: Graph between pressure and brake horse power

LOAD VS BHP:
Table 9.4
LOAD ( KG ) BHP
4 3.92
5 4.56
6 5.252


55



FIG-25: Graph between load and brake horse power of air compressor during
experimentation
9.4 DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM TILT ANGLES:

TABLE 1 (10AM)
56




FIG- 26: Graph between resistance and voltage of solar panels at different tilt angles during
experimentation at 10 AM

TABLE-(2) 12 PM


ANGLE

VOLTAGE

RESISTANCE
19 32 4.2
20 33 4.8
21 36 5.3
61 37 5.6
Series 1
28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
x
y
(32,4.2)
(33,4.8)
(36,5.3)
(37,5.6)
Voltage
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
57



ANGLE

VOLTAGE

RESISTANCE
19 38 6.1
20 34 4.9
21 39 6.6
61 36 5.1


FIG- 27: Graph between resistance and voltage of solar panels at different tilt angles during
experimentation at 12 PM
TABLE-(3) 2 PM

ANGLE

VOLTAGE

RESISTANCE
19 37 5.5
20 34 4.6
Series 1
28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
x
y
(38,6.1)
(34,4.9)
(39,6.6)
(36,5.1)
Voltage
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
58

21 39 6.2
61 35 5.3



FIG-28: Graph between voltage and resistance of solar panels at different tilt angles during
experimentation at 2 PM



TABLE-(4) 4 PM

Series 1
29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
x
y
(37,5.5)
(34,4.6)
(39,6.2)
(35,5.3)
Voltage
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
Series 1
29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
x
y
(32,4.1)
(31,3.9)
(35,4.5)
(36,5.1)
Voltage
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
59





FIG-29: Graph between voltage and resistance of solar panels at different tilt angles during
experimentation at 4 PM


9.5 OVERALL AVERAGE VOLTAGE:


ANGLE

VOLTAGE

RESISTANCE
19 32 4.1
20 31 3.9
21 35 4.5
61 36 5.1
Series 1
29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
11.5
12
12.5
13
x
y
(32,4.1)
(31,3.9)
(35,4.5)
(36,5.1)
Voltage
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
60

Table 5

ANGLE

AVERAGE VOLTAGE
19 34.25 V
20 32.75 V
21 37.25 V
61 36 V


FIG-30: Graph between angles and average voltage
We got highest voltage at 21 degrees that is 37.25 volts. So optimum tilt angle is 21degrees.



Series 1
17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
28
29
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
x
y
(19,34.25)
(20,32.75)
(21,37.25)
(23,36)
Angle
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
61

10.CONCLUSION:

In this project we are able to design and run the Hybrid vehicle (using solar and air
energy). By using solar energy we successfully charged the batteries and results have shown
that there was a substantial increase in the output in voltage and resistance when fixed at an
optimal tilt angles. Though the engine was only running at idle speeds, the concept of using
air as a fuel and achieving movement of the vehicle was the primary objective which was
successful.
Thus we can conclude by saying that air engine is a feasible project in the near future
in mass production. This project is eco-friendly and does not use any type fossil fuels. At
different pressures different bhp values and speeds were obtained.
In this investigation, the aim was to understand the performance level of a hybrid car
compared to a normal motor car. The findings suggest that in general, a hybrid car is not only
fuel efficient but also eco friendly.
















62














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64

REFERENCES

Text book on RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES by G D RAI.
AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING ( V0l-1 & Vol-2 ) by Dr. Kirpal Singh.
A TEXT BOOK ON INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES by V.Ganeshan.
How stuff works website.
The aircar.com
Paper presentation on Determining optimum tilt anglesand orientations of
photovoltaic panels in Sanliurfa, Turkey
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/renewable-energy
Paper presentation on Optimum xed orientations and benets of tracking for
capturing solar radiation in the continental United States.
Wikipedia website.